An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale.

By

Monique Banks 201204216

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English

In the Department of English At University of Fort Hare

Supervisor: Professor Dianne Shober

November, 2017

Table of Contents

Declaration ...... iv

Abstract ...... v

Acknowledgements ...... vii

Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 1: Background and History of Children’s Literature and the Western Fairy Tale ...... 8

1.1 Children’s Literature ...... 8

1.2 Fairy Tales ...... 12

1.3 Fairy Tales as Children’s Literature ...... 16

1.4 Seventeenth Century France ...... 18

1.5 Charles Perrault ...... 22

1.6 Charles Perrault’s The Tales of Mother Goose ...... 23

1.7 Nineteenth Century Germany ...... 24

1.8 Fairy Tales in Germany ...... 26

1.9 The Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm) ...... 27

1.10 The Grimm Brother’s Children’s and Household Tales ...... 29

1.11 Later Remakes of the Tales ...... 31

Chapter 2: Western Feminism and Feminist Literary Criticism ...... 33

2.1 History and Development of Feminism ...... 33

2.1.1 Mary Wollstonecraft ...... 33

2.1.2 Waves of Feminism ...... 35

2.1.3 Simone De Beauvoir ...... 37

2.1.4 Betty Friedan ...... 40

2.1.5 Luce Irigaray ...... 42

2.1.6 Gayle Rubin ...... 44

2.1.7 Judith Butler ...... 47

page i 2.2 Feminist Literary Criticism ...... 50

2.3 Feminist Literary Criticism in Children’s Literature ...... 57

Chapter 3: The Remakes of Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers ...... 61

3.1 History of the Sleeping Beauty Tale ...... 61

3.2 Charles Perrault’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood (1697) ...... 63

3.2.1 Synopsis of the Tale ...... 63

3.2.2 Feminist Analysis ...... 65

3.2.2.1 Sleeping Beauty ...... 65

3.2.2.2 The Ogress Mother Character ...... 72

3.2.2.3 Other Female Characters ...... 75

3.2.2.4 The Prince Character ...... 77

3.2.2.5 Gender Relationships ...... 82

3.3 The Grimm Brothers’ Briar Rose (1812)...... 85

3.3.1. Synopsis of the Tale ...... 85

3.3.2. Feminist Analysis ...... 86

3.3.2.1 Briar Rose ...... 86

3.3.2.2 Other Female Characters ...... 91

3.3.2.3. The Prince Character ...... 92

3.3.2.4. Gender Relationships ...... 94

Chapter 4: Remakes over the Years ...... 97

4.1 Anne Thackeray Ritchie’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood (1890) ...... 98

4.1.1 Background of Anne Thackeray Ritchie and the Tale ...... 98

4.1.2 Synopsis of the Tale ...... 99

4.1.3 Feminist Analysis ...... 101

4.1.3.1 Cecilia ...... 101

4.1.3.2 Other Female Characters ...... 106

4.1.3.3 Francis Lulworth (Frank) ...... 108

page ii 4.1.3.4 Gender Relationships ...... 109

4.2 Angela Carter’s The Lady of the House of Love (1979) ...... 110

4.2.1 Background of Angela Carter and the Tale ...... 110

4.2.2 Synopsis of the Tale ...... 111

4.2.3 Feminist Analysis ...... 113

4.2.3.1 The Countess ...... 113

4.2.3.2 The Crone ...... 123

4.2.3.3 The Officer ...... 123

4.2.3.4 Gender Relationships ...... 126

4.3 Robert Coover’s Briar Rose (1996) ...... 127

4.3.1 Background of Robert Coover and the Tale...... 127

4.3.2 Synopsis of the Tale ...... 130

4.3.3 Feminist Analysis ...... 133

4.3.3.1 The Princess...... 133

4.3.3.2 The Fairy ...... 139

4.3.3.3 The Prince ...... 140

4.4 Neil Gaiman’s The Sleeper and the Spindle (2014) ...... 142

4.4.1 Background of Neil Gaiman and the Tale ...... 142

4.4.2 Synopsis of the Tale ...... 143

4.4.3 Feminist Analysis ...... 145

4.4.3.1 Snow White ...... 145

4.4.3.2 Sleeping Beauty ...... 149

4.4.3.3 The Old Woman ...... 152

4.4.3.4 The Dwarves ...... 153

Conclusion ...... 156

Reference List ...... 165

page iii Declaration

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that this thesis is my own unaided work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in any part submitted it at any university for a degree.

______

Monique Banks

______day of ______, 2017.

page iv Abstract The fairy tale genre has an extremely complex, yet interesting history and development. Originally created and used for the entertainment of adults, these tales traditionally included a wide range of themes, characters and gender dynamics than more recent, modern tales. This is because the original tales spoke to and included themes, characters and gender roles evident in the societal structure and time period in which each was written. Thus, traditionally patriarchal, gender-unequal societies generated tales which embodied this patriarchy and inequality. As society developed and gender relationship dynamics changed, writers of fairy tales began to alter the traditional tales, as they no longer suited the society’s outlook on life and gender. In addition to this, as the original tales were remade, the dynamic views of the society in which each was recreated, was then reflected.

Therefore, this study’s primary focus is to investigate the development of the fairy tale genre, specifically the Sleeping Beauty tale, over the years and analyse the changes of the tale, with regards to patriarchal traditions, character traits and gender relationships. Within this work, the original tales of Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, as well as the Sleeping Beauty remakes of Anne Thackeray Ritchie, Angela Carter, Robert Coover and Neil Gaiman will be analysed through the lens of feminism. Thus, each tale will be examined for their characters’ traits and gender relationships, and how these traits and relationships support and continue patriarchy and gender inequality, or question, challenge and provide alternatives for this patriarchy and inequality. In addition, the historical context of each author will be investigated in order to determine how each tale fits into the social context in which it was written and published.

To conclude, through studying each Sleeping Beauty remake, this study has highlighted an interesting movement in fairy tale literature. As tales are published in more recent times, so their characters become altered from the typical and patriarchally expected gender roles and character traits. More and more, writers are creating characters that challenge the ‘norm’ of patriarchy. Therefore, this shows that in more modern times, societies’ structures are becoming more diverse and accepting of alternatives to traditional gender roles. Importantly, there is a wide sector of fairy tale literature which has not yet been examined in this way. The traditional fairy tales and their remakes include a number of interesting points that, as this study has proved

page v in its analysis of Sleeping Beauty, can have a major impact on the study of the fairy tale genre as well as highlight developments in social structure and feminist thought.

Key Words: Fairy Tales, Sleeping Beauty, Feminism, Patriarchy, Character Traits, Gender Relationships, Charles Perrault, Grimm Brothers, Anne Thackeray Ritchie, Angela Carter, Robert Coover, Neil Gaiman.

page vi Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Dianne Shober, for her immense dedication to this project throughout the past two years. Her encouragement and motivation provided through positive feedback, thought provoking suggestions and the confidence she expressed in this work were all major contributing factors to its completion.

In addition, I am grateful for the interest shown by the English department, especially Dr Teneille Kirton for her constant support and Prof Jabulani Mkhize for his willingness to proofread my work.

Lastly, a very big thank you must go out to my family and fiancé, Juan-Pierre Clements. I am so grateful for their encouragement, love and understanding as this work was being put together. Their continued support and words of encouragement have helped me every step of the way.

page vii Introduction Children’s literature is defined as the collection of texts or stories which are written for young readers, many of which are now grabbing the attention of the older readers as well. Initially, however, these texts were written for and read exclusively by adults. According to Reynolds (2011), the development of stories for the younger reader began around the 17th century. This genre did not receive a great amount of scholarly attention until around 1980; as Mickenberg and Vallone (2011) indicate, academics began to develop a critical interest in children’s literature at that time. Much of the literature developed for children is written for youngsters with a particular cultural background, economic status and degree of wealth. C. S. Lewis (1966) avers that the problem with writing children’s literature in this way is that it is dependent on what or who is perceived as a child. Through the years, the perception of child development has changed and adapted, which means that as the perception of ‘child’ changes, so children’s literature changes as well. A key feature necessary for effective children’s literature is its ability to relate to its reader (Lerer, 2009). The stories that grab the reader’s interest are commonly referred to as having a major influence and impact on the reader (Karpman, 2011). Zipes (2012a, p. 4) states that “stories not only contribute to the making of our narrative selves but also weave the threads of social relationships and make life social.” Hence, a tale and its reader have a reciprocal relationship. The tale is impacted by its reader as it is constructed according to his or her interests, and the reader, in turn, is developed and altered by what he or she is reading. Rudd (2010, p. 3), who maintains that “children’s texts helped produce the very beings that we now recognise as children”, emphasises the influence of children’s literature on the child.

Children’s literature is a broad framework which has broken off into a number of genres. One of these is the fairy tale, which is defined by Orenstein (2002) as stories that exist outside of reality in a ‘Once upon a time’ realm and often include fairies or some sort of magical entity. Zipes (2012a) maintains that the foundation of a fairy tale is its socio-historical background. Since it is written within a particular societal time period, when attempting to determine the origin of a fairy tale, the historical backdrop through which it is formed is important. Seifert (1996, p. 3) shows this as she states that fairy tales identify “both dominant ideologies of sexuality and gender… as well as rival ideologies that resist and define them.” Fairy tales, hence, provide an in-depth

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 1 understanding of the social hierarchies, gender roles and literary characteristics of the era in which they were written.

Davies (2015) points out that tales are kept alive throughout the centuries by the oral stories of a number of different societies in history – these are often called folk tales. An exploration of the developments of these stories allows one to glimpse back into previous times and, for this reason, writers of tales are seen as recording the developments of societies. Fairy tale authors, such as Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, are viewed as pioneers in the field due to the continued popularity of their tales in modern society (Parsons, 2004). They are known for publishing unique, but related tales based on the folk tales that were told within their societies, thereby confirming what Lewis (1966) suggests, namely, that the tales are aimed at pleasing historically-situated audiences. Zipes (2001) calls this the ability of a writer to revise a particular story, decide what to keep and get rid of, and alter the story according to his or her social backdrop. Thus, the tales of both Perrault and the Grimm Brothers may be analysed with this concept in mind, while recognising the significance of their historical backgrounds, Charles Perrault’s 17th century France and the Grimm Brothers, 19th century Germany.

Both Perrault and the Grimm Brothers independently penned the tale Sleeping Beauty; the tale of a young princess awakened by her handsome prince -- through a kiss. Perrault and the Grimm Brothers handle their characters and their respective relationships in such a way that gendered characteristics and relationships are created and there is the potential to envisage male domination and female subordination within each version of Sleeping Beauty.

The Sleeping Beauty tale is one of many tales that make up a recognisable collection of stories, often called ‘classics’; other tales include Cinderella, Beauty and the Beast, The Princess and the Pea, The Ugly Duckling, The Frog Prince, The Little Mermaid, Rapunzel and Snow White. Zipes (1987) says that often society sees these tales as if they were always available; they become a natural and normal part of our lives and so he calls them ‘myths’ and emphasises the similarities between each tale. Within these ‘classics’, a great deal of research has focused on the common thread that runs along each fairy tale’s gender relationships (Zipes, 1987). The female fairy tale character is traditionally a submissive, quiet and controlled young woman, endowed with beauty

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 2 and virtue and seeking marriage to a handsome prince (Rowe, 1986; Zipes, 1987; Kuykendal & Strum, 2007 & Sawyer, 2014). On the other hand, the male fairy tale character is a virile and powerful figure, which is often on a quest to rescue his beautiful maiden and master of his life and circumstances (Talairach-Vielmas, 2010).

Parsons (2004, p. 136) maintains that “a primary goal of gender construction in patriarchal culture is to prepare young girls for romantic love and heterosexual practices. Girls come to know that their value lies in men’s desire for them.” Thus, fairy tales often develop a gendered view of male - female relations. Evidence of gender specific roles are notable within the original fairy tales; however, since society has altered its view on these roles, there have been adaptations in fairy tale characterisations. Yet, as Zipes (1987) argues, these ancient gendered roles may still be visible in the more recent remakes. Parsons (2004) underscores this point in his in-depth analysis of the Cinderella re-makes, maintaining that, although they have all been altered and adapted over the years leading to physically and emotionally stronger females, they still include a female character who has very little control over her situation and is unable to assert her independence due to her subordinate position. Oktaviani and Arimbi (2015) also identify the still common tendency in modern fairy tales to produce physically beautiful female characters, indicating that her beauty is still a relevant factor in her portrayal.

Zipes (1987, p. 107) states that the classic fairy tale creates to the reader the impression that all individuals strive for the same goals in life such as “living happily ever after with lots of gold in a marvellous castle, our castle and fortress that will forever protect us from inimical and unpredictable forces of the outside world.” These tales depict helpless maidens in search of heroic princes destined to save their beauty and virtue. The classic tales of Cinderella, Snow White, Rapunzel and Sleeping Beauty are just a few tales that embody this typical format and these gendered tales are often those of Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, says Kuykendaal and Strum (2007). Although each writer constructs tales based on different time eras and socio- cultural understandings with Perrault representing 17th century France and the Grimm Brothers representing 18th century Germany, they both depict men and women in somewhat similar ways. Gunter (1995) emphasises that, although society may have changed in its understanding and acceptance of alternative gender behaviours, these developments have not significantly reached literature or mass media.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 3 However, this view can, and has been, argued against, with the current round of contemporary highly capable female characters portrayed in the more recent “feminist re-visions” of original fairy tales (Parson, 2004, p. 138). Oktaviani and Arimbi (2015) indicate that the story of Snow White’s recent remake Snow White and the Huntsman relinquishes gender constraints. They further recommend the work of Angela Carter’s The Bloody Chamber as a fine example of a feminist remake of the original fairy tale.

As fairy tale readers or audiences, especially children, are more and more exposed to gendered tales, Karpman (2011) suggests that their own behaviour begins to be structured by them. Within this, there exists two voices within the literature. One group of literary scholars emphasises the need to treasure the fairy tale for its educational value (Davies, 2015; Gilead, 1992; Zipes, 2012a & Karpman, 2011). These researchers maintain that fairy tales are constructed and transformed according to the relations within the world. Coats (2010) states that tales teach young readers aspects such as gender, entitlement and an understanding of self, so that they know what social expectations they need to meet. The alternative is those who question fairy tales because of the gendered stereotypes they so blatantly portray. Both of these, however, agree that fairy tales have a huge impact on the young reader (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007; Rowe, 1986). Parsons (2004, p. 135) emphasises this point further when she states that fairy tales “are an integral part of the complex layering of cultural stories and influences that affirm and perpetuate cultural norms.” These tales are, therefore, both impacted by and impact the society in which they inhabit, as this research seeks to discuss.

As each character and message portrayed to the reader in a fairy tale is, more often than not, internalised by the young readers and used as a motivation for their thoughts, behaviour and emotions, the fairy tale is often identified as one of the most influential genres in a young person’s life. When many of these messages have already been identified as sexist, or, at the very least, continuing patriarchal hegemony, there is a need for altering and adapting them. An analysis of the various renditions of Sleeping Beauty has yet to interrogate the evidence of patriarchal and typically gendered messages throughout its remakes. This current study aims to make use of feminist theory in order to academically critique the many developments of the fairy tale Sleeping Beauty. Firstly, the study will explore the historical background of the pioneers within fairy tale writing: Charles Perrault and his development of The

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 4 Sleeping Beauty in the Wood published in 1697 within his collection of fairy tales entitled The Tales of Mother Goose, and the Grimm Brothers’ Sleeping Beauty within their collection of fairy tales entitled Children’s and Household Tales first published in 1812 (and then again in 1815). Along with this an analysis of the gendered characterisations found in each Sleeping Beauty fairy tale will be provided. Secondly, the study aims to complete an analysis of the many remakes of this fairy tale. This will be conducted through a close textual analysis which will interrogate the ways the remakes of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale adjust or adapt the role of the male and female characters to represent more contemporary and gender independent versions and this will be done through a feminist lens.

Haas (2004) argued that the feminist stance towards the fairy tale focuses on the characters and their relationships, attempting to find evidence of equality and uniqueness, instead of the overpowering domination of men and subordination of women. Simone de Beauvoir (2011), first published in 1949, argued that society moulds both males and females with its gendered expectations; this allows for an understanding of how literature is commonly used to entrench conventional roles of males and females in society. Betty Friedan further emphasises this as she comments on the importance of women releasing themselves from society’s mould. She refers to the mould as “chains” which are difficult to get out of as they are often locked into the minds of the women themselves (Friedan, 1963, p. 31). Luce Irigaray (1985) focuses on the importance of women embracing their differences to men, thereby encouraging these differences. Her theory that the dialogue of a particular male and female character highlights their societal and gendered societal position allows for a thorough analysis of the dialogue of the Sleeping Beauty tale’s characters. Gayle Rubin (2004) brings forward the concept of a sex/gender system that is evident in every society, as it governs the gender relations and expectations of individuals within the society. This sex/gender system can be identified through the analysis of the characters’ expressed traits, the events which take place within the tale itself and, as theorized by Irigaray, the discourse used. Judith Butler (1988) states that gender expectations on behaviour are derived from the behaviours and dialogue of males and females. Thus, it is necessary to analyse the behaviour and dialogue of each character and identify how he or she performs his or her gender. This will allow one to determine whether character constructions and the tale as a whole follow or reject traditionally gendered

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 5 roles and expectations. Lastly, taking the feminist theories of the above theorists, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar bring forward their feminist literary criticism, which represents the common depictions of women in literary texts. These gendered depictions of women limit women to being “angels and monsters” (Gilbert & Gubar, 2004, p. 812) and so it becomes necessary for feminist literary criticism to identify and refute them in the literature.

In light of this, a close comparative analysis of the pioneering Sleeping Beauty fairy tales by Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers will be conducted within this study. Along with this, the study will analyse a number of Sleeping Beauty remakes and their depiction of the male and female characters to investigate how these tales have been altered over the years, especially with regards to their gendered representations. Historical and biographical information of both Perrault and the Grimms will be provided in order to understand the contexts in which each original tale was written. The background of each fairy tale author will aid in the understanding of how social structures and beliefs have impacted the development of the fairy tales. The theoretical framework through which this research will be conducted is feminist literary theory, with specific attention to the work of Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Luce Irigaray, Gayle Rubin, Judith Butler and the feminist literary criticism of Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar. The ultimate focus of this study is to determine how gender is represented in both the original and in the remakes of Sleeping Beauty. Academic criticism of the fairy tale, although commonly conducted from a feminist perspective, has yet to assess a fairy tale through the use of historical, cultural and societal backdrops which this study aims to do. This analytical approach is, therefore, significant as it allows for the study of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale not yet covered in academic literature and will add to the academic knowledge of fairy tales, especially that of Sleeping Beauty and its remakes. The study also highlights the use of socially constructed stereotypes in the construction of the fairy tale genre.

In chapter one of this study, the historical development of the fairy tale will be provided. Along with this, the social-historical context of pioneer fairy tale authors Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers will be presented so as to define the context in which each created their Sleeping Beauty tale, as the historical context of Perrault and Grimm’s tales are analysed as having important implications for the tales themselves. Following this, in chapter two, feminist literary theory will be analysed, with special

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 6 reference to and exploration of the theories of Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Luce Irigaray, Gayle Rubin and Judith Butler, as well as the literary criticism of Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar. The Sleeping Beauty tales of both Charles Perrault and the Grimm brothers will be analysed, through a comparative analysis, in chapter three. This will be done through the feminist framework by focusing on each tale’s socio- historical backdrop and its relation to each tale’s male and female characterisations. Chapter four will provide an in-depth analysis of a number of Sleeping Beauty fairy tale remakes by Anne Thackeray Ritchie, Angela Carter, Robert Coover and Neil Gaiman. Each tale will be analysed according to its male and female characters and the ways in which each remake has adapted its characters to represent or resist societal norms. This chapter will, therefore, document the development of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale throughout the last two centuries. The analysis of the socio-historical context and gender characterisations of each version of the tale, studied through a feminist lens, allows for a compelling study of the Sleeping Beauty tale and its progressive elaborations.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 7 Chapter 1: Background and History of Children’s Literature and the Western Fairy Tale

1.1 Children’s Literature An exploration of the historical background of children’s literature in the west needs first to start with a definition of what sort of texts fall under the genre. Grenby (2009, p. 3) defines children’s literature as any text that is written by either a child or a text that is written for children. The determining factor here is that these ‘children’ must be under the age of eighteen years. To determine and trace the origins of children’s literature proves to be increasingly difficult and many scholars disagree on the genre’s origin. The main reason for the difficulty in determining its origin is because, in early centuries, stories developed for children were not published or even printed. The example of Aesop’s Fables said to have originated in 600BC is a great example of just how old the genre really is. Even though the origin of the published tales can be ascertained, this cannot be said of their oral counterparts and many researchers deem this to be a near impossible feat. Before children’s stories were printed and published as books, stories called folk tales were shared around hearths and firesides to entertain and educate young listeners (Lerer, 2009). It was only around the 17th century when the technology of printing allowed texts to be published for the masses and not just be hand produced by individual households; this development in technology led to the publishing of children’s stories (Reynolds, 2011, p. 9).

Although the 17th century saw this increase in publications for children, these texts were not the same as those one knows today. In these early years, literature for children was published only to educate young child readers. Therefore, the stories that were read by these young children were not developed for their entertainment; their primary goal was to teach (Granahan, 2010, p. 7). There were, Grenby (2009) states, many texts that children did enjoy reading; however, these texts were not developed especially for children. Fables, tales, etc. were definitely available, but were published for adults and children alike, and, as such, the early 17th century was yet to see the publishing of children’s literature aimed at entertaining children.

John Cotton’s Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes published in 1646 is said to be the first American book that was written especially for children. This book was aimed at teaching young children about the Bible and the right or wrong ways of behaving

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 8 (Bremmer, 1970, p. 32). Centuries before Cotton, William Caxton’s ‘Book of Curtesye’ published in 1477, focused on educating children on how to behave properly in the home (Grenby, 2009, p. 4). Here one can clearly see how early literature for children was aimed purely at education and not at entertainment. This way of writing for children -- to educate them -- took hold of the genre until the mid-18th century; however, the genre was to see a major change in dynamics in the coming 18th century (Hunt, 1999), when a writer by the name of John Newbery began to write and publish children’s literature that was aimed at entertaining children rather than formally educating them. Kinnell (in Granahan, 2010, p. 10) discusses the importance of Newbery’s contribution to the development of children’s literature; as she states, he “has often been credited with originating the publication of children’s books; in reality though his role was even more important: he began the serious business of publishing for children.” Newbery believed, states Granahan (2010, p. 7), that reading for children should be enjoyable and not only focus on the educational factors. This does not mean that his books were not educational; however, Newbery placed a lot more focus on allowing the child to enjoy reading and less focus on formal education. This can be seen in his A Little Pretty Pocket Book, which, through interesting rhymes, sought to teach children the rewards of being good and the consequences of being bad (Granahan, 2010). This opened up the children’s literature genre to new heights. Newberry saw great success with his children’s texts that were both educational and fun to read, and this led to a number of well-known authors following in his footsteps and publishing children’s literature. Writers began to see the financial success that they could gain from writing children’s books and so the genre exploded. Literature did not, however, ignore educational value altogether, but aimed to create texts containing a mixture of educational and entertainment values.

Education was still a huge priority for eighteenth century society and so not only were children’s texts being published by professional publishers, but mothers were also creating their own literature at home. Many mothers, says Grenby (2009, p. 12), took a lot of pride in the education of their children and so they began to develop literature at home that educated their children according to their unique needs. This tradition of women creating literature for their children continued well into the century and worked hand in hand with the literature that was published at the time. Unlike many other societal structures, children’s literature was a genre that seemed to welcome women

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 9 and De Rosa (2003, p. 1) states that the genre “gave women activists a voice”. Their inclusion into the genre is made evident by the increase in the number of women who published books from the eighteenth to twenty-first century.

The nineteenth century led to further developments in children’s literature, as other forms of literature were developed (Clark, 2003). Those who did not write novels or publish story books added to the genre by publishing other types of texts, such as children’s magazines, and the first of these published in America in 1827 was titled The Youth’s Companion (Clark, 2003, p. 48). This century was a time when the majority of writers attempted to write for both adults and children. The fact that writers wrote for people of all ages led to a phenomenon that blurred the lines between children’s and adult’s literature (Clark, 2003), and so children’s stories often included melancholy and depressing themes similar to those of adult stories. Grenby (2009, p. 17) maintains that this sudden growth in children’s literature publications is more than likely related to the financial success related to this genre at this time. The increase in texts allowed for the genre to become even more popular, which helped it fly into the 20th century with immense popularity.

From this point, literature published for children was a lot more imaginative and creative and themes of magic, mystery, adventure and freedom became common throughout. Children were able to enjoy texts aimed at entertaining them and so this introduction into new and exciting worlds of fantasy made children’s literature more exciting. A few selected texts published in this creative stage of children’s literature are Frank Baum’s The Wonderful Wizard of Oz in 1900, Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit in 1902, James Matthew Barrie’s Peter Pan in 1904 and Lucy Maud Montgomery’s Anne of Green Gables in 1908. The twentieth century definitely allowed for the development of entertaining and exciting new literature for children that is continued even today with the phenomenal global success of J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series.

Nonetheless, a child is moulded by what he or she reads and so they grow with the literature that is presented to them. Spufford (2002, p. 9) stresses this point further by stating that “we [the readers] can remember readings that acted like transformations. There were times when a particular book, like a seed crystal, dropped into our minds when they were exactly ready for it, like a super saturated solution and suddenly we

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 10 changed.” Thus, the enormous impact that literature has on a child’s development can be seen.

Children’s stories were often published for a particular type of child, and publishers of children’s literature would write stories directed at very young children who were still learning to read (Reynolds, 2011, p. 3). These texts were aimed at moulding the minds of the young reader into behaving according to the norms and structure of the society. To write children’s literature by determining what a child should like or what he or she should be like is seen by C. S. Lewis (1966a) as a terrible way to do it. With this method, stories are based not on what is needed or expected by the child, but rather on what a particular adult writer or publisher thinks is needed and expected of a child. These children’s stories were also typically directed to a western audience and were written by western authors as well. Gopalakrishnan (2011, p. 5) highlights this and states that other forms of children’s literature have been “underrepresented and often marginalised”. This means that the children’s tales that were published were directed towards a small group of children and assumed that the qualities and expectations of these children stretched over all countries, cultures and religions.

A common perception of children’s literature is that it is written only for children. This way of thinking has been strongly contested by those who state that the extent to which the genre has expanded and its “rich array of books available”, means that it can no longer only be thought of as literature for children (Stoodt, Amspaugh & Hunt, 1996, p. xvii). Reynolds (2011, p. 12) discusses the point where adults become yet another target market for children’s literature. As parents are the ones who purchase the books, these books were directed towards them so that they would find them interesting enough to grab their attention and compel them to purchase the books. A children’s text is, therefore, geared towards its perceived audience and hence constructs itself according to this audience.

The interest in literature of this kind has sky rocketed in recent years, as adult readers are now seeing the importance of children’s literature and so studies on the topic are flourishing. Although the genre of children’s literature has been around for centuries, it was only around the 1970s that, Zipes (2001, p. 67) maintains, the business of publishing tales for children became a million dollar business. The genre did not, however, receive a great amount of interest through its early years and it was not until

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 11 around 1980 that, according to Mickenberg and Vallone (2011, p. 7), scholars began to develop an interest in children’s literature. Stoodt, Amspaugh and Hunt (1996, p. xvii) maintain that today more and more people are beginning to see the importance of this type of literature; she comments that this is due to “parents’ and teachers’ growing awareness of the influence of children’s books.” Even more regularly today, the lines separating children’s and adult’s literature have been blurred as many adults enjoy the texts published within this genre. This explosion of interest in literature previously noted as being solely for the child is somewhat due to the cinematic remakes of these stories (Zipes, 2011). As these stories become easier to access, so more adults, or older generations, begin to be captured and enthralled by them. This is seen especially with the Harry Potter novels and their adaptions to film. Although many still maintain that these texts belong within the children’s literature genre due to their child-like value, many have argued that they gravitate more towards being literature for more mature individuals (Zipes, 2001). Popular culture has opened the eyes of children and adults to children’s literature and has allowed them to become more familiar with the genre themselves.

This study of the development of children’s literature as a form of education and entertainment brings the reader to the topic under discussion: the fairy tale.

1.2 Fairy Tales An analysis of the fairy tale must initially delve into the complex task of defining the fairy tale and its genre; however, the fairy tale, just like children’s literature, is not an easy genre to define. Many academics have sought to define a fairy tale and its exact origin has been critically debated over the decades. Ideas of its definition range from it being tales of fairies, short stories to great fiction tales (Tolkien, 1947, p. 110). A too simple, but very common, explanation of the fairy tale is that it is a story full of magic, imagined beings and unrealistic realms. Many researchers define the fairy tale as a story about fairies, but Tolkien (1947, p. 34) states that the fairy tale is not a story about fairies exactly; rather they are stories that occur in “the realm or state in which fairies have their being”. Therefore, the fairy story is a story told within a time that allows for the existence of extra-ordinary beings such as fairies, trolls and many more. Teverson (2013, p. 31) cites a preference for the German term Märchen instead of ‘fairy tale’, because its definition: “short tale or short report” is a lot sounder than the common misunderstandings of the term fairy tale as a story of fairies.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 12 This typical definition of the fairy tale is expanded by Teverson (2013, p. 59) who highlights the moral endings of many tales – especially those of Charles Perrault and the Grimm brothers – stating that these morals direct the fairy tale to an adult reader as well as to the child. Semsar (2014, p. 1) indicates that the inherent purpose of the fairy tale is to educate and share common knowledge through the generations. If this is to be done effectively, the fairy tale needs to maintain some sort of educational value or moral relevance. Lewis (1966b, p. 37) stresses the importance of these morals and the importance that these morals are hidden and subdued in the fairy tale, because he says that people have a habit of not doing what they are told only because “one was told one ought to”. Therefore, a hidden message allows for the reader to learn and adapt their behaviour without them realising it.

However, Michelson (2014) maintains that defining something often leads to its destruction and so states that one should not seek to define the fairy tale because this very definition will limit the fairy tale to certain structures and expectations. This limitation of a typical structure seems to have made its way into many of the well- known, classic fairy tales of today. Bottigheimer (2009, p. 508) discusses this further by classifying fairy tales into two distinct types: restoration tales and rise tales. Restoration tales are said to be stories in which the protagonist is initially wealthy, but loses his or her wealth; the remainder of the tale follows the protagonist’s rise to wealth again. Rise tales show a poor protagonist who gains wealth and moves up the hierarchy of society throughout the tale. Within these two structures of the fairy tale, very little area is left for the tale to become unique as this structure is very rigid and defined. Rice (2004) highlights other rigid structures of the fairy tale, its beginning and ending, maintaining that these tales often begin with a ‘Once upon a time’ setting and end with a ‘happily ever after’. Tolkein (1947, p. 81) goes on to state that a happy ending of “joyous turn” is an element necessary for a “complete” fairy tale story. These confined story lines limit the extent to which a fairy tale can be overtly unique and suggests that each tale often follows a similar outline.

Along with its rigid structure, the fairy tale is also inhabited by particular characters that are similar throughout the genre. Hoffert (2003, p. xix) maintains that the fairy tale often includes a number of gender ideals she defines as “the cluster of characteristics, behaviour patterns, and values that members of a group think a man or a woman should have, a set of cultural expectations”; therefore, the fairy tale is full of gender

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 13 stereotypes and very often does not allow the characters to deviate from these stereotypes. Fairy tale characters have a number of characteristics that make many of the fairy tale characters overly one dimensional and not at all unique. The typical traits of the female character is to be submissive, beautiful and a helpless housewife; however, the male character is expected to be powerful, strong and dominant (Parsons, 2004, p. 137). If a fairy tale is to become popular, widely accepted and a ‘myth’, Zipes (1987, p. 107) states that it needs to follow the outline of the classical fairy tale. However, it can also be said that the fairy tale’s rigid structure and character portrayal suffocates the genre and does not allow it to grow or become unique.

Zipes (1987, p. 107) states that today the large number of classic fairy tales geared towards the child have made their way into the minds of society members and govern what individuals believe, dream and affect how they behave. In terms of Zipes (1987) argument, society is led to believe, that these tales are pure and are not infected by the social inequalities of class and gender. As society believes the purity of the fairy tale, they allow it to control them with very little knowledge (if at all) that this is happening. Parsons (2004, p. 136) states that society is willingly or unwittingly influenced by these tales, but due to their lack of an understanding of these influences, they are unable to regulate just how much they are controlled by them. As the majority of these tales portray the typical fairy tale structure pictured above, society is unconsciously moulded into behaving according to the fairy tale structure of happily ever after, gender hierarchies and unrealistic happiness.

As with children’s literature, the fairy tale does not have an exact or specific starting point. Zipes (2012a) emphasises this and states that, although it is possible to pin point a time where the writing and publishing of fairy tales became popular, one cannot simply assume that this is when tales began to be shared with others. In fact, it is quite the contrary as tales were shared among individuals long before the time of reading and writing. Many believe that fairy tales “go so far back that it is hard to tell where they begin, or indeed if they have a beginning at all” (Orenstein, 2002, p. 9), but common understanding is that fairy tales developed from the oral tradition of storytelling (Kready, 1916 & Zipes, 2007). Zipes (2012a, p. 2) goes so far as to state that one cannot assume that tales began even when speech, as a way of communication, developed. One must consider the fact that tales might have been

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 14 shared many years prior to this, using sign language or any other form of communication.

However complicated the exact origin of the fairy tale is, one cannot ignore its close relationship to and development from the oral folk tale. Oral folk tales, however, were immensely different in structure in comparison to the fairy tales one reads today (Kready, 1916 & Zipes, 2015, p. xv). Rice (2004) maintains that early folk tales included many suffering characters and dreadful, tragic endings. Teverson (2013, p. 29) argues that the context in which the fairy tale takes place is also vastly different to that of the folk tale, as the folk tale seems to depict individuals dealing with everyday life, but the fairy tale depicts a magical realm of magical creatures. In Zipes’ view (2015), the differences between oral folk tales and written fairy tales comes in, because those who recorded fairy tales often set out to alter the tales, depending on the purpose meant for a particular tale. Jones (2002, xi) highlights this further by stating that “oral fairy tales were eventually recorded by collectors, shaped by editors, and borrowed by writers for literary audiences all around the world.” No matter how the process was done, the recording of oral tales into published collections was an important part in the development of the fairy tale. Zipes (2015) argues that these recordings made it possible to keep the oral tales alive throughout history.

Furthermore, Zipes (2007, p. 2) maintains that these original tales were closely related to the society’s structure, stating that they “were closely tied to the rituals, customs, and beliefs of tribes, communities and trades.” Therefore, these oral tales were developed according to the structure and inherent beliefs of the society in which they were told. Zipes (2012a) maintains that the original tales told in early civilisation were not provided with titles, but were used solely for the purpose of providing information. As Zipes states, “people told stories to communicate knowledge and experience in social contexts” (2012a, p 2). Early tales were, therefore, utilised to pass on specific cultural and societal information across multiple generations. These stories have been told and passed down through generations and are an important part of social and literary history.

Jones (2002, p. xi) states that the oral tradition of storytelling is one that has a major impact on the tales themselves, as oral traditions impact both the “variation” and “continuity” of the tale. Oral tales develop variation through the enthusiasm and

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 15 uniqueness of the story teller, as well as through the response of the audience which is listening. As each oral tale is retold, it becomes altered and moulded by the teller’s uniqueness and the audience’s expectations. These oral tales also enforce continuity as they contain forms and structures adapted to particular societies. Each teller retells a particular tale in order to share knowledge and the social expectations of a society, in addition to his or her aim to entertain.

Therefore, determining the true origin of the fairy tale seems like a near impossible feat; however, research may be traced back to around 600 BC in Greece, when Aesop, a writer of fables, is said to have produced a number of stories with similar constructions to the fairy tale (Lerer, 2009). These tales were not written down, but are said to have been passed down through the years by story tellers and so Zipes (2012a, p. 11) maintains that they became a huge part of popular Greek culture. This example of tales told in such ancient times shows the extent to which one is not able to identify the exact origin of this fairy tale genre. Rather, it shows just how complex the topic of its origin is.

1.3 Fairy Tales as Children’s Literature Although today fairy tales are seen as being a huge part of the umbrella term ‘children’s literature’, this has been disputed by many. The assumptions of the fairy tale are that the only interaction an adult would have with one of these tales would be to read it to his or her child. However, the historical background of the fairy tale tells a different story. Originally, many tales were told at adult gatherings, once the children were put to bed (Orenstein, 2002 & Zipes, 2007). These tales were used to entertain and share knowledge amongst adults and so they were structured and geared towards an adult audience. J. R. R. Tolkien (1947, p. 11) states that fairy tales became used as children’s entertainment when they were no longer in fashion for adults. Thus, when adults began to see no need for the fairy tale, they ‘gave’ the genre to children. So it was from that point that fairy tale publishers began to construct and reconstruct tales for children, rather than adults.

This development of the fairy tale has led to a number of remakes of the originals due to the diversity of each story teller, and it has also led to the vast differences between each remake. Tolkien (1947, p. 14), however, states that as tales began to be developed for children, they lost much of their complexities and became what he calls

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 16 “mollified or bowdlerized”. This is because the tales told were heavily dependant on what the adult writer thought of his or her child reader (Andrew Melrose, 2012) and many of these writers identified the needs and expectations of the child’s mind as very simplistic and easily entertained. Rice (2004) comments on just how simple fairy tales became by wondering if the danger and violence portrayed in many fairy tales are appropriate for the young mind. Rice’s concerns indicate how an adult questions and determines what is suitable for the younger reader. Zipes (1988a, p. 24) emphasises this further by stating that many asked for the fairy tale to be watered down to avoid children having nightmares from what he calls “weird ideas”. These very acts aim to govern what the young reader is able to experience within a fairy tale and limit or sanitise the content of the fairy tale itself. An interesting concept explored by those questioning the relevance of the simplified fairy tale as literature for children is the concept of escapism (Tolkien, 1947). This criticism of the fairy tale, says Rice (2004), questions the impression that a fairy tale gives its reader, the understanding that the world is simplistic and easy. As fairy tales became simpler in content and structure, they also became plain and painted a picture of a world full of happiness and one in which love – always – overpowers all evil. These tales are, therefore, often seen as inadequate and unable to prepare the young reader for the harsh realities of the real world. Lewis (1966a, p. 39-40) sums up this argument of the all-too-simple fairy tale by stating that a fairy tale should neither place immense fear in its young reader of the external world, nor allow this young reader to ignore the existence of injustices and problems in his or her world.

Tolkein (1947, p. 11) likens the fairy tale being placed in the young children’s nursery and classroom to old furniture. If left there for a number of years the furniture becomes aged and damaged, so too is it for the fairy tale. As society has thrust the fairy tale into the hands of children only, it has not been provided with the space to develop and become a strong genre for all readers. MacDonald (1973), Lewis (1966b) and Tolkein (1947), prolific writers of children’s literature and researchers of the fairy tale, maintain that their stories are, however, not directed solely toward the child and that “fairy tale romance is literature not merely for children but for twentieth-century adults” (Rowe, 1986, p. 210). MacDonald (1973), Lewis (1966b) and Tolkein (1947) state that they write for those individuals who are ‘childlike’, in that they are able to accept the magical and non-realistic worlds. The fairy tale is a genre just like all other genres; no matter

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 17 one’s age, one either thoroughly enjoys or dislikes the tales. Therefore, the act of placing the fairy tale under literature made only for children is incorrect.

This argument about the fairy tale is based on the assumption that fairy tales are used only for entertainment: however, even this definition of the fairy tale is heavily disputed, showing the complexity of this genre. Many academics maintain that the fairy tale is more than entertainment (Rice, 2004), arguing that it includes the elements necessary to instil in its readers the expected roles and behaviours of society. A tale can easily share common knowledge with the younger generation and teach them lessons pertinent to their survival within society. Similarly, Rowe (1986, p. 210) states that the fairy tale is “one of culture’s primary mechanisms for inculcating roles and behaviours.” The fairy tale has been, and is still, used as a way of instructing a reader on what are accepted and expected societal behaviours and relationships and what are not (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007, pp. 38-39). Therefore, the entertainment value of the fairy tale is also used to subtly instruct and educate the society. Zipes (2012a, p. 6) reinforces this point by commenting on how sharing exciting stories became important in early societies, stating that “telling effective, relevant stories became a vital quality for anyone who wanted power to determine and influence social practices.” He goes on to say that this was an important quality of the fairy tale as, in embodying the expectations and structure of the society, these tales became an accepted part of the public sphere, so tales were told and became popular within communities because of the educational value they had.

The tales published by both Perrault and the Grimm Brothers are clearly identified as the pioneering fairy tales due to their popularity in modern western society (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007, p. 38). These tales have played a vital role in developing the fairy tales that one reads about today as they are geared towards the child. Although they wrote in two completely different time periods and societies and are, therefore, unique and different from one another, they are also related in many ways. Both Perrault and the Grimm Brothers constructed their tales according to folk tales within their own societies and, hence, each group of tales can be defined according to its societal origins.

1.4 Seventeenth Century France As in the case of Perrault’s stories, pre-seventeenth century France was not ready for the introduction of the fairy tale. The people of this era thought realistically and many

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 18 of them believed that stories, such as the fairy tale, were insignificant to their life issues (Zipes, 2007, pp. 33-34). Hazard (1961) provides a picture of the beliefs of seventeenth century France, arguing that France held on to rational and factually based beliefs. There was no room for fantasy and, therefore, folklore and fairy tale were depicted as useless elements and not necessary to enjoy. Seifert (1996, p. 1) points out three reasons for France’s initial rejection of the fairy tale. First and foremost, the monarch and the wealthy classes of sixteenth and early seventeenth century France saw fairy tales as useless and plain: since this was the belief of those in control of the social and political realms, these ideas became widely accepted. Secondly, the ‘escapism’ offered by the fairy tale, the ability of the fairy tale to allow one to imagine one’s self outside of reality, went against the realist structure of thinkers of this time. Thirdly, fairy tales were seen to be literature solely for children and so they were rejected for having any educational or beneficial impact on the adult reader. The 17th century saw the development of new thinkers who chose the fairy tale, says Hazard (1961), in order to escape from the troubles that reality provided. The developments of the Renaissance, says Beasley (2006), opened the minds of the French. This period led to an outburst of independent thought and expression, and the Renaissance period introduced many facts through scientific discoveries which allowed society to break away from their one-sided religious view of the world (Wells, 1896). As a result, individuals began to think in more creative ways than the previous, rigid society had constructed for them.

French literature in the seventeenth century was written by two institutions: the French Academy and the literary salon. The French Academy was a place where men could come together and share books and ideas. All of France’s literary dignitaries sought to be a part of the Academy although it was very restrictive in terms of who it invited as its members. The Academy was, according to Beasley (2006, p. 1) “the only institution in France that has historically been recognised as the legitimate authority over literature and language” and so it was the dominant literary force of seventeenth century France.

With men ruling the Academy, many women fled to the literary salons of France. The salon was a place in which individuals could come together and share with one another; intellectuals met and shared literature and information and, for this reason, it became a great place for literary development. Goodman (1989) states that these

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 19 gatherings aimed at educating and entertaining those who were present, and Kale (2004, p. 2) states that “they helped transform and homogenize the mores of the upper class” in great part through the interesting tales that were shared, which transmitted knowledge and entertained those present. These gatherings were a platform for writers such as Mme d'Aulnoy, Mme d'Auneuil, Mme de Murât, Mlle Lhéritier, Mme de La Force, and Mlle Bernard, who introduced the fairy tale to the salon (Zipes, 2000, p. xxii). Marie-Catherine Le Jumel de Barneville is identified by Zipes (2000, p. 29) as being a major contributor to the French fairy tale. Writing in a similar fashion to Perrault, Marie-Catherine wrote tales specifically for the upper-class reader. As such, women were definitely involved in the development of the French fairy tale.

The salons developed a technique closely linked to the upper class in early seventeenth century France which was called Précieux thought. It is defined by Daniels (2002, p. 1) as “literature of over-ornate expressions and complex Arcadian romances.” Inspired by this new technique, which highlighted the importance of using exquisite language and style to tell stories, tales began to develop. Jean (2007) intimates that Précieux tales were often very long and were often invented solely by the writer, having little to do with previous or traditional tales. Although these original French tales were more elaborate and much longer than the fairy tale was and is today, these types of tales were still significant to the development of the fairy tale. Daniels (2002, p. 1) discusses a female writer, Marie-Catherine d’Aulony, who was the first to use the term contes de fées (fairy tale). Her tales, and the tales of others who wrote within Précieux thought, seemed to be directed more towards the adult audiences of the salons than children.

Beasley (2006, p. 3) maintains that these salons assisted in the cultural development of France and that literary salons “offer(ed) a way of life that reflect(ed) the national character”; therefore, the content covered and literature shared within these salons became highly influential in France. The role women played in these salons is also highly significant, as women were heavily involved in the salon and salons “provided a setting for feminine literary expression” (Kale, 2004, p. 2). Thus, women used the salon as a platform to question patriarchal societal structures. Although French society allowed very little governance from females, these women were able to attend and had sufficient input with regards to the salons.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 20 Although it seems that the female writer or literary enthusiast was given as much credibility as her male counterpart, this was not in fact the case. Beasley (2006) highlights this, stating that, although one is able to identify the works of male writers from seventeenth century France such as Perrault and many more, one is not able to identify a seventeenth century woman’s work just as easily (p. 9). Hence, it appears there were distinct differences in how male and female works were accepted by French society during this time.

Furthermore, Beasley (2006, p. 1) states that seventeenth century France was far from gender equality, with men and women separated in terms of what they were seen as capable of doing. Men dominated politics and the social realms, whereas women were viewed as intellectually less capable and important only in terms of their benefit to men (Wiesner, 2000, pp. 51-52). It was only as recently as 1980 that France appointed its first woman, Marguerite Yourcenar, into the French Academy, but even this appointment showed many signs of inequality. Interestingly, Yourcenar, in her acceptance speech, maintains that it was women’s choice not to contribute to the literature of France (Beasley, 2006, p. 1). She maintained that women were happy to be in the literary salons of France and on the outer edge of the literary culture of the Academy, as they “felt neither the need nor the desire” to be a part of it (Beasley, 2006, p. 1). This speech shows the extent to which women were excluded from the literary centre of France, even to the point that they did not wish to be included. It further illustrates the rigid gender hierarchy surrounding literary productions in France.

Nonetheless, the literary salons of the seventeenth century afforded women the opportunity to create and imagine as well as challenge gender inequality. The latter half of the century saw the women of France begin to strive for equal treatment, and the literary salons provided them with the platform to do so; therefore, academic writers of this time also began to provide arguments for gender equality (Wilkin, 2015) although they were not able to completely solve the issue. These efforts to fight for gender equality often went unnoticed as Clark (2004, p. 12) points out that many individuals in France during the seventeenth century still maintained that women should focus more on the household than anything else, something Seifert (1996, p. 7) calls the “great confinement”. Those who accepted this platitude accepted that women and men were destined for certain positions within a society and should not do otherwise. Orr (2005, p. 352) points out the differences between those fighting for

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 21 equality and those who accepted the inequality, stating that “in seventeenth century France the equality of souls was important to Marie de Gournay, while Elisabeth Marie Clement reinterpreted the Biblical account of Eve being taken from Adam’s rib to justify companionate marriage, not female difference”.

This leads one to the realisation that the concept of gender equality in France in the seventeenth century was a complicated issue. Although there were many women and even some men who were questioning the status quo and fighting for women’s equality, much of society still believed that women were unequal to their male counterparts. This belief in their inequality, therefore, also made its way into the literary gatherings – the Academy and salons – hence affecting the literature produced in France.

1.5 Charles Perrault It was within this time that Charles Perrault wrote his The Tales of Mother Goose, originally entitled (in French) Histoires et Contes du temps passé, in 1697. Within this publication, Perrault included twelve tales, including such classics as The Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, Little Red Riding Hood, Puss in Boots and Bluebeard. With the use of Précieux as a method of writing, many tales like Perrault’s grew a large following within the salons of France.

Charles Perrault was born in Paris on the 12th of January 1628 in Paris. He was the fourth and final son of a wealthy, bourgeois, upper class family which allowed him many opportunities and opened the doors for his success (Jean, 2007, p. 278). His family were high achievers, his father being a renowned member of parliament and his other brothers all achieving beyond expectations in their relevant fields of architecture and law. It has been said that Perrault was always eager to study and so he was sent to all the top schools and institutions to receive his education, and his family’s status afforded him with the opportunity of studying law at the Collège de Beauvais. However, he stopped attending classes before finishing his studies and decided to stay home and teach himself what he needed to know for the examinations (Zipes, 2000, p. 379). He worked as a lawyer for three years and then his brother, Pierre, was able to get Perrault a job as a secretary, and he worked for his brother who was a tax collector in Paris. Daniels (2002) states that Perrault began writing poetry with Précieux verse in around the 1650s and 1660s, as he hoped to share his

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 22 verse with the popular literary salons of France. His tales were, however, not very popular during this early stage; Daniels (2002, p. 2) goes so far as to define them as “unimaginative verses”. From working with his brother, Perrault secured a post with the minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, as a secretary; this had a major influence on his life as through his work with the minister he became well-known. In 1671, he was invited to be a member of the French Academy, a very auspicious achievement; along with this accolade Perrault was also placed in charge of the royal buildings while working with the minister. In 1672 he married Marie Guichon and together they had three sons. However, she died in 1678 and left Perrault grieving the loss. Perrault never re-married and took it upon himself to educate his children at home. Later, this would lead to the development of his The Tales of Mother Goose, developed, to some degree, in order to educate and entertain his children. In 1683, Minister Colbert died and Perrault was released from his job with the government. Fortunately, Perrault had built up a substantial pension and so was financially able to support himself and his children until his death.

No longer working, Perrault was able to focus more of his time on literature and became completely invested in it. Interestingly, in 1687 he published a poem in which he stated that France needed to focus on modern developments rather than ancient times (Zipes, 2000, p. 379). This statement caught the eye of critics who disagreed with Perrault and maintained that France should continue with its strict, classical rules (Norman, 2011, p. 19). The resultant quarrel went on for years, but Perrault maintained his staunch views until his death in 1703. Many of Perrault’s other critics frustrated him with their low view of women, and so Zipes (2000) maintains that from 1691 to 1694 Perrault wrote a number of tales and a poem all sharing the theme of having a moral and respectable attitude towards women.

1.6 Charles Perrault’s The Tales of Mother Goose This all led up to Perrault’s biggest publication, his The Tales of Mother Goose in 1697. The origin of Perrault’s tales has been a topic of debate for centuries. The cover of the original The Tales of Mother Goose shows an elderly lady sitting near the fireside telling stories to a group of young listeners, who sit attentively at her feet. The title of the book itself, ‘Mother Goose’, is a French term which means that the story told is “a traditional one, told by old women” (Daniels, 2002, p. 1). As this was the first glimpse society had of the tales, it was assumed that the tales were taken from folk tales told

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 23 within the French society and that Perrault had collected these folk tales to entertain his children and later published them in The Tales of Mother Goose. However, the tales were published under the name Pierre Perrault d’Armancour, a name that some believe leads back to Pierre (Charles Perrault’s son). Some comment on how Pierre must have written these tales after hearing them from his care-taker in the nursery; however, many have argued against this theory. While stating that the tales were Charles’s, Daniels (2002) comments on how the tales are very similar to Perrault’s style of writing and rhythms. This, together with the fact that at this time Pierre was yet to have published any sort of literature, Zipes (2000, p. 380), indicates that Perrault himself must have been the writer of the tales and not his son. Daniels (2002, p. 4) further argues this point by stating that Perrault may have chosen not to publish under his name because of the ridicule he faced for creating such “childish” and simple tales in a time when the complex tale was so fashionable.

Jean (2007, p. 277) states that Perrault’s intentions to write his tales were not, contrary to popular belief, primarily to please his children, nor were they to develop a collection of French folk tales for society. Perrault wrote his texts in a way that incorporated both the form of traditional folk tales’ ways of storytelling and included a number of modifications. His tales were firmly rooted in the traditional folk tale configuration of the time, yet they were also relatively shorter and simpler than previous tales, which made his tales a lot easier to read. However, he broke from the traditional style as he wrote his tales in Précieux and traditional fashion in order to attract the attention of the aristocrats (Jean, 2007, p. 277). The joining of these two techniques – traditional tales and the modernised Précieux – is what seems to have led to the development of an extremely successful group of tales and the consequent upsurge of interest in them.

1.7 Nineteenth Century Germany Initially, Germany was not one single country, but was broken up into a number of states that made up parts of the Holy Roman Empire (Carsten, 1985, p. 91). Nearing the end of the eighteenth century, Napoleon took control of the German states and placed them under French rule, creating the Confederation of the Rhine (Pierenkemper & Tilly, 2004, p. 4). The Confederation altered the rights and laws of the German states, and France wanted to impose the tenets of the capitalist system within Germany, but this was met with major resistance. Due to their alliance with France, many of the German states were even required by Napoleon to provide

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 24 soldiers to France (Pierenkemper & Tilly, 2004), which meant that military training became a major focus of the states.

Nineteenth century German society was also heavily regimented by social and political hierarchy and the classes were clearly separated into upper and lower class (Carsten, 1985). Furthermore, a powerful group of highly influential individuals had the final say in all German politics and this meant that the lower classes were all placed under the law of the bourgeoisie. Carsten (1985, p. 170) maintains that serfdom was very common up to and even into the early nineteenth century, resulting in the poor lower class being forced to work for the upper class with very little or no money provided for their labour.

Not only did inequality reign within political and social relationships, but gender relationships were unequal as well. Gender hierarchies were common throughout Germany during this period and women had minimal say in how they lived their lives, as they were governed by the men. Maynes and Joeres (1986) maintain that women were under the rule of their fathers until they were married off and placed under the control of their husbands, and Sagarra (2009, p. 407) states that many individuals believed that women were only of use because of their domestic and childrearing capabilities. This subordination of the female saw many women kept within the confines of their homes. Women were definitely seen as unequal to, and less capable than, men and Paradiz (2005) stresses the lack of autonomy and lower ranking of women in German society. This way of thinking only began to be changed by feminist thinkers in the mid to late nineteenth century. Thus, the Grimm Brothers, who wrote in the early 1800s, wrote to a society structured by gender inequality and female subordination, and these concepts then made their way into the tales they constructed.

Again, in 1813 Germany became embroiled in the second Napoleonic wars pitting Germany in the middle of its battles with Austria, Prussia and Russia. Germans fought on both sides of the war and this placed great pressure on the German society. This war led to the defeat of Napoleon and the German states were once again free of his rule (Pierenkemper & Tilly, 2004, p. 7). German citizens were excited about this new era and the possible nationalist view their future could hold. They also looked forward to being free of serfdom (Carsten, 1985). The German citizens sought to become one unified state, no longer separated into a number of smaller ruled states. However,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 25 states Engels (1974), the rulers of the larger states, such as those of Austria and Prussia, feared this nationalism as they did not want to give up their power and rule over their states for one larger nation. This meant that the nationalism of Germany moved extremely slowly, but despite the action of many rulers to stop it, the country was changing anyway. Engels (1974) states that due to the changing times, the industrial revolution and changes in the economy, the upper class lost many of the privileges they held over the lower classes. Although the bourgeoisie were still going strong, the economic developments of the mid-nineteenth century led to changes in how status was determined; now it was not simply decided by family name and wealth (Diggs, 2008). This led to the creation of an educated, hardworking middle class and gave individuals a chance to improve their societal status through hard work (Diggs, 2008). This reduced the gap between the rich, upper class that was in charge and the poor lower class. With these new developments, Germany began to truly develop into a unified society and towards the end of the nineteenth century Germany had altered its economy, erasing serfdom forever.

1.8 Fairy Tales in Germany It was against this backdrop of war and inequality that the German fairy tale began to develop and fairy tales began to take hold in Germany. With the help of the flourishing of fairy tales in France, many German academics read and became interested in the fairy tale (Zipes, 2015, p. 243-244). This interest was heightened by still prevalent belief in 19th century society in the possibility of magic (Smith, 2013, p. 105). The romantic period, which lasted a short number of years between the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century, more specifically from 1797 to 1801, also saw a fluctuation in fairy tales in Germany. The connection between Romantic poetry and the fairy tale is highlighted by Novalis, a writer in this period, as cited in Beutin, et al (2005, p. 192), who states that “the fairy tale is at one and the same time the canon of poetry – everything poetic must have a fairy tale quality.” This period sought to move away from the rigid and structured society and its laws and placed more focus on the individual person and his or her own beliefs. A big part of the German romantic era, says Schneider (2007, p. 70), is that academics in this era wanted to develop a common cultural history and set of beliefs and values for Germany, and they set out to “study the past to evoke a common history, whether real or imagined, in their works.” The Grimms were growing boys during the romantic era

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 26 and so they had first-hand experience of this type of literature. Years later, when they published their own book of fairy tales, they seem to have been motivated by the romantic era’s desire to create a singular culture for Germany.

As interest in the fairy tale genre developed, tales began to be translated from French to German. The French fairy tales seem to have inspired the writers in Germany as, in the mid-eighteenth century, German writers began to adapt the French tales, and soon after began incorporating fairy tale elements into their own writing.

The ravages of war as well as the political, social and gender inequality of early nineteenth century Germany meant that individuals were met with many challenges. Zipes (1986a, p. 281) maintains that the fairy tale “freed writers and readers to withdraw from the conflicts of daily life”, and thus, these tales provided a safe haven for Germans to retreat to, something that the late eighteenth and entire nineteenth century German society accepted with open arms. Therefore, by the end of the eighteenth century, many German writers began writing fairy tales, and Zipes (2000, p. 203) maintains that by the beginning of the nineteenth century, the German fairy tale had become “thoroughly international” and the genre was booming.

Thus, although their tales were written many decades after Perrault, in a completely different era and society, the societal structure of the Brothers Grimm’s tales still led to them being “included within a bourgeois literary tradition”, just as Perrault’s were (Levorato, 2003, p. 8). Besides illustrating class layers and gendered hierarchies, the Brothers Grimm’s tales also depicted the typically weak, submissive yet beautiful princess who needed to be rescued by the rugged, masculine and powerful prince, just as Perrault’s tales were.

1.9 The Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm) Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born into this nineteenth century, Jacob on the 4th of January 1785 and Wilhelm, a year later, on the 24th of February 1786. The brothers were close and remained that way for the rest of their lives. Peppard (1971, pp. xiii- xiv) states one difference between the two, Jacob (the healthier brother) was more interested in and had a greater “capacity for work” and research and was responsible for most of the brothers’ work. Whereas Wilhelm was more interested in music and literature and so he was responsible for the happier and friendlier tone of their stories. Although each had a different style and different interests, together they made a great

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 27 team and their teamwork led to a brilliant collection of tales that is still loved so many centuries later.

Thanks to the hard work of their father, Philipp, the brothers enjoyed an early life of privilege. However, when their father passed away before the brothers had turned ten years old, their lavish lifestyles changed completely and they were forced to move into a small house with four other struggling families (Paradiz, 2005, p. 8). With the loss of her husband, their mother fell into a depression and the Grimm Brothers were then shipped off to stay with a distant family friend, thereby losing not just one parent but two (Paradiz, 2005). Perhaps this is why, in their memoires, Jacob and Wilhelm paint a very dull and miserable picture of their mother (Paradiz, 2005, pp. 3-4), as she did not allow herself to create meaningful relationships with the boys and was only available for the physical actions of caring for them. An interesting glimpse of the societal rules governing German society in the early nineteenth century is seen as the Grimm Brothers’ mother, Dorothea, had no authority over her children and so her father had to assume guardianship over them (Paradiz, 2005, p. 9). This shows just how little power and control women had within this gendered era.

Jacob and Wilhelm attended the University of Marburg and it was here that their interest in unifying past and present cultures was established owing to the developments of the romantic era and its focus on studying common histories (Zipes, 1988b, p. 8). This led to the development of their Kinder-und Hausmärchen (Children’s and Household Tales) collection of tales in 1812. This collection of tales was not, however, their only success in literature. Peppard (1971) comments that Jacob and Wilhelm’s immense interest in literature led to them publishing a number of texts about German legends, language and grammar. Jacob, who was especially interested in language, spent a lot of time analysing the similarities between the German and English languages (Peppard, 1971, p. 135). This emphasises the extent to which both brothers became increasingly interested in literature and German history.

The brothers were also involved in politics through their lives, according to Zipes (1988b, p. 158), and their staunch beliefs led to them participating in many revolutionary events. Jacob and Wilhelm were concerned about the negative impact that the war with France may have had on their dream of a unified Germany and so the brothers were involved in the peace negotiations with France. In 1830, the brothers

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 28 moved to the University of Göttingen, where they both became professors. However, it was at this university that their political views got them fired and thrown out of the university (Zipes, 1988b, p. 20). In the 1830s King Ernst August II started his reign over Hannover of which the University of Göttingen was a part. King August ruled that all in Hannover must pledge to serve him; however, the Grimm Brothers rejected, and rebelled against, this ruling. This was because of their stance against King August and their fight for the civil rights of society against the king’s rule (Zipes, 1988b). The brothers were forced to leave the university or else face possible imprisonment and Zipes (1988b) states that the last institution in which the brothers worked was in Berlin.

As a continuation of their love of language, in their final years, the brothers began work on a dictionary; the first edition of which was released in 1854, but this publishing only reached the letter F and the work ‘frucht’ (fruit) (Cavendish, 2012 & Peppard, 1971, p. 248). Unfortunately, the brothers could not finish the dictionary, as they died before completing it, Wilhelm in 1859 and Jacob in 1863.

1.10 The Grimm Brother’s Children’s and Household Tales The Grimm Brothers are said to be the pioneering fairy tale writers of Germany and research indicates that these brothers were one of the first German scholars to collect and publish fairy tales (Zipes, 2015, pp. 245-246). As nineteenth century Germany was gaining interest in a number of fairy tales, be they adaptations of French tales or original German stories, the Grimms decided that it was important to develop a collection of inherently German tales. The Brothers maintained that a nation needed a single language, set of beliefs and culture (Haase, 2008, p. 408); and they sought to find the unified voice of Germany. This prompted the Brothers to seek ways to preserve the folk tales told within their society and so in 1812 they published a collection of tales called Children’s and Household Tales. They then republished this original collection with an additional seventy stories in 1815 (Jean, 2007; Meyer, 2015). The Grimm Brothers maintained that their tales were inherently German, that they were originally oral tales passed down through the generations and that some tales within their collection originated over three hundred years before their publication (Smith, 2013, p. 105). The tales’ origin in German history, therefore, leads them to be seen as “important representations of German literature” (Orrin Robinson 2010, p. 1), which has increased the popularity of the tales.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 29 A curious assumption encouraged by the Grimm Brothers is that they, themselves, went through Germany – from village to village – and collected each folk tale they heard from the poorer social classes of Germany. Paradiz (2005, p. 134) strongly maintains that this assumption is inaccurate and that the true collectors of these well- known tales were essentially women. She discusses the huge role that women story- tellers had in preserving and collecting these tales, and maintains that these women re-told and recorded the tales for the Grimm Brothers and even had a say in how they were collected. More specifically, the story of Sleeping Beauty is said to have come from a woman named Dortchen, whom Wilhelm later married (Cavendish, 2012). Peppard (1971, pp. 50-52) maintains that the brothers, especially Wilhelm, only played a part in developing the tales to be more child-friendly and likeable. Sadly, however, the initial publishing of the fairy tale collection gave no thanks or mention to these women. Zipes (2000, p. 156) highlights how common this was in nineteenth century Germany, stating that “patriarchal practices have succeeded in diminishing the public perception of women’s contribution to the genre.” The Grimm Brothers, therefore, continued this trend of leaving women’s important inputs and collaborations out of the history books.

Notwithstanding their multiple sources, the Grimm Brothers’ collection of tales became extremely popular in Germany. As Zipes (1986a, p. 281) states, the tales became a way for the German public to escape their reality and fulfil their dreams and desires. This was because the tales were there when the country went through its own struggles and developments. Thus, the German society depended more on the fairy tale than most other countries. These tales became so popular that they were even used in German schools. Although they set their sights on purely German tales, Zipes (2000, p. 204) maintains that popular non-German fairy tales also made their way into their collection. However, in the second edition published later, in 1819, the Grimm Brothers replaced these tales with traditional German tales. Zipes (2000, p. 204) discusses the difference in interest between the first edition which included other popular fairy tales and the second edition which contained only German tales. The first edition saw a boom in sales, whereas the second edition reflected very poor sales. This phenomenon shows the increased interest that the public had in the ‘classic’ fairy tale genre, whether German or not, rather than the typical German folk tale genre.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 30 The Grimm Brothers used story lines similar to those used by Perrault two centuries earlier; however, Cavendish (2012) maintains that the Grimms’ tales differed from Perrault’s as they developed their collection of tales for different reasons. Instead of writing for the upper class French society, the Grimm Brothers geared their tales towards developing a common understanding of the culture, values and beliefs of all German people. The Grimm Brothers considered the poorer class of society, even when collecting their stories, and this led to their tales being incorporated into German schools of the nineteenth century and the adaption of many of their tales into extremely popular children’s literature in more recent and modern times.

1.11 Later Remakes of the Tales Since the tales of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, many remakes have adapted and developed the tales and their story lines. Stephens (2009) maintains that the true development of children’s tales comes from the long tradition of adaptations. The interesting yet simple tales of these authors have been transformed into household tales and today they are so much a part of western story-telling tradition that it seems as though they have always been around (Zipes, 1987, p. 107). Just as the tales of both Perrault and the Grimm Brothers were translated and altered according to the society in which they were told and published, so future publications of the tales will likely do the same. Stephens (2009, p. 91) states just how important it is for each tale’s re-make to be re-developed and re-constructed according to each society and time era in which it is published, maintaining that “a story retold for children serves important literary and social functions, inducting its audience into the social, ethical and aesthetic values of the producing culture.” Each society, says Zipes (1986a, p. 281), is unique and so within each country, or societal structure “the tales function differently”. Therefore, this re-modelling of tales needs to be done so that the tales keep their relevance to that particular society and its unique group of people. Without the altering of tales according to societal structures and time eras, the tales would lose their vitality and significance to the lives of individual readers and soon people would lose interest in them altogether.

The extent to which these tales have become a major part of the lives of so many people around the world shows just how important and universal the tales are. It also shows their major role in shaping not only certain individuals within the society, but the society’s beliefs, thoughts, behaviours and relationships as a whole. More modern

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 31 times have even seen many fairy tales translated and transformed into elaborate Hollywood films watched and loved by many, and these film adaptions help to develop, even further, the popular love of the fairy tale.

As the fairy tale develops and expands, so do the many critical theories that analyse these tales. One of these is feminist theory which places a significant focus on the literature and its gender representations. The following chapter will provide an in-depth analysis of the feminist literary criticism and interrogate the use of this theory with regards to an analysis of fairy tales. It will pay special attention to the feminist works and ideas of Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Luce Irigaray, Gayle Rubin and Judith Butler, as well as the literary criticism of Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 32 Chapter 2: Western Feminism and Feminist Literary Criticism

2.1 History and Development of Feminism Feminism can be loosely defined as “a theory and/or movement concerned with advancing the position of women through such means as achievement of political, legal, or economic rights equal to those granted men” (Offen, 1988, p. 123). It is the action of women (and even some men) “acting, speaking and writing on women’s issues and rights”; as such, feminism aims to identify and address inequalities in the social and political constructs within a society (Tandon, 2008, p. 2). Feminists also aim to detect gender inequalities in education, the workplace, property rights, reproduction, voting as well as assigned roles and responsibilities. Ultimately, a feminist recognises the “historical and cultural subordination of women” (Kahle, 2005, p. 4), and they use this, along with the continued subordination of women, to support their fight for gender equality. The feminists’ fight for equal rights of women has led to the development of a feminist literary criticism in terms of which texts are analysed to interrogate how women characters are silenced or empowered. With regards to the fairy tale genre, feminist literary criticism enables an extensive analysis of the expression of gender equality or oppression within the tale.

2.1.1 Mary Wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft, an avid writer who critiqued patriarchal society, asked many probing questions and offered recommendations for strengthening women’s position in society. Because her work was written and thoughts articulated during the time that Perrault and the Grimm Brothers’ tales were originally circulating, her ideas are useful in understanding proto-feminist thought. In her book A Vindication of the Rights of Women, first published in 1792, Wollstonecraft questioned the subordinate position of women in society; she argued that women should be afforded educational opportunities beyond the domestic sphere. Wollstonecraft, hence, saw through the patriarchal construction that women are naturally weak and “created rather to feel than reason”, whereas men are inherently able to reason and use logic (Wollstonecraft, 1996, p. 62). She saw how this characterisation of men and women became accepted by society and governed the behaviour of men and women. This diminished characterisation of women, she suggested, limited women’s options, as women tend to seek the help or protection of men when put in situations that require reason or

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 33 logical thought (Wollstonecraft, 1996). Women are, therefore, conditioned by patriarchal society to believe that they are limited to behaving in particular ways (through emotions) and so they limit themselves to these behaviours. Wollstonecraft maintained that subjecting women to the rule and ‘protection’ of men seriously limits their intellectual development and so she stated that the inadequate education women were provided under the rule of men, leaves their intellectual ability uncultivated, undeveloped and often unused. Wollstonecraft (1996) further stated that, if women were afforded with the same education that men were, they would be able to exercise a lot more power over themselves and their own lives.

Much of Wollstonecraft’s ideas focus on the education of women; however, this was from a slightly different angle to the arguments of more recent years. Wollstonecraft (1787, pp. 3-4) did not question that women should in fact be child-rearers; she commented that “a mother ought to suckle her children” as women have the means to do so. She went on to state that this womanly act brings about the habitual and instinctive act of “motherly tenderness”. She connected the notion of motherhood and education by stating that an educated woman would be a huge benefit to her husband and children, stating that society needs to “make women rational creatures, and free citizens, and they will quickly become good wives [and] mothers” (Wollstonecraft, 1996, p. 184). Here, Wollstonecraft saw the education of women as something that would help them within the domestic sphere that they were placed in, maintaining that education would enable them to become intellectual equals with their husbands and would assist them in becoming more competent child rearers. Therefore, although she fought for women to be afforded equal education and empowered to a more significant societal position, she still confined women to the domestic realm of housewife and child-rearer.

Wollstonecraft (1996, p. 3) also identified the massive negative impact that results from “see[ing] one half of the human race excluded by the other from all participation” and contribution to society. She maintains that when women are restricted from participating, they will become “vicious” and begin to disrupt the structure of society in order to gain such participation, thus forcing men, in all spheres of society, to take on the role of “tyrant” or oppressor (Wollstonecraft, 1996, p. 3-4). She warned that depending on the actions and efforts of only half of the society to support and grow an

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 34 entire society would ultimately lead to complete societal devastation. Therefore, Wollstonecraft and her model of society questioned patriarchal structure of the society in which they lived. She has inspired so many feminists that her text has even been called a “feminist declaration of independence” (Falco, 2010, p. 4).

Charles Perrault, who wrote The Tales of Mother Goose late in the seventeenth century more than fifty years before Wollstonecraft, began to fight for women, therefore, wrote his tales in a time of acknowledged gender-assigned inequality. This was the very society that Wollstonecraft questioned, one which consigned men to being powerful and ruling the public domain and women to being emotionally weak and subordinate, serving in the domestic realm, was the society in which Perrault wrote in 1697. Balmuth (1987, p. 20) states that “seventeenth century women in general believed that a woman’s social life, as well as her morality could be endangered by too much learning.” His comment, which resembles the thoughts of both men and women of the seventeenth century, which advocated that educating women would disrupt the harmonious balance of society and negatively impact the health of women.

Only twenty years after Wollstonecraft’s published The Vindication of the Rights of Women, the Grimm Brothers published their Children’s and Household Tales. By the time they were writing, Wollstonecraft’s ideas on educational equality had begun to percolate across Europe; however little actual change in gender equality had occurred. This meant that the society in which the Brothers lived and wrote still practiced specific gender based oppression, as evidenced in their tales.

2.1.2 Waves of Feminism The first wave of the feminist movement took hold between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; at this time Wolstonecraft’s idea of equal education had still not been activated. Thus women were still taught only basic reading, writing and domestic skills (Dicker, 2008, p. 21), and their education was limited to what they needed to know as good housekeepers and mothers (Kahle, 2005, p. 4). The domestic realm also afforded women very little independence before marriage; they were seen as belonging to their father and after marriage to their husband. Once married, women would “lose [their] legal identity”; they were not allowed to own property, had no control over the wages they may have earned nor could they enter into any contract with

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 35 another person (Dicker, 2008, p. 21). In response to the injustices that women faced, the first wave of feminism sought to rectify these social and political inequalities. Those fighting in the first wave wanted (among other things) equal education, the opportunity to vote and the right to own land or enter into contracts.

White women were limited to their work in the home, and, even if they were allowed to work, it was for little money (that was ultimately given to the husband) and under terrible conditions. Yet, the lives of black women were much worse (Dicker, 2008). These black women were left as servants and slaves to the white population. Kahle (2005, p. 5) points out that the feminist movement has many roots in the abolitionist movement of the 1830s, which aimed at ridding society of the slavery of black people. Marilley (1996, p. 30) comments on the abolitionist movement’s argument, that all people should be provided equal rights and should be treated as such. The fight for women’s rights saw the connection between itself and the abolitionists as they too fought for equal rights. These early feminists claimed that slavery stopped women from becoming whatever it was that they wanted to become and so the fight against slavery and gender inequality joined forces here. The struggle against slavery, says Kahle (2005) and Marilley (1996), opened the suffragette movement to the political realm and made gender inequality a lot harder for society and the public to ignore.

With the initial influence of Mary Wollstonecraft, who is referred to as a proto-feminist because of how influential her work has been to the feminist movement, and many other writers over the years, such as John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor, the women’s rights movement finally reached major success, says Whelehan (1995), when women were provided with the right to vote in both American and Britain in the early 20th century. Yet black women were still denied the most basic rights.

The second wave feminism, which took hold in the 1960s and 1970s, used the foundation provided by the first wave and fought even harder for change. It developed out of this period of social protest against not only gender discrimination but racial discrimination as well. By the time the second wave began to rise, women had been fighting for independence for many years and still there were multiple examples of gender inequality around them. Whelehan (1995) maintains that the second wave feminists realised the “possibility that there might not be a solution to women’s continued oppression short of a revolution”. They sought to attack patriarchal systems

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 36 and raise awareness of these hidden systems that largely governed society (Whelehan, 1995, p.11).

Tandon (2008) maintains that this wave sought to rectify unequal laws and social relationships regarding gender within the society at large. They fought for sexual and reproductive rights, the right to equal education and employment, and general civil rights as well. The first wave began the fight for gender equality and formally gained it through the right to vote, but this second wave focused on a problem that was deeply lodged into society and its public and political systems. Society within the 60s and 70s was highly patriarchal and it seemed to justify its inequality by maintaining that being male or female was inarguably a biological fact (Mikkola, 2017). This society used the biological and physical differences between men and women (for example, that men are physically bigger and stronger and that women are often smaller and weaker) to support their economic, political and social patriarchal structures, and maintained that men should be empowered, whereas women should be submissive to them (Tyson, 2015). However, Simone de Beauvoir’s work, The Second Sex, and her analysis that being masculine or feminine is not biologically connected to whether one is male or female, challenged this concept. She, therefore, highlighted the phenomenon that society has created expectations of males and females and these expectations are what limit and suppress women.

2.1.3 Simone De Beauvoir De Beauvoir, who lived from 1908 to 1986, was a dedicated philosopher and feminist within the second wave of the feminist movement, and her work The Second Sex (first published in 1949) became an important feminist treatise. Within the text, de Beauvoir seemed to struggle with developing an answer to the philosophical question: ‘What is a woman?’ (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 23), and in her probing clearly distinguishes between the terms ‘female’ and ‘woman’. She maintained that society seemed to relate being female to being ‘feminine’ and not simply to being a woman and stated that according to patriarchy “not every female human being is necessarily a woman; she must take part in this mysterious and endangered reality known as femininity” (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 23). A closer look into the term ‘feminism’, which de Beauvoir stated was simply too vague and “borrowed from a clairvoyant’s vocabulary” (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 23), highlights its social construction. Bergoffen (2015, p. 10) takes this argument further and comments that de Beauvoir’s work, which questioned societal

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 37 structures, discusses society’s exploitation of sexual differences. Her text made it clear that the patriarchal society was using the biological differences between men and women as justification for the subordination of women. Patriarchal society created a binary related to gender differences arguing that biologically men and women were different (in physical build and stature) and they could not be treated the same (Bergoffen, 2015, p. 10). De Beauvoir commented that society was quick to see women as the alternative, as the ‘other’. It saw ‘man’ as superior, better or, at the very least, the norm whereas it saw women as inferior and less capable (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 26). Due to this ascribed inadequacy, society deemed it correct that women should not be perceived in their own right, but only with regards to their relationship to men.

De Beauvoir argued that throughout history, society had been split into two groups: those who are in power and ‘the other’. Although this binary usually relates to majority versus minority, in the case of the domination of men over women this is not the case. Thus, this gendered domination stemmed from the popular belief of who was perceived as weaker or stronger (de Beauvoir, 2011). Women were seen as inherently weaker, and so were placed in the ‘other’ category. De Beauvoir maintained that because gender differences and, hence, inequalities were perceived by society as biological fact, they were increasingly difficult to change or eradicate (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 28). The otherness of females did not occur because of a historical event (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 27-28); rather inequality among the genders has existed since primitive times and religions and so one cannot pin point the exact date of its foundation.

De Beauvoir saw the inconsistency in the argument that males and females were different and, hence, should be treated differently. She did not argue with the fact that men and women had their differences; in fact, she embraced these differences, realising that men and women had different traits that afforded them with different abilities. However, she maintained that these gender differences did not mean that men and women ought to be treated differently; rather their differences should be celebrated. Through celebrating gender differences, de Beauvoir stated that treating each gender as equal was necessary. Bergoffen (2015, p. 10) points out de Beauvoir’s statement that “equality is not a synonym for sameness”, arguing that just because people are treated as equals and provided equal opportunities and treatment, does not mean that they are the same in all aspects. However, she maintained that it was

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 38 acceptable to have differences between the genders. De Beauvoir emphasised the need for women to be different from men, to not want to be masculine in order to receive power, but rather to embrace being different while fighting to be treated equally. Therefore, in relation to the current study, de Beauvoir’s understanding of society can be utilised with reference to the analysis of the selected fairy tales as well, by showing that a feminist fairy tale is one that ascribes a female character with the independence often provided to men.

An important factor for de Beauvoir was the understanding that “one is not born, but rather becomes a woman” (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 330) which rejects the notion that gender differences are factual and biologically based. To contrast this, de Beauvoir stated that a female does not automatically inherit the feminine behaviour traits and characteristics that society expects of her. Instead, she maintained that society had constructed certain expectations of women and so in order for them to be considered as women, they need to be submissive, physically and emotionally weak, nurturing, and domestic, with a scripted desire for beauty and marriage. A person was subtly exposed to these expectations in every facet of his or her life and began to govern and control himself or herself according to these expectations. Because the gendered expectations of society were publically accepted, women found it important to challenge the feminine roles they were forced to play.

In line with the current study, Simone de Beauvoir’s work shows, firstly, the importance that factors, such as external structures, play in the development of an individual’s thoughts, behaviours and expectations for the future. By taking the very susceptible and easily manipulated mind of the young child into account, it is pertinent that the fairy tale texts he or she is reading is heavily critiqued and scrutinised for any patriarchal themes and gender inequalities. In 1964 a meeting was held in which the following question was asked: “What can literature do?” de Beauvoir, along with many others, debated their answers to this question. De Beauvior’s aswer Hallier, de Beauvoir and Buin (1965) explain de Beauvoir’s answer and her argument that language is an action and so literature brings out the truth of the world in which it is written. De Beauvoir sees this truth as subjectively connected to each writer and his or her experiences within the world and culture in which they live. Therefore, the plot, characters and dialogue of the novel point directly to what is happening within its society. If this argument is accepted, the fairy tale is seen as able to identify and

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 39 characterise the societal relations, expectations and structures apparent within the time it was written or read, and can be critiqued according to its gendered representations. Secondly, de Beauvoir highlights that a society develops a number of structures that it uses to mould the behaviours of its members, so as to develop individuals with the same or similar mind-sets, whatever that may be. The patriarchal society will hence develop structures (and most importantly, texts) of a patriarchal nature.

A power lobbying group under the banner of the women’s liberation movement began to put immense pressure on many social institutions to rid society of the gender bias experienced by many women during this time. They began to realise, says Whelehan (1995, p. 7), that the systems of society blinded women to their true potential in the business world and dissatisfaction in the home. Betty Friedan’s work was very influential during this time and she aimed to interact with other women to unveil the hidden, patriarchal messages sent by society.

2.1.4 Betty Friedan Friedan (1963) discussed de Beauvoir’s statement that patriarchal society used its many social constructs to embed a widespread belief of gender inequality in its members even further. Seen as one of the leading feminists to work in the second wave of feminism, Friedan maintained that societal constructs such as written literature and patriarchally based theories, like Marxism and Psychoanalysis, ensured the societal expectations of and in women. She called these expectations of females “chains made up of mistaken ideas and misinterpreted facts” about women (Friedan, 1963, p. 31). These chains limit women and their capacity to develop and become unique individuals. They are difficult to break free from as they are locked into the minds and internal structures of the women themselves. This is because patriarchal ideas exist in all aspects of both men and women’s lives and thus female inferiority becomes a part of everyday life.

Friedan stated that many texts, movies, magazine, adverts, etc. created the assumption that women were happy and content in their positions in the home. Friedan (1963, p. 66) called this phenomenon ‘the feminine mystique’ and commented that “behind the new mystique were concepts and theories deceptive in their sophistication and their assumption of accepted truth.” Texts and other public literature were directed

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 40 at subtly moulding the minds of women into believing that their housewife and childrearing ‘jobs’ were in their best interest. Advertisments of the 50s and 60s, argues Whelehan (1995, p. 7), were aimed at projecting the role of ‘housewife’ as the ultimate goal of women. In housework, it was said that she had found “true feminine fulfilment” (Friedan, 1963, p. 18). By presenting a housewife with high standards, one who is completely happy with working hard in the home to ensure her husband and family walk into a spotless and ascetically pleasing environment, these adverts added a touch of glamour to being a housewife. Whelehan (1995, p. 7) states that the advertisements mould society’s thinking that being a housewife is glamorous and that no career woman could live up to the happiness a housewife feels.

Many gendered systems, such as these adverts, said Friedan (1963), aimed at keeping women in the private domain and prevented them from realising their human right to freedom of choice, which would definitely lead to them seeking self- actualisation (Whelehan, 1995). The truth was, however, that many were not fulfilled in their position in the home; they wanted “something more” and so through her work, Friedan was able to determine exactly what was tricking women into staying in such an unhappy position (Friedan, 1963, p. 90). Friedan maintained that it was necessary to work hard in order to make these gendered systems known, so that women were motivated to fight for change as well. This same theory can be used to analyse the fairy tale, as by taking a critical and sceptical approach to the characters’ behaviour, relationships and dialogue, any hidden patriarchal messages can be determined and critiqued.

Another problem discussed by Friedan (1963, p. 145) was that, although second wave feminists had worked at ridding society of patriarchal examples of women, they had not provided fresh, new examples for women to follow. The problem that women do not know "who she is, or can be, or wants to be", must be rectified, said Friedan (1963, p. 104), by developing a new image of an independent woman. An analysis of the many remakes of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale offers the researcher the opportunity to determine whether images of the new woman have been developed and provides for an analysis on the developments of the image of women over the last few years.

The writings of Luce Irigaray were also prominent throughout this wave. Her controversial theories and comments on women and the feminine both intrigued and

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 41 angered many feminists. Therefore, she is an interesting example of how women campaigners became ruthless and ready for action when questioning their inequality.

2.1.5 Luce Irigaray As she considers sexual difference as the most important issue of the times, Irigaray focuses much of her work on this area (Irigaray, 1993, p. 1). She maintains that women have always and will always be treated as inadequate with regards to men, and that this will only change if the way of thinking that male or masculine is natural is questioned. She states that “female sexuality has always been conceptualised on the basis of masculine parameters”, meaning that society views females through a masculine lens (Irigaray, 1985a, p. 23). Patriarchy convinces society that masculinity is natural, normal and original; therefore, femininity opposes what is seen as natural and is, ultimately, secondary. Irigaray goes further and states that the very act of male domination is only based on female suppression (Irigaray, 1985b). This suppression creates boundaries for women and limits their ability to seek equality, independence and true freedom. Irigaray (1985a, p. 27) states that thinking of masculinity as superior and femininity as inferior fulfils the needs and desires of males and so it must be questioned and altered.

While agreeing with de Beauvoir’s viewpoint that women are the ‘Other’ within a gendered society, Irigaray rejects the idea that women need to refute this Othering. She discusses the behaviour of women who actively reject or turn against their inherently feminine characteristics and turn towards masculine behaviours and characteristics. This, Irigaray states, is common in many women who believe that in these actions they are rejecting patriarchy; however, Irigaray has a completely different stance. She states that this would “postulate a relation… that would maintain sexual difference” (Irigaray, 1985a, p. 76). Therefore, by becoming less feminine or attempting to portray masculine characteristics, women only continue the belief that the masculine is better and dominant. Irigaray maintains that women need to partake in “mimesis”, which is to actively participate in being their feminine selves (Irigaray, 1985a, p. 76). Her realising that female subordination and gender inequality is a hidden act which underlies all societal structures led Irigaray to her postulations. She maintains that by publically becoming feminine, women will be able to identify gender inequality, make it known and instil a sense of pride in the sexual differences of men and women within the society (Irigaray, 1985a). Hopefully, society will then realise that

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 42 masculinity is not superior or desired by all, but that femininity is an equally viable option. Ultimately, she calls for society to acknowledge the differences between males and females; however, she strives to rid society of any perceptions of difference which are delineated by female subordination and inequality.

Irigaray does not call for all women to fight only to be seen as intellectual equals to men; she wants to end the entire fight of gender inequality. No longer, says Irigaray (1985a, p. 78), should society follow the patriarchal mould set out for itself, but a new mould, an “excessively univocal” truth. Irigaray (1985a, p. 78) states that the only way to end the gender argument is the act of “repeating/interpreting the way in which, within discourse, the feminine finds itself defined as lack[ing]”. Therefore, it is important to critically analyse texts and the discourse used within them in order to find exactly what leads to the inferiority of the feminine. Lazar (2005, p. 4) emphasises the strong relationship between feminist literary criticism and discourse analysis; she comments that discourse analysis “offers a sophisticated theorization of the relationship between social practices and discourse structures.” So analysing a particular character’s discourse can lead to an understanding of the social structures and relationships of a given time period. Hence, it becomes increasingly important to analyse the selected discourse and its structures throughout society. Discourse holds an important place in Irigaray’s theory as she realises the hidden messages or alternative meaning that each sentence may have. She encourages feminists to analyse the smallest detail of discourse (to continually and repetitively analyse the discourse used and words chosen) in order to strip it of its patriarchal power (Irigaray, 1985a, p. 80). By doing this, the societal and gendered position of the female becomes evident and can turn society’s attention towards gender equality.

The theories of Irigaray influence the current research in a number of ways. Firstly, she opens the eyes of women and states that one needs not act in a masculine way in order to be afforded power and independence, but that acting in accordance with ‘femininity’(which is what society expects from her) can also change the way society sees her. This can be used as a new perspective when analysing the fairy tale, in the sense that feminist fairy tales can be understood to go against patriarchy in more ways than one. Secondly, Irigaray’s focus on discourse can also be utilised to analyse the words used within fairy tales. Dialogue used within each tale is selected specifically by the writer; it often portrays the relationship dynamics and the gendered qualities of the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 43 characters themselves. Therefore, through an analysis of the character’s discourse or silences, the gendered position of the character can be analysed.

During the time of second wave feminism, women began to fight for control over their bodies; they thought that the reproductive rights that they maintained would lead to their independence. They began to realise just how much patriarchal society had imposed on and changed their mind-sets and this realisation was the first step to their revolution. Women wanted to be able to decide whether they wanted to have a child or not; they wanted to be able to use contraception if they so wished (Grimshaw, 2004). Reproduction is also something highlighted quite regularly within the original fairy tales themselves. It is a common occurrence for a female fairy tale character to be depicted as a beautiful virgin in the beginning of the tale, only to reach her ultimate role as a ‘woman’ by the end of the tale – which is defined as being a mother. She does not nor can she become independent or successful without taking on the roles of virgin bride and then mother; this is her patriarchal destiny and she has no choice in this. Gayle Rubin tackles the gendered construction of marriages and typical gender relationships within her text The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex (1975).

2.1.6 Gayle Rubin “A woman is a woman”, says Rubin (2004, p. 770); she is an individual with certain physical qualities provided to her by nature. However, she only becomes feminine, useless and subordinate within a particular situation, through her patriarchal relationship to and with men. Gayle Rubin (2004, p. 771) shows the existence of sex/gender systems within every society; she defines these systems as “the set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity.” She states that the term ‘sex/gender system’ shows that oppression is not inevitable in all societies, but that it arises from certain social relationships and structures (Rubin, 2004, p. 775). Sex/gender systems are used by a society in order to determine the gendered relations and expectations of societal members. They are based on the biological facts of males and females, and so they come across as natural and true. In doing so, they are not questioned, but are blindly followed by most members of society.

Rubin maintains that the patriarchal division between males and females must be influenced by something more than just nature. She states that naturally men and

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 44 women are “closer to each other than either is to anything else”, and so they do have some similarities (Rubin, 2004, p. 782). They share certain traits with one another and often what is considered a masculine trait shows up within a female, and vice versa. She goes on to show that it is the social system of a society which develops the gendered expectations of men and women, arguing that patriarchal society decides what traits are masculine and important in males, and which are feminine and necessary in females. Societal norms separate the traits that many men and women share, limiting not only women, but men as well (Rubin, 2004, p. 782). Therefore, Rubin emphasises that, although the patriarchal system’s very make-up aims at suppressing the women, women are not solely impacted by it. In fact, men and women are provided with a set of gendered expectations that they are forced to follow in order to be perceived as ‘normal’ by the society. Rubin (2004, p. 782) contends that “sexual division” of males and females “creates” the social expectation of what is supposed to be male or female.

Rubin provides an interesting account of marriage and its gendered construction, something which she maintains develops from the gendered sex/gender system of a society. Her argument on marriage uses Levi-Strauss’s theory of kinship in order to understand the gendered relationships common within marriages. Levi-Strauss (1969) maintained that marriage was an exchange of women from one male figure to another. Rubin (2004, pp. 777-779) shows the history of a long lineage of women being exchanged, almost as a commodity, between people in both primitive and seemingly cultured societies. These women were often referred to as “gifts” to men who were the beneficiaries. Rubin (2004, p. 777) states that Lévi-Strauss’s understanding of marriage maintains that the essence of marriage “lie[s] in an exchange of women between men.” His theory of marriage as the exchange of women leads to an understanding that the subordination of women is the product of a society’s sex/gender system which produces and organises gender (Rubin, 2004, p. 780). Marriage is one such sex/gender system, says Rubin, and thus marriage seems to be a system in which women have very little rights in relation to men. Rubin (2004, p. 780) emphasises this by stating that “relationships always include certain rights for men, others for women”, with women almost always being oppressed and having much fewer rights than men.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 45 Rubin calls for action to be taken against the patriarchal sex/gender system. She states that this system will not go away unless it is met with an opposition of some sort, stating that the “sex/gender system must be reorganised through political action” (Rubin, 2004, p. 787). This action should, however, not be directed towards getting rid of men; instead, Rubin goes so far as to say that, it needs to aim beyond ridding society of female subordination. It is not enough to eliminate gender inequalities, but Rubin (2004, p. 787) maintains that feminists must “dream of the elimination of obligatory sexualities and sex roles” altogether.

Gayle Rubin’s feminist theory has influenced the current research, firstly, through her concentration on sex/gender systems. This is because Seifert (1996) states that fairy tales are one of the best literary tools to identify the sex/gender system functioning within a particular historical era. Rubin emphasises the importance of identifying a society’s sex/gender system and the fairy tale seems to be filled with rich data to help with the identification. This sex/gender system can be identified through the analysis of the characters’ expressed traits, the events which take place within the tale itself and, as theorized by Irigaray, the discourse used. Secondly, Rubin’s discussion of marriage has shed light on an integral part of fairy tale stories, and the analysis of the marriages which take place within the many Sleeping Beauty tales should provide an analysis of the gender relationships popular within the societies in which each tale was written.

This second wave feminism led the way for the third wave of feminists and just as the transition from first to second came with a change in thought patterns, so did the change from second to third. Grimshaw (2004) states that it is a common phenomenon within theories and theorists that they become blind to the inequalities and limitations that they themselves produce; feminism is guilty of this exact act. Women of colour and ethnicity critiqued the second wave, stating that it only took into account the views of white, western women (Mann & Hoffman, 2005). Although the second wave did begin to develop a realisation that women of colour were oppressed very differently, it took the third wave to realise that a woman’s experience of being a woman is unique to her, and that her experience of inequality is said to be dependent on her experience of her race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, etc. (Mann & Hoffman, 2005). To direct this towards the current study, Heilbrun (2008) maintains that women write stories based

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 46 on the experiences that they encounter in life, and so if the experiences of women differ, then the texts they produce will differ as well.

The third wave brought the realisation that individuals create identities according to their life experiences in a society. However, these identities are seen in society as strict and rigid, as they dominate the way each gender is expected to behave. So, the third wave aimed to deconstruct these limiting expectations completely and create “personal narratives that illustrate an intersectional and multi-perspectival version” (Snyder, 2008). Judith Butler is one theorist who argues that the questioning and opposing of socially constructed identities and expectations must be “prized” (Butler, 1992, pp. 15-16) and marked as extremely important and necessary.

2.1.7 Judith Butler Judith Butler’s theory of gender performativity is developed from one of two theorists; firstly, from de Beauvoir’s who stated that gender was a socially constructed phenomenon. Butler (1988, p. 519) maintained that “gender is in no way a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather she said that it was an identity tenuously constituted in time.” Secondly, she draws from Monique Wittig’s understanding, namely, that ‘woman’ does not exist; rather it is just an “imaginary formation”, created by the patriarchal society (Wittig, 1993, p. 106). This conception of ‘woman’ casts so many gendered expectations onto women that they are blinded by them and are so busy trying to achieve them that they can do little else. Hence, Butler states that ‘woman’ does not necessarily exist, but rather, people construct ‘woman’ through a number of gender performances. In other words, gender expectations are constantly constructed and continued through the way people act. Males and females act in particular ways and these acts or ‘performances’ create particular gender identities (Butler, 1988). Important to her theory, Butler maintains that it is the actions of people that create gender identities, and not the gender identities that create the actions of people.

As the performances of males and females become historically accepted by society, they become interpreted as the norm. Society is moved to believe that the gendered performances of males and females are natural and cannot be questioned. People then “freely consent to be governed” by what is expected of them, and do not realise that these expected performances are socially constructed (Butler, 1999, p. 5). These

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 47 ‘norms’ lead to a society that is “necessarily constrained by available historical conventions” (Butler, 1988, p. 521). Society puts in place a number of expectations for males and females and these expectations limit the actions of males to being masculine and females to being feminine. The gender performances of males and females lead to the development of societal expectations which, in turn, hold the society captive and limit them to the accepted behaviour of men and women. States Butler (1988, p. 522): “The construction [of performed gender expectations] compels one's belief in its necessity and naturalness” and so society becomes “entranced” by these gender expectations and begins to accept them as normal and natural acts.

To add onto her theory of performativity, Butler maintains that language is also a performative act. Gender can, hence, be performed “through language, gesture, and all manner of symbolic social sign” (Butler, 1988, p. 519). Language use is a concept that Butler emphasises. She maintains that language is not a constant nor objective reality; instead its many rules have been created and are learned by society, only to create the illusive understanding that using language in particular ways is the norm. As she states that performances such as language lead to gender identities, Butler (1999, p. xix) enforces the possibility that “gender itself is naturalized through grammatical norms.” This means that language and grammar have a part to play in making the masculine/feminine binary (which limits the performances of males and females) a normal and natural occurrence.

Importantly, Butler states that society needs to keep in mind the realisation that gender identity is constructed through the gender performances of people. If the masculine/feminine gender binary is accepted as a natural fact or the norm, the binary is given total control over society and leaves men and women to blindly accept the problematic roles that the binary enlists (Butler, 1988, p. 531). However, in viewing patriarchal gender identities as only constructed through the actions of males and females, it becomes evident that these gender identities are not natural, but can be altered. Through changing the acts of males and females that ultimately construct gender, a new set of gender identities can be developed. The problem here is that people who act outside of these expectations are regularly “punishe[d] or marginalize[d]” for it; they are identified as social outcasts and society rejects them (Butler, 1988, p. 528). This punishment makes acting outside of the norms and expectations of society undesired as no person wants to be ridiculed. However, it

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 48 seems to Butler (1988, p. 531) that acting in new, “subversive performative” ways, which question patriarchal gender performances, is an essential action to changing these performances for good.

Butler’s theory of performativity has an important impact on the current study in two ways. Firstly, the importance that she places on one’s behaviour, gestures, and language and how these constructed gender identities, can be transferred over to an analysis of fairy tales. When analysing each fairy tale, Butler’s theory can be utilised through examining each character’s gender performances and how these performances construct a gender identity for the character. Secondly, Butler’s emphasis on the important role that language plays in gender identity construction has encouraged the study of the language used by the characters within the selected texts. The analysis of this language will help to provide a more holistic idea of the gender identities and relationships within each tale.

Mary Eagleton (2007) highlights the multitude of feminist theories and theorists that now exist and so states that feminism should not be referred to as a theory, but rather as theories. This understanding led to the development of a number of feminisms that focused on aspects different to what was previously conceived as ‘normal’, such as race, ethnicity, class and even sexuality. Feminism now became ‘feminisms’ as those who felt that they were not included in the westernised, white, heterosexual feminism - made their own (Zack, 2005, p. 2). However, each feminist fought for the same goal of gender equality and so Mann and Hoffman (2005, p. 60) discuss how each unique feminism is “connected by difference”; although each woman has a different experience, she is united with other women because of their shared, gendered experiences.

A major problem faced by feminists was that many of the inequalities within the society, and especially within literature that was (and still is) published, were not overt, but rather very hidden and subtle. This meant that most people were blinded to patriarchal mind sets and structures and even more were not aware of the extent of gender inequality actualised within society. In order to develop as a recognised and respected movement, feminists needed to show the public the extent to which women were oppressed and so they aimed to expose the number of institutions and societal structures that had and still were continuing this oppression (Plain & Sellers, 2007).

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 49 Thus feminist literary criticism became another tool to explore, evaluate, dissect and criticise gender inequalities.

2.2 Feminist Literary Criticism Feminist literary criticism began some forty to fifty years ago, in the 1960s and 1970s, along with the rise of second wave feminism. It became clear during the second wave that people were being socially constructed into what was expected from their particular gender. Therefore, the patriarchal hierarchies evident in the 60s and early 70s were being questioned and critiqued and this allowed for the development of a criticism of men’s and eventually women’s writing based upon their expression of women and men and their relationships with one another (Carr, 2007). It is important to note here that the feminist movement is not only involved in a fight for the ‘freedom’ of women so that they are able to be whatever they want to be, but it is a fight for everyone. Patriarchy not only limits the actions, behaviours and relationships of women but of men as well (Tyson, 2015). Therefore, feminist literary criticism targets the patriarchal expectations of women and men and aims to show society how these expectations are subtly imprinted into their minds.

As Tyson (2015, p. 82) stresses, the social construction of society functions through the subtle patriarchal messages in movies, television shows, adverts, magazines and more specifically with regards to this research, texts. Feminists began to realise the extent to which writers and their texts were reflecting gender inequality through the themes and unequal character relationships within their texts, noticing that a text was “a key location for the creation, expression and maintenance of a sexual politics that oppressed women” (Eagleton, 2007, p. 106). They thus began to question the unequal, patriarchal messages found within a number of pieces of literature.

Feminist criticisms, thus, aimed at attacking patriarchy, culture and texts in which women are seen as less capable than men. The criticism of texts began to develop and question the gender hierarchies and inequalities expressed in many facets of literature at the time. Kate Millett (1972, p. 31) further stresses just how saturated society was with gender inequality that she terms patriarchy a “universal condition”, the term ‘condition’ emphasising the negative impact this inequality had on society and social structures. Haas (2004) and Tyson (2015) argue that the feminist literary stance places particular focus on how a particular piece of literature opposes or continues the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 50 oppression of the female, along the lines of economic, political, social and even psychological oppression (Tyson, 2015). Their aim is to identify and expose any subtle patriarchal messages, “patriarchal attitudes, cultural misogyny and the ingrained belittlement of women” that a text may convey (Carr, 2007, p. 120). Through choosing either to critically analyse or re-construct a text, feminists develop many critiques of texts, critiques stretching from what is included in a text, how information is portrayed in a text and even how certain information should be taught (Warhol & Herndl, 1997, p. 3). These feminist critics, therefore, make the patriarchal messages, continued by a particular text, known and by making them known, critics can allow individuals in society to understand patriarchy and how its societal structure impacts their thoughts, relationships and behaviours. Tyson (2015, p. 112) further reinforces this view by stating that “the ability to see when and how patriarchal ideology operates is crucial to our ability to resist it in our own lives.” Hence, it can be offered that analysing works from a feminist literary perspective enables the critic to counter the patriarchal structures inherent in society.

According to Carr (2007), early feminist literary criticism paid very little attention to women’s writing, as feminist critics were almost solely concerned with men, says Carr (2007). To begin by attacking the oppressor (man) was a great starting point for feminist literary criticism. This was due to the fact that not very many women’s texts were accepted by the broader public as having literary value and few entered the canon. Women also lacked the education and time to write and so very few women actually wrote in the early years (Carr, 2007, p. 120). Virginia Woolf in her text A Room of One’s Own, first published in 1929, emphasises that in order for a woman to be able to write fiction, she needs two things – money and a room of her own. Woolf maintains that the patriarchal expectations of a woman, to be a mother, a care-giver, a support system, a house-wife, allow her neither the time nor the money to write. It seems that the duties of a woman flood her with job after job, leaving her very little time to herself, and, says Woolf (1989, p. 23), even if she does make some time in her busy schedule for work, “every penny I earn… will be taken from me and disposed of according to my husband’s wisdom.” She is not afforded any of the money that her hard work earns her; instead, society permits her husband to take control of the money, as he is considered better equipped to handle such affairs. This means that aside from a few

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 51 rare exceptions women were stuck in a cycle that did not allow them to write very much of anything.

When commenting on the early women writers who broke the tradition of the male- dominated writing realm, Heilbrun (2008) maintains that even those women who were afforded the right to write, were restricted. She maintains that within their gendered society, the experiences and expectations of women were very limited, and so this, in turn, limited their ability to write, or, at the very least, it limited the content that they could write about. For example, she examines the qualities of anger and power as male-orientated characteristics, and notes how these are not something expected from women. Heilbrun (2008, p. 15) states that “if one is not permitted to express anger… one is … refused both power and control” and so because women were not expected to act with anger or to have power and control, they were never able to experience this anger, power or control. Not being able to experience these characteristics means that they do not undertake to write texts using such characteristics and so she states that they “have been deprived of the narratives, or the texts, plots, or examples, by which they [women] might assume power” (Heilbrun, 2008, p. 17). Women who are not allowed to express ‘masculine’ qualities will not generally ascribe these to their female characters. Ultimately, Heilbrun (2008, p. 18) declares that the only way for women to see true power over their own circumstances is to “declare their right to public power”. Therefore, as women began to obtain more freedom and equality within society, their ability to write of their many experiences began to develop as well. These women realised the inequalities and injustices faced by many women and so, Carr (2007, p. 123) states, they “turned to fiction to express their anxieties”, writing texts that questioned the traditional, patriarchal paradigms.

From 1975 and onwards, Showalter (1984) contends that feminist criticism took two theoretical directions with regards to the analysis of texts. Firstly, ‘gynesis’, which relies heavily on the analysis of texts written by men, aims to analyse the representation and consequences of the ‘feminine’ within a given text. Showalter (1984) goes further and states that this feminist criticism analyses the ways in which a text represents the typical expectations of a female. Friedman (1996, p. 14) calls this analysis “a discursive effect that disrupts the master narratives of western culture”, by analysing and critiquing the representations of the feminine within a text, and, thus, feminist critiques are able to actively raise questions about the patriarchal themes

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 52 within it. The second of these is called ‘gynocentric’ and focuses almost exclusively on the writing of women. This developed, says Showalter (1984, p. 38), out of the feminists’ understanding of their own experiences and that they can identify with the “anxieties and conflicts” placed on them by the patriarchal society. It analyses the texts of women writers and seeks to understand their many themes, characters, language and relationships alongside understanding how the individual experience of the race, culture, class and nationality of the writer influence each text. This feminist criticisms “set out to discover how it [women’s writing] worked, to map the territory of the female imagination and the structures of the female plot” (Showalter, 1984, p. 38) and by doing this, was able to create new and innovative ways of seeing women’s writing.

The gynocentric feminist criticism, hence, places immense focus on the experiences of the writer, when analysing the text itself. However, before women were viewed as capable authors, the masculine society wrote very little of women’s experiences and Showalter (1984, p. 30) states that “the experiences and achievements of women have already been tacitly relegated to women's time in being hidden from history, obscured, or written out of the historical record.” The experiences of women were not seen as important enough to make ‘good’ writing and so the experiences and point of view of men were elevated (Heilbrun, 1988, p. 21). This meant that the available literature was saturated with the ideas and expectations of the male public, and included very little (if any) focus on the female’s ideas and expectations. Woolf (1989, p. 23) emphasises this as she comments that the women writers of the nineteenth century and even of her time had no female tradition on which to fall back on, as there was nothing – no foundation – set out for them by their mothers or other female elders. These women writers needed to construct their own foundation, their own history of the female and their own future in the literary world. Therefore, it is thanks to the many women who found a voice in writing that today there are so many texts written by women. What seemed important to those first women who began to write was that they highlighted the experiences of women, because literature had ignored this pertinent information for so many years (Showalter, 1984).

Wilcox (2007, p. 30) argues that woman writers are often moved to write because of their experiences, maintaining that “the individualised experience of writing is a phenomenon most fully recorded… by women, anticipating the autobiographical turn of much modern feminist criticism”. She continues, stating that when an author writes

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 53 from her own experience, the text develops a sense of closeness between the writer’s personality, experiences and the reader’s own experiences. Showalter (1979, p.28) also writes about that the “female reader’s identification with female-authored texts”, maintaining that the woman reader is captivated by the woman writer’s female character who embodies many of the experiences of both the reader and writer, something Showalter calls a “female subculture”. With the fresh, new availability of women-authored texts, women within society are afforded more literature that speaks directly to them and their situation. These texts have the ability to unite women from across the globe and unite them through their shared experiences and open the female reader’s eyes to the injustices she is facing which may not be so easily identified. In A Room of One’s Own, Woolf (1989) uses her first chapter to write about the experiences of a woman walking around ‘Oxbridge’, and through this event she is able to clearly identify the unequal experiences that many women during the 1920s experienced. Goldman (2007, p. 74) maintains that within the text, “Woolf here emphasises not only the relatively sparse representation of women’s experience in historical records, but also the more complicated business of how the feminine is already caught up in the conventions of representation itself”. Woolf’s work was influential in encouraging other women writers, particularly in their exploration of patriarchal limitations enforced on them. The publishing of a multitude of texts such as Woolf’s, meant that the writing of women was finally beginning to actively challenge the patriarchal themes that were saturated literature.

Although Elaine Showalter purposefully depicted gynesis and gynocritic feminist criticism as polar opposites, more often than not contradicting each other in theory, more recent theorists believe differently. Friedman (1996, p. 14) maintains that in more recent years “gynocriticism and gynesis have increasingly functioned collaboratively”, stating that each critical tradition applauds the importance of gender and the impact it has on the identity of women. Gynesis maintains that the very existence of the masculine/feminine binary in the language and discourse used within a text, must lead to a questioning of such discourse. Whereas gynocritics maintain that because there exists overpowering patriarchy that is evident throughout society, it is important to treat women (with individual experiences due to race, class, culture, etc.) as connected by their common gender and the experiences they may share by being women (Friedman, 1996). Therefore, when utilised together, gynesis and gynocritic feminine

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 54 criticism can both provide an understanding of women writers and their texts through their experiences as multi-faceted women and, thereby, structure a questioning of the masculine/feminine binary evident within many texts. The current study will benefit from using both examples of feminist criticism, as it is important to view each fairy tale writer as writing through his or her own experiences, and also to realise the importance of analysing and critiquing the patriarchal binaries within each text.

This discussion of the links between the emergence of women’s writing and the experiences of women themselves, is important for an analysis of the many remakes of Sleeping Beauty, as it becomes necessary, when analysing a text of a particular time period, to determine the societal limitations or expectations of the author. Many of the remakes are written by women writers and so knowing that the status and limitations of a writer has an impact on the texts, it is necessary to determine how women’s social status and limitations (aspects which heavily influence their experiences) have developed over the years. This will provide an understanding of how each women writer experiences life and how these experiences may have influenced their work.

Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar are two feminist literary critics and so their work allows for a textual analysis which challenges or exposes patriarchal norms. They are experts in the feminist field of literary criticism and their texts are largely dedicated to this issue. They state that since the birth of writers, women were not able to partake in writing. Their inadequate education often limited them and their ability to read and write, which meant that they were not able to write and publish texts. Therefore, the pen was “foreign” to women; they were not a part of the writing tradition and so the pen became a “male tool” (Gilbert & Gubar, 1984, p. 8). Men wrote many texts and soon the majority of the body of literature available was written by men. Gilbert and Gubar (1984, p. 8) emphasise that “if male sexuality is integrally associated with the assertive presence of literary power, female sexuality is associated with the absence of such power”, resulting in the fact that women have very little control over what is published by men.

The texts written by men maintained a certain control over women. These men write about women and consequently, construct an idea of women, which Gilbert and Gubar (2004, p. 814) call “male-defined masks and costumes”. These ideas of women limit

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 55 and constrict them to particular ‘feminine’ characteristics; they “subordinate and imprison women” into behaving and thinking in a particular way (Gilbert & Gubar, 1984, p. 13). Females are often depicted as either angels or monsters within textual examples. Jung (1969) calls these archetypes and defines them as images, patterns and characters which are commonly seen within literature. He identified that within literature there exists many similar patterns that run throughout texts and depict certain characters or situations comparably. Ellefsen (2015) argues that these images and patterns are seen throughout fairy tale literature. Ellefsen (2015) also maintains that because these archetypes are evident in fairy tales, they have a big influence on the reader. Some common archetypes for the female are the beautiful maiden, the motherly figure, the temptress and the ugly, elderly woman or witch (Ellefsen, 2015). Each is depicted in texts according to their own unique characteristics and physical traits. These stereotypical representations of female characters are often said to be defined and determined by the male gaze and patriarchal societal structures and resultant relationships (Zipes, 2000).

Much literature depicts women as the ideal housewife, one who is submissive, beautiful and consoling to her husband. She is termed the “angel in the house” and embodies what is defined by patriarchy as the ‘perfect’ female. Gilbert and Gubar (2004, p. 815) maintain that this character “has no story of her own”, but is there to support others, such as ensuring the house is clean and tidy for her family and rearing the children in a respectable manner, all the while calling no attention to herself. Male writers are supportive of this feminine character who is entirely subjected to the male protagonists and so they depict her as happy and content.

On the other hand, as Gilbert and Gubar (2004, p. 819) state, “every angelically selfless Snow White must be hunted, if not haunted, by a wicked stepmother.” The complete opposite of the beautiful angel, this second woman is aggressive and assertive and is often depicted as ugly (Gilbert and Gubar, 2004, 819). She embodies all things which are the opposite of femininity and breaks the patriarchal mould. Male writers seem to dislike this anti-feminine woman and view her as negative; therefore, they depict her as physically unappealing and deviant. These women hardly ever get what they want and are often left all alone and in despair.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 56 Representations, such as the above, make their way into the identity of the woman and so women begin to picture themselves within this framework. Naturally, women are drawn towards the angelic, female character that is ‘successful’ in getting what she desires and is physically attractive, and are drawn away from the monstrous, unattractive female character, that ultimately ends up sad, alone or destroyed. Therefore, these women behave, think and desire in similar ways to the angel, so that they may meet their own ‘happily ever after’. Gilbert and Gubar (2004, p. 812) maintain that patriarchal messages like these become so embedded in women’s minds, that even some women writers find it difficult to rid themselves and their texts of these representations altogether.

Gilbert and Gubar (2004, p. 812) maintain that women writers need to work towards identifying, surpassing and eliminating the patriarchal representations of women, such as “angel[s] and monster[s]”, that have been constructed for them. This becomes a necessary function of feminist literary theory as, by doing so, the underlying assumption of a given literary work can be analysed. The fairy tale realm can benefit immensely from such analysis, which aims to criticise the patriarchal representations of female characters, as making these representations known will provide women with the ability to rid their own minds of gender inequalities.

Due to its revolutionising views that question the inequalities deeply hidden from society’s understanding and seek to make these inequalities more widely known, Plain and Sellers (2007) state that feminist literary criticism has the ability to change the way that women see themselves, their society and even their world. Therefore, by critically analysing texts, feminists aim to “counter the unquestioning acceptance of ‘man’ and male genius as the norm” (Plain & Sellers, 2007, p. 2), and rather build an acceptance, within all societies, of males and females as equals with no limitations.

2.3 Feminist Literary Criticism in Children’s Literature The importance of analysing texts for hidden patriarchal messages and relationships stretches over to literature designed for children as well. Chambers (1983, p. 30) maintains that “readers are made, not born”, which means that an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour is moulded by what they read. Further than this, Millett (1990, p. 31) points out that men are taught to be dominant over women at a very young age; they begin to be moulded by what they experience, see, hear and

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 57 even read. Aspects of a text, more specifically the fairy tale, can open the mind of the young reader to gendered expectations and limitations. This is especially the case for young readers whose first encounter with texts or stories is, more often than not, a fairy tale and so they are easily influenced by what they may encounter in them (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007, p. 38). Although there is an argument which maintains that fairy tales are only for entertainment, Rowe (1986, p. 210) opposes this, arguing that fairy tales have always been “mechanisms for inculcating roles and behaviours”. Feminists believe that the fact that young readers are very influenced by what they read, means that it is of high importance for each text to send out appropriate messages. For feminists, this ‘correct message’ is one that avoids and rejects the patriarchal messages of the submissive, beautiful woman and the powerful masculine man; it is a message that pursues gender equality and equal character relationships.

Unfortunately, says Rowe (1986, p. 209), many “traditional fairy tales” do not send this desired message and often portray a “romantic”, patriarchal message of a beautiful, powerless maiden who helplessly waits for a strong and handsome hero-prince to rescue her from her despair. Zipes (1986b, p. 11) maintains that this is the reason why feminists need to turn to analysing fairy tales; he states that many fairy tales are so filled with the patriarchal beliefs of male domination and female subordination that these tales are detrimental to a gender-stereotype free society. Therefore, herein lies the problem. Peterson and Lach (1990, pp. 185-187) conducted research that assessed the influence of gender stereotyped fairy tales on young boys and girls and found some extremely interesting outcomes. They determined that reading an excess of gender-stereotyped texts can negatively impact the self-esteem and potential a child sees in themselves. Prior to this, Rowe (1986, p. 211) had challenged the unrealistic expectations that gender stereotyped fairy tales place in the minds of the young reader. She claims that girls often take from fairy tales the realisation that marriage and motherhood is the only way for true happiness, exemplifying the noblest life. These tales feed messages to girls who begin to accept them uncritically and never question male domination over their lives and their bodies.

However, these patriarchal messages are, unfortunately, not overt and obvious, but are hidden and highly subliminal (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007). This makes them difficult to identify, especially for the young, impressionable reader. Feminist literary criticism, therefore, aims to identify those fairy tales that send patriarchal messages and expose

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 58 them and their messages to the public. By making the problems of these patriarchal fairy tales public knowledge, feminist literary critics provide society with the means to fight these messages. As a particular text can send out a message to its readers through its characters, their behaviours, discourse and the relationships they may have, it is important to thoroughly analyse a fairy tale for its stance on patriarchy and gender stereotypes, something that this current research wishes to show.

Kuykendal and Strum (2007, p. 38) comment that the messages portrayed within a particular fairy tale are strongly constructed by the beliefs of the society in which it was constructed. Therefore, if a society is still based on patriarchal thought, its fairy tales will most likely follow the same pattern; however, if the society is dynamic and gender equal, the fairy tales it produces will also portray this gender equality. Ultimately, it is not only the fairy tale that is important, but the society that gave rise to the fairy tale that needs to be analysed and critiqued. Therefore, an analysis of a patriarchal society is closely related to the analysis of a fairy tale itself.

Attempting to change the pre-existing fairy tales by making their patriarchal messages known is one way that writers have begun to tackle the fairy tale problem. However, Kuykendal and Strum (2007, p. 39) state that some writers such as Angela Carter have developed an alternative way to critique patriarchal fairy tales and it involves remaking them altogether. Rooney (2006, p. 73) states that feminism always involves the “rewriting” of cultural norms and explanations, in order to open society’s minds to alternative ways of behaving and thinking. Zipes (2012b, p. 8) highlights this idea further by stating that, in recent years, women have taken to “writ[ing] their own history” and have begun to remake many patriarchal fairy tales that celebrate gender diversity and equality. By doing this, these writers develop new literature for society that questions the status quo and provides a strong basis that society can use to challenge patriarchal attitudes and gender stereotypes. These new tales emphasise characters, relationships and discourse that depict powerful female characters acting outside of the patriarchal ‘norm’. Many have recently taken selected, well-known gender- stereotyped fairy tales and have adapted them. These writers go through the complex task of selecting which elements in the story are necessary to keep and which can be excluded and replaced by gender equal counterparts.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 59 Eagleton (2007) states that for many years the feminist stance on literature has focussed on the importance of critiquing literature. With this, the theory has led to a number of developments in what literature is now published. Using the feminist theories of de Beauvoir, Friedan, Irigaray, Rubin and Butler, and the feminist literary criticism of Gilbert and Gubar, within the paradigm of literary analysis, will lead to a multi-faceted analysis of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale and its many later remakes.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 60 Chapter 3: The Remakes of Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers

3.1 History of the Sleeping Beauty Tale Although many fairy tales are not commonly retold or even remembered today, the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale has its roots in a long history of story developments. This history goes back so far in the past that Hogstad (2011) maintains the first documented Sleeping Beauty fairy tale is called Troylus and Zellandine and appeared in the 1300s. This 1300 version of the classic tale depicts a storyline similar to the one recognised today; it tells the story of a young girl and an upset deity who curses her to sleep; a young prince finds her, rapes her and soon the young girl is a mother (Grimm & Grimm, 2004, p. 233). Clearly, this tale portrays a patriarchal relationship of sexual ownership and submission typical between males and females of that era, as noted by the injustice of the rape and the inability for the young woman to fight for her own position in life. She is controlled by an evil force and, while in that dormant state, a man takes advantage of her. The young woman lacks any autonomy or independence because of the actions of others. Her body is abused by others who decide both her passivity and her parenthood. From the nature of the tale, it is difficult to tell if it is a model for men or a warning to women.

The next classic of this tale, developed in 1636 by Giambatista Basile, was titled Sun, Moon, and Talia. A summary of the story, of a more recently published version of the old tale Basile (1911), describes a story of a king who has a young daughter, Talia. Wise men tell the king that his daughter will soon be in great danger as she will be pricked by a piece of flax. The king fears this and so decrees that no spinning of flax is to be done near his castle. A few years go by and the princess sees an old woman who is spinning and Talia begs to touch the flax, but as soon as she does a piece of flax buries itself into her nail and she drops into a death-like state. The King, her father, orders her body to be placed on a bed in some faraway place so that he can forget the entire ordeal. One day a young King happens upon the princess, and in awe of her beauty, the man has sex with the sleeping Talia and, over time, she bears him two children (Maggi, 2015, p. 19). Years later, one of these children sucks the flax out of her mother’s finger and Talia awakens, confused by the two children with her. The King returns after many years to visit Talia and is shocked to find her awake and with children. After many days, he leaves Talia in the castle with her children, vowing to return and fetch her. While at home, the King cannot stop saying the names of Talia

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 61 and the two children. His step-mother soon becomes very suspicious and when she finds out the truth she sends word that the King wants to see the children. When they arrive, the step-mother orders the cook to kill the children and serve them to the King. The cook, feeling very sorry for the children, does not kill them and sends them to stay with his wife. He then kills two kid goats and serves that to the King and his step- mother. Not feeling satisfied, the step-mother sends word that the King wants to see Talia who comes quickly. When she arrives, the step-mother orders that she be pushed into the fire. Still Talia appears powerless at her fate and only weeps in despair, begging that she be allowed to take off her beautiful dress before being thrown into the fire. However, the King happens to see the ordeal and is angered by his step-mother’s actions, orders that she be thrown into the fire instead. Thanking the cook for his heroic actions of saving his children, the King promotes him and, finally, he marries Talia.

Again, Basile’s version of the classic Sleeping Beauty shows patriarchal themes, characters and relationships between the characters, as seen by the powerful males and subordinate females. From the beginning one can identify areas in which the young, beautiful princess is limited in her life choices and the inability to right the wrongs thrust upon her. Her life is controlled by men; the prophecy of the wise men, her father’s decision to place her in a far-away castle, the young king’s choice to impregnate her, the cook’s actions to save her children and finally the king’s actions to save her life. Talia is ultimately not in control of her destiny and relies completely upon the men around her for guidance and protection. Rodríguez (2002, p. 52) states that men are almost always the ones who take control of or save the helpless maiden from her troubles. Both the cook saving Talia’s children and the King saving Talia herself from a fiery death illustrate this (Basile, 1911). The King’s very choice to leave Talia in the castle with her children – twice – and her inability to question this at all shows the control that he has over her. These themes of male dominance and female submission seem to be paramount in the tales and have had an impact on the Sleeping Beauty re-imaginings.

Today, many recognise Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers as pioneers in the field of the fairy tales (Kuykendal & Strum, 2007). The difference between the previous tales and Perrault’s is that Perrault made changes to the tale structure in a way that would “moralize” the tale (Maggi, 2015, p. 19). This means that Perrault, and, for that

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 62 matter, the Grimm Brothers, used their tales as a way of sharing the popular morals and expectations of their society. Placing a focus on these pioneering Sleeping Beauty tales, this chapter aims to analyse, through the feminist framework, Perrault and Grimms’ tales, identifying the extent to which each portrays patriarchal themes, characters, relationships and dialogue. Further, it seeks to represent the important connection between these texts and their societies. Along with the analysis of each tale, each tale’s gendered position will be compared to the society in which it was written. The impact on the child reader is important to the feminist framework, and so the tale will also be analysed according to the effect it may have on the reader and his or her thoughts, actions and behaviour. As Perrault’s tale was published over a century before the Grimm Brothers, this analysis will look first at Perrault’s and then the Grimms’ version of Sleeping Beauty.

3.2 Charles Perrault’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood (1697)

3.2.1 Synopsis of the Tale Charles Perrault’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Woods, published at the end of the 17th century, first appeared in his The Tales of Mother Goose. The story portrays a King and Queen who longed to have a child, and when finally blessed with a little girl, invite seven fairy godmothers to a celebratory feast (Perrault, 2009, p. 49). Each fairy godmother is given a beautiful gold box and gold cutlery. During dinner, an uninvited elderly fairy that was presumed enchanted or dead enters. She is infuriated that she has not been invited and when the other fairy godmothers proceed to give the princess their gifts of beauty, wit, grace, dance, song and music, the elderly fairy surprises all and curses the princess to die through a prick of her finger on a spindle (Perrault, 2009, p. 50). The last fairy able to bestow her gift alters the wish so that the princess will only fall asleep for one hundred years with the possibility of being awakened by a prince. In hopes of preventing the curse, the King bans all spinning wheels from his kingdom, but his efforts are unsuccessful. When she is fifteen or sixteen, the princess is wandering in the castle and discovers an old lady spinning. The princess is so intrigued by the spinning that she says: “Give it to me, that I may see if I can do so” (Perrault, 2009, p. 51). However, as soon as she touches the spindle, the princess falls into a deep sleep, leaving the poor old woman, who knew nothing about the curse, devastated. The princess is laid to rest on a gold and silver bed, and despite her near

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 63 death-like state is described as “an angel … [who] was so very beautiful” (Perrault, 2009, p. 52).

When hearing of the tragedy, the fairy godmother who softened the curse rushes to the scene with the aid of a dwarf with magical boots. To ensure that the princess will awaken with loved ones still surrounding her, the fairy godmother enchants the entire castle, leaving only the King and Queen awake. The godmother then grows a thick, thorny bush around the castle that blocks the castle from view and prevents others from entering.

Years later, a young, handsome prince asks about the enchanted castle and an old man tells him the story of the beautiful sleeping princess. Determined to find her, he forces his way through the thorny bushes and enters the castle. When he sees the princess, the prince is stunned by her immaculate “divine” beauty (Perrault, 2009, p. 56). He kneels by her side and the curse is broken and she awakens. He is completely enamoured with her and professes his undying love. When the princess speaks, the prince seems to be more intrigued by the beautiful manner in which she speaks, than the words she is actually saying. This becomes clear as Perrault states that the prince was “charmed with these [the princess’s] words, and much more with the manner in which they were spoken” (Perrault, 2009, p. 56). What seems important here is that the princess is eloquent and expresses herself in a feminine manner, as, according to Perrault’s prince, the words the princess speaks do not seem as important as the way they are said. After their meeting, they continue to speak for many hours even though the princess notices the lack of “eloquence” in the prince’s speech (Perrault, 2009, p. 56).

Despite their romance, the prince leaves the princess in the castle and returns home to his father and mother, and avoids telling them of his true love. He sporadically visits the princess, and over the next two years they have two children together. Only once his father dies, does the prince declare his marriage to Sleeping Beauty and she and her children come to stay with him.

The prince, who now has become the King, leaves for battle and Sleeping Beauty is left with his mother who is an ogress. His mother plans to eat each child and then Sleeping Beauty; however, the chef saves the children and later Sleeping Beauty, serving the Queen Mother lamb and deer instead. After a while, the ogress Queen

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 64 Mother realises that Sleeping Beauty and her children are not dead, and prepares a pot full of toads, vipers and serpents to throw Sleeping Beauty and her children into. Luckily for his family, the King arrives in time to save them, and the Ogress Queen Mother is consequently killed when thrown into the seething pot of reptiles. Finally, the story concludes with a very happy family (Perrault, 2009, p. 61-64).

There exists many instances within the tale which lead to a questioning and critiquing of its gender inequality and typical gender constructions. Hennard and De La Rochère (2010, p. 132) maintain that Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty in the Wood “has been rejected by second-wave feminist critics on the grounds of its alleged reinforcement of patriarchal structures and values”. A critical analysis of the fairy tale discusses this concept further.

3.2.2 Feminist Analysis 3.2.2.1 Sleeping Beauty Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty character can be seen to represent female stereotypes and the traditional roles expected from women. These expectations, say Kuykendal and Strum (2007, p. 39), are that a woman must be “weak, submissive, dependent, and self-sacrificing.” It is only through these attributes, and the physical beauty of a woman herself, that she can reach her ultimate destiny. The patriarchal structures within particular fairy tales, such as Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty in the Wood, ensure that those who read them, view these acceptable roles and qualities for women. In this way, their destiny is scripted as involving a happy marriage to a handsome man and including the requisite children to look after. The structure of the tale ensures that readers accept these roles and qualities for women as it guarantees them a ‘happily ever after’.

There are a number of instances in which Sleeping Beauty portrays these required feminine traits and behaviours. When Sleeping Beauty is born, the fairy godmothers all provide her with gifts so that she “might have all the perfections imaginable” (Perrault, 2009, p. 49). The gifts considered necessary for the baby girl to succeed are peaceful temperament, beauty and grace. These gifts are presented as essential for her development into a perfect woman, according to patriarchal requirements (Zipes, 2006, pp. 39-40). Patriarchy constructs social expectations of a female as “caring, nurturing, loving, timid [and] obedient” (Sultana, 2010, p. 10). Therefore, the gifts given

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 65 to Sleeping Beauty when she is born replicate the expectations that the society has of young women. The process of the fairies handing over the gifts to the baby girl mirrors the process of patriarchy placing certain expectations on females. Sleeping Beauty and women within society are then limited by the gifts or expectations bestowed on them; they are forced to act in particularly feminine ways so that they become what the patriarchal society sees as the perfect woman.

Kuykendal and Strum (2007) contend that the fairy tale is a tool used by society to structure the behaviour of its individuals; they maintain that the fairy tale contains many cultural norms and, because these norms are overtly presented within the fairy tale itself, the norms become widely accepted by the reader. Furthermore, Zipes (2006, p. 39-42) maintains that Perrault’s tales were written with the aim to socialise acceptable behaviour. He states that Perrault’s tales all include characters and themes which identify how societal members ought to act, dress and speak. In this way, the act of the fairies providing Sleeping Beauty with ‘feminine’ gifts and the fact that her father and mother accept them without question, reinforce these values as required womanly qualities.

Besides these traits, physical beauty is also necessary as is indicated throughout the tale. This is particularly seen when one looks at her name itself. The princess is provided with no actual name throughout the entire tale; the only terms used to refer to her are ‘Sleeping Beauty’ and ‘princess’. The name Sleeping Beauty emphasises the importance that the princess’s looks play in the tale and it becomes clear that the only part of the princess worth mentioning is her looks. Parsons (2004, p. 137) maintains that “beauty determines a woman’s value” within many fairy tales and Sleeping Beauty is no exception. References to her beauty can be found throughout the tale, Perrault constantly enforces that his princess is beautiful and so the reader is repeatedly reminded of the princess’s great attractiveness. The old woman spinning addresses Sleeping Beauty as “my pretty child”, (Perrault, 2009, p. 51), the elderly man calls her “the most beautiful was ever seen” (Perrault, 2009, p. 54) and when he meets her, the prince is overwhelmed by her beauty calling it “divine”. These all lead up to the ending, which ultimately portrays the princess as a “beautiful wife” (Perrault, 2009, p. 64). Each of these instances has a marked impact on the reader and continues to enforce in the reader the importance of the princess’s physical traits.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 66 The importance of her beauty is seen when the prince begins his journey and again when he finally sees the princess. Firstly, the old man who tells the prince of the princess refers to her as “the most beautiful [woman that] was ever seen” (Perrault, 2009, p. 54). The prince becomes interested in rescuing her because of her looks; they are the reason that he initiates his journey. Parsons (2004, p. 137) argues that Sleeping Beauty’s immense beauty is the trait that allows her to flee from her incapacitated state, as she maintains that “when the heroine is beautiful she needs not do anything to merit being chosen by the prince; she is chosen simply because she is beautiful.” The prince does not once consider any other aspect of the princess herself when he seeks to rescue her, only the fact that that she is the most beautiful.

Second, when the prince finally sees his princess, he is dumbfounded because of her “resplendent beauty” (Perrault, 2009, p. 56). He enjoys her looks so much that he even goes as far as to compare her to something divine. Llewellyn (2015, p. 107) argues that early modern French literature of Perrault’s era included many references to female beauty and there was an understanding that to be beautiful was to be divine. To have beauty was seen as being the best that a women could be and Santayana (1955, p. 11) further states that “we know on excellent authority that beauty is truth, that it is the expression of the ideal, the symbol of divine perfection, and the sensible manifestation of the good.” Therefore, when the princess’s beauty is compared to divinity, the author is comparing her to something perfect and good. Just by being beautiful, it seems that Sleeping Beauty has reached the ultimate goal and expectation of women. However, this is not the first time that the princess has been compared to divinity. Previously, when she is laid to rest, she is compared to an angel. Perrault (2009, p. 52) writes that “one would have taken her for an angel, she was so very beautiful.” Here, again, her beauty is what allows her to be compared to a divine entity. She is considered perfect and good only because she is beautiful. The physical actions or mental capabilities of Sleeping Beauty are not considered necessary for her to become the ultimate woman; she needs only to be beautiful to reach this state.

The final glimpse that the reader gets of Sleeping Beauty is with her husband and children, looking so very “beautiful” (Perrault, 2009, p. 64). This ‘happy’ ending provides the reader with the idea that Sleeping Beauty is completely content with the way that events have played out, although we do not hear from the Sleeping Beauty herself. Dworkin (1974) maintains that there are two types of female fairy tale

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 67 characters: the good and the bad. Sleeping Beauty is an excellent example of a good female character. She is beautiful, submissive, quiet, a caring mother and powerless wife. This ‘good’ feminine character emphasises the reader to want to be ‘good’ just like Sleeping Beauty. Kuykendal and Strum (2007) emphasise the huge impact that a fairy tales have on the socialisation of those who read them. Because Perrault’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood contains constant comparisons of Sleeping Beauty’s beauty to divinity, those who read these tales begin to pick up these ideals as well. Thus, women readers are inclined to physically place immense importance on their looks in order to be like Sleeping Beauty, in the hopes that they too will be met with the same Prince Charming and have the ‘happily ever after’ ending that Sleeping Beauty has.

Readers are often unaware of the ways in which they are being altered by the tales that they are reading and this is the most troubling part. As there are so many references to the princess’s beauty in the tale, Perrault has ensured that a subtle, hidden message is sent to his reader. Through emphasising the importance of her beauty and allowing it to be the main reason that drives the prince to rescue her, Perrault sends a message to his reader that beauty is essential to being noticed and rescued. Beauty, therefore, becomes a large factor in the mind of the female reader who begins to realise that if they want to be noticed and achieve their destiny.

Aside from the constant reference to her beauty as the ultimate goal for the female, Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty also embodies other gendered expectations of women. She is the typical patriarchal female in her actions and passive behaviour. Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty is definitely present, but to a minimal extent – there are many instances where Sleeping Beauty is depicted as a submissive, controlled female (Zipes, 2006, p. 40). She very often does not make her own decisions and depends on the masculine figures around her to determine her future actions. This is first seen when the evil fairy seals her fate. The evil fairy, which does not depict any of the feminine traits of submissiveness, passivity and, therefore, beauty, sets in motion the events of the new-born princess’s life. Although one of the good fairies is able to alter the future events and ensure that it is not completely life threatening, Sleeping Beauty has no control over whether to follow the life set out for her or not. The spell governs her life and she is neither strong nor independent enough to alter it; nor is her mother or father. Hence, this typical female character must depend on the actions of other

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 68 masculine characters to save her. Initially, she depends on her father to rescue her. The king’s actions to save his daughter are to ban all use or storage of spinning wheels throughout the kingdom (Perrault, 2009, p. 51). This is a clear example of how the princess must depend on the help of masculine characters to rescue her.

Unfortunately, the king’s actions do not protect the princess from her destiny. She meets a “good woman” spinning in a room in the castle who “had never heard of the king's proclamation against spindles” (Perrault, 2009, p. 51). Thus she succumbs to the evil fairy’s curse and falls asleep for one hundred years. However, hope is not lost as a prince arrives at the proper time to rescue his princess and so the princess’s dependence moves from her father to her prince. Left asleep in a motionless state, limited by her circumstances and unable to change them, the princess needs someone else to intervene. Enter the prince – a charismatic, masculine character determined to rescue his princess. Once he reaches her, the prince kneels at her side and the princess wakes up ecstatic to finally meet her prince declaring: “"Is it you, my prince? … you have tarried long" (Perrault, 2009, p. 56). This suggests that she has been expecting the prince, that she realised in her many years of dreaming that the only way she can be saved is if a man comes to rescue her. This shows the dependence that the princess has on males; she is unable to move or rescue herself without him.

To depict Sleeping Beauty as a character, who is totally dependent on men sends a particular message to the reader. It tells the reader that the only way for a woman to become successful and developed in her life is if she relies on a man; she cannot do it on her own. As female readers are quick to take on the actions of the beautiful Sleeping Beauty because she achieves her ‘happily ever after’, they also begin to assume that in order to be successful like her, they need to be dependent just like her. Thus, the reader subconsciously accepts that depending on men is necessary and allows men to have the power over their lives.

Not only is the princess dependent on men to save her, but she is also submissive and passive when awake. Evidence of her passivity is seen in the fact that she does not once question the life paths determined for her by others, from the prince’s choice to leave her in the castle, to his decision to leave her with his mother, even knowing her nature. From the spell cast on her to when she is saved at the end by her prince, Sleeping Beauty simply accepts the events in her life, be they good or bad.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 69 Interestingly, although she is limited to what a typical woman is supposed to be, Sleeping Beauty never expresses any unhappiness in her situation. In fact, it is very rare that she expresses anything at all throughout the tale. Zipes (2006) comments on how Perrault constructed his tales using specific discourse, aiming to show his reader the importance of correct and eloquent language and discourse. Cress (2016, p. 2) emphasises that within the many fairy tales, the speech of males and female are very different, stating that “the way [a] female may say things and contribute to conversation and how it is realized in a language may be different than when and how a male does it.” Cress (2016, p. 3) further argues that “discourse is dominated by the male voice and by antagonistic females.” The princess-heroine of the fairy tale has extremely limited language and often has no say at all. She is silenced in the text and given no real moment to voice her own opinions, desires and dreams.

Similarly, Sleeping Beauty is silenced in her feminine role. The first time the reader is exposed to her speech is when she meets the woman spinning. Her first words are “What are you doing, my good woman?... Ha, this is very pretty; How do you do it? Give it to me, that I may see if I can do so" (Perrault, 2009, p. 51). Her speech here is specifically inquisitive and forceful; both characteristics are not accepted within a rigid patriarchal society. Women were expected to be silent and submissive. However, when the princess contradicts patriarchal expectations, she is punished and meets her ultimate doom. It is as if her hundred years of sleep are punishment for her not following the patriarchal norms and expectations. Therefore, not only is the princess silenced in the majority of the tale, but she is reprimanded and punished when she begins to push the boundaries. After her sleeping sentence has been served, it seems as though the Sleeping Beauty has learnt her lesson. Throughout the rest of the tale, she is particularly quiet and her comments are brief.

When she awakens and greets her prince, her discourse and language is more eloquent, even poetic. The princess says what she needs to say so beautifully that the prince becomes charmed by her words, suggesting that it is important for a female to present herself as beautiful, eloquent and poised, and once she has done this, what she actually says is not very important. Zipes (1986b, p. 6) maintains that “females are poor girls or beautiful princesses who will only be rewarded if they demonstrate passivity, obedience, and submissiveness.” Therefore, since she conforms to patriarchal expectations, the prince falls in love with her and soon they are married,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 70 reflecting the notion that as her speech follows what is expected of feminine characters, she is rewarded with her prince.

The wedding between the princess and the prince is the ultimate happy ending for the princess. This wedding, says Zipes (2006, pp. 40-41), is Sleeping Beauty’s prize for following the gender constructs set out for her. As she is beautiful, passive and submissive, she wins the dream of marrying a handsome prince. Zipes (2006, p. 41) maintains that Perrault’s depiction of his female heroine is created to socialise the female reader as it teaches his female reader that “she must be passive until the right man comes along to recognize her virtues and marry her.” Hence, her only hope at a happy life is to accept the patriarchal expectations of her and not to challenge them. Tyson (2015, p. 89) also emphasises this, stating that “the plot [of the tale] thus implies that marriage to the right man is a guarantee of happiness and the proper reward for a right-minded young woman.”

In addition, in Perrault’s tale, Sleeping Beauty is rescued twice by the prince, once when he awakens and marries her, and again when he saves her from his ogress mother. Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz (2003) maintain that the reason she is rescued is because she so patiently went through immense suffering and did not question her situation. Not once is the reader made aware of Sleeping Beauty questioning her subordinate position; she allows her husband to keep their marriage and children a secret and, at his choosing, relocates her to his castle. In these instances, she assumes the typical characteristics of a woman: staying at home, bearing and caring for their children, almost entirely on her own. Again, she shows immense patience and control when her children are apparently eaten by the ogress. Not once is she seen questioning the act and when the steward comes for her, she does not resist (Zipes, 2006, p. 40). In fact, she resigns herself to her fate, crying: “Do it! do it… execute your orders” (Perrault, 2009, p. 62) to the steward as he enters to kill her. However, her acceptance of the situation and the way in which she pleads with the steward to follow his orders, gives the steward the strength to save her. Before this point he seems determined that he cannot complete another deception against the ogress; however, Sleeping Beauty’s appeal motivates him to find the courage and strength to help her. Once again, the reader is shown a woman receiving a reward, the reward of life, for her blind acceptance of her circumstances.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 71 Finally, she is rewarded with the ultimate happy ending when the prince rescues her and her children from certain death and she is able to once again to have her happy family. Thus, the patience she displays in waiting for the evil to pass and to be rescued by her prince affords her the opportunity to be rescued in the end. These events show the female reader the importance of submission and patience. Through Sleeping Beauty’s actions, women are taught that if a woman follows the circumstances set out for her, even if they are horribly unpleasant she will be rewarded with the ultimate happiness, namely her husband and her children. Hence, Lieberman (1986, p. 194) comments that “the child who dreams of being a Cinderella [or any princess for that matter] dreams perforce not only of being chosen and elevated by a prince, but also of being a glamorous sufferer or victim.” Thus, female readers come to realise that their idea of ultimate happiness can only be reached through silently suffering in the midst of turmoil and tragedy.

3.2.2.2 The Ogress Mother Character Contrary to the character of Sleeping Beauty, the Ogress mother is the antithesis of the perfect patriarchal female, even displaying potentially masculine traits. Gilbert and Gubar’s (2004) theory of the fairy tale’s characterisation of women as either an “angel” or “monster” is clearly depicted in the contrast between Sleeping Beauty and the Ogress Mother. Haase (2008, p. 704) further reinforces this point by showing the contrast between humans and ogres, describing them as “bad and good, stupid and clever, ugly and beautiful.” However, not only does the tale represent the characters of Sleeping Beauty and the Ogress as completely different, the tale also seems to be broken-up into two distinct events, each with its own themes and patriarchal viewpoint. Fay (2008, p. 260) accentuates this by asking: “How does a tale of a sleeping princess become that of a hungry ogress?” drawing the polarity between the acceptable and the deviant.

The character of the Ogress is controlling, powerful, forceful and ugly and this makes her an exceedingly undesirable character. For example, Perrault gives his ogress character the most “horrible voice which made everybody tremble” (Perrault, 2009, p. 63). In complete contrast to the princess, the ogress has a harsh, masculine voice which does not speak of the expected femininity or motherhood. Rather, she is the character that no one desires to be around. Dowrkin (1974, p. 35) argues that “grown men are terrified of the wicked witch, internalized in the deepest parts of memory.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 72 Women are no less terrified, for we know that not to be passive, innocent, and helpless is to be actively evil.” Barbra Creed coined the term “vagina dentana”, which, when translated, means vagina with teeth, intimating, as Garland (2008, p. 25) maintains, that this “sums up a male fear of an aggressive female sexuality.” Thus, the men seem to fear the aggressive, powerful woman and, in their fear, hate her. The same could be said of Perrault and his direct portrayal of his masculine woman as an ogress who is a social outcast as she has unlawful appetites and engages in despicable behaviour. Within the tale, Perrault seems to be portraying the masculine female character as someone who is hostile and exceedingly difficult to like. Although it appears that the prince loves his mother, he is nonetheless afraid of her because of her ogre background, as Perrault writes: “It was whispered at the court, that she had ogreish inclinations, and that, whenever she saw little children passing by, she had all the difficulty in the world to refrain from falling upon them” (Perrault, 2009, p. 58). Additionally, his father married her not for love but money, further indicating her undesirability.

Haase (2008) maintains that the looks of an ogre are not always presented within tales and so he or she is usually characterised by his or her wicked acts and hatred of humans. However, it is clear that whenever an ogre’s physical appearance is described, he or she is not beautiful and very often has physical features which make him or her appear hideous and scary. Therefore, this idea is placed into the mind of the reader: ogres are not good folk, they are excessively masculine in appearance and behave cruel, and cannibalistic. Thus, they are to be feared by the average human and must be destroyed at all costs. The negative physical image painted of the ogre, naturally leads one to envision him or her as having horrifying physical features. Hence, the ogre character, as in the case of the ogress mother, is generally rejected by the reader as either a positive role model or hero(ine).

Another occurrence that represents how the ogress mother is rejected by her society is seen when the tale states that “the king would never have married her [the ogress], had it not been for her vast riches” (Perrault, 2009, p. 58). This emphasises the fact that because she is an ogress, she cannot be loved and appreciated like a ‘feminine’ woman can. Here, one can see the contrast between the sleeping princess and the ogress mother. Even comatose and penniless, the beautiful princess is more desirable than the ogress mother whose appeal is only related to her wealth and not her physical

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 73 appearance or qualities. For her qualities, the beautiful, feminine princess receives a loving marriage and happy family, whereas the horrifying ogre is offered a loveless marriage based on the material benefits she can offer.

In every instance, the ogress is depicted in a negative light, most commonly as one who enjoys eating people, especially little children. Clearly, this idea disgusts readers, as Dworkin (1974, p. 48) argues: “she, the evil persona, is a cannibal. Cannibalism is repulsive.” Therefore, as the tale moves into further detail of the ogress wanting to eat the children, and of her enjoying the idea of eating the children, it makes the reader more and more repelled by this horrible, ugly woman.

Although the ogress mother may desire human flesh, there is more at play here; she wants to consume the young, beautiful princess, eradicating her and her offspring from society. Lieberman (1986, p. 188) maintains that fairy tales often encourage some sort of competition between female characters, maintaining that the beautiful maiden often meets other women in her journey through life who interrupt and disrupt her life. Parsons (2004, p. 138) highlights the exceedingly common conflict between the beautiful princess and other women, maintaining that very often older women work to “victimise” the protagonist. A typical fairy tale archetype is, hence, one that involves an older woman who works to make the life of the beautiful, young heroine very difficult. Lieberman (1986) provides many examples from fairy tales such as Cinderella, Snow White and, specific to this analysis, Sleeping Beauty, which include this element of opposition between old and ugly pitted against the young and beautiful. Hence, the ogress mother who seeks to destroy the life of the princess provides an example of this older woman versus younger woman archetype. In this tale, it is taken to the extreme, as the ogress mother not only wants to destroy the princess, but consume her. Cannibalism, says Guest (2001, p. 5), was an act done during mythical times; it was believed that consuming the body of an individual allowed one to take on the qualities of the person being consumed. Therefore, by consuming her, the ogress mother may hope to assume the beauty and youth of the princess. This desire to become young and beautiful furthers the patriarchal notion that women are only valued and loved for their physical attributes and rejected when they become old and ugly.

In the Sleeping Beauty tale the act of consumption is further complicated by the fact that the ogress wants to eat her own flesh and blood, her grandchildren. Fay (2008, p.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 74 270) argues that this is completely contrary to the role of grandmother. One of the patriarchal expectations is for a woman to have babies and carry on the family name; such as, the grandmother is meant to nurture the next generation. However, Perrault depicts an ogress who does the complete opposite; she acts in ways which would destroy the family name and extinguish the hope of future familial generations, and it is this unnatural hunger that results in her death at the end of the tale. Whereas Sleeping Beauty is rewarded for her feminine submission, the ogress is killed for her aggressive, immoral desires. There is an evident connection between her hunger and her death. Frustrated when she cannot consume Sleeping Beauty and her grandchildren, the ogress mother throws herself into a deadly vat and kills herself. Fay (2008, pp. 270-271) maintains that this death symbolises the death of certain negative characteristics, oppositional to patriarchy, represented by the ogress. All that remains is the beautiful, submissive Sleeping Beauty and her magnificently patriarchal family. The ogress’ death restores the normal and acceptable in the tale and allows the happy ending pictured in the final sentences − that of a family coming together to console and support one another. With the death of the ogress, the tale is able to rid itself of all evil. The reader has already been moulded into disliking this character, and so it seems just when the ogress meets her end. Once again, Perrault appears to be promoting masculine ideas by the killing off of the female character who contradicts the expectations of the patriarchal society.

3.2.2.3 Other Female Characters Although the sleeping princess and the evil ogress are the two main female characters present within Perrault’s tale, there exist other females who significantly influence the tale and its development. These characters include the fairy godmothers, both good and evil, who enchant Sleeping Beauty and the elderly woman who spins in the castle.

The first of these characters that the reader encounters is the group of fairy godmothers. These women embody the important female character archetype of the ‘mother’. This character is one who nurtures, supports and helps those around her. Female characters that take on this role are, hence, helpful protectors. Through the many gifts they bestow on the princess, the godmothers become her protectors and seek to ‘better’ the life of the princess (Lieberman, 1986). They do this by providing her with the necessary characteristics and traits, which will allow her to flourish in the patriarchal environment. These seven godmothers set Sleeping Beauty up for a

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 75 successful and flourishing life as a woman, however, this happiness provided by the godmothers does not last long.

Next, the reader is introduced to the evil fairy. The physical traits of this fairy are not explained within the tale. The only comment Perrault makes, which directs the reader to her looks, is that she is “old” (Perrault, 2009, p. 49). This is the same for the woman spinning; Perrault only pauses from the story to mention that she is old. No other emphasis is placed on her looks at all. Hence, one can assume that the most important factor of these women’s physical traits is that they are old, suggesting that they are less attractive and useful. Neikerk (2009, pp. 38-39) maintains that female characters that are not beautiful often become suspicious characters, as they get in the way of the princess and her happy, successful life. Within many fairy tales every beautiful princess needs the contrasting, evil female character to initiate her downfall. Hence, women are most commonly put up against each other within the fairy tale realm and this creates mistrust within the female reader. As she learns from the tales that other women often cannot be trusted nor relied upon, the female reader begins to feel wary about the other women within her own life. Most importantly, it seems as though the fairy tale does a successful job in dividing the female gender by causing doubt to flourish among them. The fairy tale archetype which pits women against women is definitely seen within Sleeping Beauty as it is clear that the many problems faced by the princess are initiated by these two elderly women. As each woman plays an important role in sealing the devastating fate for the beautiful princess, so it can be suggested that the old works, even if unwittingly, to destroy the young.

The first time that the reader is introduced to this archetype is at the very beginning of the tale, as the old, evil fairy places her enchantment on the young, beautiful princess. The event shows the clear contrast between this evil fairy and the other fairies as Perrault comments that the other seven are godmothers. Portraying everything but the motherly instincts of the godmothers, the evil fairy, instead, wants to cause destruction to the lives of others. By placing a curse on the princess, this old fairy seeks to upset the princess’s happy and bright future set out by the godmothers. Luckily, good triumphs over evil and the final fairy is able to alter the spell, saving the princess from her death. However, she is not able to cast away the spell altogether, which means that the princess will still fall asleep once her finger is pricked or, symbolically, her beauty is marred.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 76 So, the evil fairy attempts to take away the happiness and good looks of Sleeping Beauty, which is provided to the princess because she follows patriarchal expectations. The evil fairy is not, however, successful as it is when the princess falls asleep and is laid to rest on a bed of gold and silver that she resembles a true, divine beauty - “an angel” (Perrault, 2009, p. 52). Her exquisite beauty shines even though she is asleep. This means that the elderly woman who acts against patriarchal thought and expectations is overpowered by the patriarchal expectation of beauty, which continues to take hold of the princess, even in her motionless state. Despite her best efforts to counter this beauty and patriarchy, the evil fairy has failed.

Later, the reader is introduced to the elderly woman sitting in a room high up in the tower, spinning. Interestingly, Perrault makes the comment that this woman has no idea of the declaration to rid the kingdom of spindles and has continued to spin, regardless (Perrault, 2009). This seems highly unlikely as it has already been almost sixteen years since the declaration was made; there must be some reasonable explanation as to why she has never heard it before. Moreover, this seems to make a statement about the position of women in Perrault’s seventeenth century France. Women were limited to the domestic sphere; they were expected to stay home to cook, clean and look after their children and husband when he returned from his long day at work. The very fact that she is so blocked off from the rest of the world could be the reason as to why she has not heard of the king’s declaration. The limitations of being a woman have made her ignorant as to what happens around her. Her confined domestic space restricts her understanding of what occurs politically, economically and socially. Although she is a “good woman” (Perrault, 2009, p. 51), she is still the reason behind the princess falling asleep. Again, the reader is shown an event through which the old disrupts the happy life of the young.

3.2.2.4 The Prince Character According to Butler (1988), society places many gendered expectations on men and women. These expectations force individuals to perform their gender in particular ways that align with the society’s understandings of male and female. Specifically, the patriarchal regimen has certain expectations for men, just as it has for women. It expects men to embody masculine behaviours such as being “unemotional, physically strong, independent, active, and aggressive” (Cranny-Francis, Waring, Stavropoulos, Kirkby, 2003, p. 145). In the case of the prince, the hero of Perrault’s tale, he exhibits

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 77 behavioural traits in line with the gendered expectation of men. Kardaun (2010) maintains that the tale’s hero very often portrays many of the important views, qualities and flaws of a particular society. Through performing his gender in masculine and independent ways, the prince becomes the ultimate hero and rescuer in the tale. His adherence to societal expectations allows him to become a greatly celebrated and loved character by the reader. Hence, by analysing the behaviour of the heroic prince character, an understanding of societal expectations, and how they are thrust onto the reader, can be provided.

The reader is not provided with much explanation of the prince within Perrault’s tale. Zipes (2006, p. 42) maintains that Perrault often did not present his heroes as good- looking, and often their physical appearance is left out completely; however “they all have remarkable minds, courage, and deft manners.” The first glimpse the reader gets is only that he is the king’s son and nothing else is said to describe the prince further. A little later Perrault describes him as “young and amorous” (Perrault, 2009, p. 55). However, this too is not an in-depth explanation of the prince; it is very basic and leaves the real interpretation of his physical looks and characteristics to the reader. Steinzeig (2012, p. 9) maintains that this tactic is used by Perrault in order to make the prince character appear more charming, romantic and mysterious. By providing only a brief outline of his looks, readers are able to imagine for themselves what the prince looks like and so the prince becomes a true portrayal of what each reader preconceives her ‘prince charming’ to be. The reader uses the characteristics that he or she deems necessary for a masculine character to have and uses them to construct their idea of the prince’s character. Research conducted by Steinzeig (2012) provides one with an in-depth understanding of the preconceived ideas that both male and female readers have about fairy tale characters’ qualities. When asked to discuss masculine traits they thought were integral components to masculinity and the masculine character, the participants provided this list: “muscles, broad shoulders, hairy chests, tall, handsome” (Steinzeig, 2012, p. 20). These traits provide some of the preconceived ideas present within the mind of the reader as he or she puts together an overall picture of the prince.

In contrast to Sleeping Beauty who is a fuller character, the reader learns little about the prince. Steinzeig (2012) terms this concept “covert detail divergence” and maintains that Perrault uses this process to focus the reader’s attention onto the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 78 beautiful Sleeping Beauty character instead of the prince charming character. Perrault is drawing their attention to the character whose performance and traits will reveal the all-important moral at the end of the tale, which in the case of this fairy tale focuses on feminine patience and waiting for the right partner to come along.

Moore and Gillette (1990) point out the importance of taking the gender stereotypes of both men and women into account. They maintain that just as women are forced to be submissive by patriarchy, so men are forced to be masculine and powerful. The limited roles available to men can be clearly identified through the characters. Within the characterisation of manliness, there seem to be four archetypes which are extremely common; these include the king, lover, magician and warrior (Moore & Gillette, 1990). The king archetype is described as the most powerful, important and masculine male archetype. He is of most importance for many reasons, some of which include his ability to lead his entire kingdom, his maintenance of power and control, and his action to protect his kingdom from all threat. Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty includes a masculine prince, soon-to-be-king character, who also happens to be the hero of the tale. As the king, this character perfectly embodies the king archetype in going off to war in order to protect his people and land. The act of him leaving for war portrays him as a strong, powerful young man who is quite capable of protecting those around him, especially those less capable and weaker than him. His leadership is also evident when he places his mother in charge of his wife and children. The fact that he can instruct an evil ogress shows the level of power he maintains. Additionally, no one questions his decisions, even in charging his ogress mother with the care of his beloved family. Moore and Gillette (1990, p. 37) state that the decisions of princes and heroes are hardly ever questioned. This is especially evident within many original fairy tales, as even though the actions these princes and heroes take often raise many questions within the reader, characters do not question them. The very fact that no one challenges the king’s decisions shows his true supreme authority within and control over the kingdom and his people.

Although the prince’s journey is not discussed in full within the tale, the very fact that he goes on this quest at all is extremely important. His journey to rescue the princess from her dire circumstances shows that many masculine and powerful qualities reside within him. In this way, the prince is presented as a patriarchally constructed character. Firstly, the reader is exposed to the prince’s excessive confidence. When he hears of

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 79 the princess from the old peasant, he quickly decides to rescue her from her hundred year sleep (Perrault, 2009, p. 55). He resolutely believes that he is destined to be the one who saves her. This is a characteristic typical of a patriarchal man living within a society that affords men the freedom to be and do whatever they would like. Men develop confidence in themselves and exhibit an attitude of entitlement (Tracy, 2007, p. 589). In contrast to the princess who has no ability to make decisions and lacks the confidence or social power to stand up for herself, the prince is actively engaged in the events affecting his life and makes his own decisions to propel himself forward. Hence he is autonomous, whereas Sleeping Beauty is dependent on the behaviour and decisions of others to determine what will happen to her.

The prince’s confident, powerful behaviour continues as he reaches the castle. When he enters the bushes, which make way for him to enter, he shows neither nervousness nor fear. Perrault makes an effort to comment on the prince’s continued bravery as the prince makes his way through the bushes by stating that, although the bushes closed in after him, “a young and amorous prince is always valiant” and bravely traverses the bushes (Perrault, 2009, p. 55). Once again Perrault is painting the picture of a masculine prince, one who is brave and does not flinch when faced with danger. Bravery is another characteristic expected of men and so here again the prince embodies the patriarchal man.

The prince’s quest comes to its pinnacle when he sees his princess, and it seems as though she has been waiting for him for all the hundred years. Just as this relationship is the princess’s reward for her ‘feminine’ behaviour, it is also the prince’s reward for his ‘masculine’ behaviour in seeking his princess. As he embodies all that is expected, he is provided with a beautiful, loving princess who will soon provide him with both a son and daughter to continue the family name. What more could a patriarchal man ask for? This quest for his beautiful maiden, however, is not the only place within the novel that the prince is asked to portray his masculinity. Hence, he is rewarded more than once in the tale for his bravery, confidence, and independence.

The final expression of the prince’s masculinity is shown in the closing events of the tale. His mere presence at the scene where his ogress mother attempts to kill both his wife and two children is enough to force the ogress to commit suicide and throw herself into the pit. Once again the prince is able to show his authority, power and masculinity

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 80 through indirectly causing the death of the evil ogress. Scholars have identified that the hero of a tale is, more often than not, put in positions where he needs to overcome evil and rescue his princess. As in the above event, the hero’s ability to act against evil and fight for those weaker than himself, quickly shows his masculine side. Hourihan (1997, p. 3) maintains that the constant battles he is involved in ensure that “he is above all a man of action.” Action is an integral expectation to masculinity and so, through defeating the evil ogress, the prince embodies a perfect patriarchal man.

This ultimate expression of masculinity allows the happy ending to commence. Just as Sleeping Beauty is rewarded for expressing the patriarchal expectations of femininity, so the prince is also rewarded for expressing the patriarchal expectations of masculinity. His reward: love and affection from “his beautiful wife and his pretty children” (Perrault, 2009, p. 64). In this final sentence Perrault emphasises that not only does the patriarchal prince receive a family, but a ‘beautiful’ family. The importance of having a wife, and that she is beautiful, is highlighted by Lieberman (1986, p. 189) who maintains that a marriage is an important and sought after affair for the prince, but only if it is to a pretty wife. Without a good-looking bride, marriage is not at all a happy ending and so it must occur that “the prettiest [woman] is invariably singled out and designated for reward [for the heroic prince]” (Lieberman, 1986, p. 187). The gift of marriage becomes a reward when it includes an unbelievably beautiful wife.

The reader’s behaviour is often moulded by the tales they read and so the characters, their actions and the ways that they are portrayed play an important role in shaping the impact of a tale. Humphrey (2005, p. xvii) concurs, stating that “the moral dilemmas the hero faces engage the child in his or her own process of decision-making and resolution of difficulties.” The masculine, powerful, independent, commanding prince shows the male reader that this is how he ought to behave if he are to receive a happy ending. Readers (both male and female) are taught by the prince character that men need to act as masculine figures if they are to live happy lives and achieve their ultimate goals. Therefore, they alter and structure their behaviours so that they embody the masculine stereotype, in wait for their patriarchally-constructed happy ending.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 81 3.2.2.5 Gender Relationships There are many representations of the patriarchal, gendered relationships between an overpowering masculine figure (the prince, chef and ogre mother) and a submissive feminine figure (Sleeping Beauty). The relationships between the prince and Sleeping Beauty, the chef and Sleeping Beauty and ogress and Sleeping Beauty all include interesting characteristics. Chevalier and Gheerbrant (1994, p. 772) discuss the close connection that is often drawn between the relationships of princes and princesses in tales and those of men and women in reality, stating that “princes and princesses are idealizations of men and women in terms of beauty, love, and heroism.” Hence, the relationship that develops between Sleeping Beauty and the prince is one that the reader begins to idealise, just because it seems so ‘perfect’. Through the presentation of love, beauty and attraction as well as protection, heroism and sacrifice, their relationship seems flawless. However, these are represented in events which provide reason to doubt the true flawlessness of the marriage.

The reader is exposed to many instances which hint at a relationship between Sleeping Beauty and the prince that is saturated with power imbalance and inequality. An example of this can be found in the prince’s actions directly after the marriage takes place. He decides to leave his beautiful bride in her castle while he returns home to his mother and father. In addition, the prince does not share information about his new family with anyone. The princess is left, confined to the castle, and forced to look after their two children on her own. She is, hence, placed in the patriarchally expected role of a mother and care giver as she remains locked away in the castle for two full years. Not only does this provide an example of a woman who is forced to live within the limitations of patriarchy, but it also shows the power imbalance in the relationship between the prince and his princess. It seems that the prince makes all the decisions; he has all the power, and what he says or wants goes. The princess is there only to provide him the domestic support and children he needs in order to continue the family name, she has no other worth or significance. The marriage between the prince and princess is, therefore, not an equal, respectful one, but rather a marriage filled with patriarchal hierarchy and typical gender expectations. Through discussing her view against marriage, Braun (2003, p. 421) emphasises the immense inequality and oppressive nature of the marriage institution, stating that “my current position on marriage is that I am against it. … Politically, I am against it because it has been

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 82 oppressive for women.” The act of the prince leaving his wife to singlehandedly take on the domestic role, shows the extent to which this marriage clearly limits and oppresses the princess.

In these cases, the decisions made by the heroic, determined prince do not take into account the princess. This is shown especially in his decision to leave his wife with his ogress mother. Although he has doubt about initially introducing the two, when it comes to him leaving for war (something which clearly expresses his masculinity), he does not at all worry about the safety of his princess. Even though from the beginning it seems that chaos is soon to occur, the princess does not contradict her husband. Decisions such as these and the fact that the princess clearly does not feel as though she has the authority to question them, emphasises the inequality within the marriage. The individual who holds the majority of the power in the relationship is clearly the prince.

Throughout the tale, the concept of marriage is discussed. The characters receive marriage as a reward for following their patriarchal roles and even the evil ogress is married (although not for love, but money). Marriage and a happy family is what the entire tale heads towards. It provides the ‘happy’ relationship which ends the first section of the tale. Their happiness in their marriage is emphasised again at the end of the tale, when the reader is left with an inspiring picture of a contented family.

This also highlights the French society’s view of marriage, the fact that marriage is depicted as the highest pinnacle of female life, the event that would make them the most successful, and the means whereby women could reach their feminine goal. Zipes (2006) argues that Perrault’s characters represent the relationships and marriages common of men and women throughout seventeenth century France. In this era, the young girls’ choices were greatly limited as men were seen as the ones with all the power and, as a result, women were often being married off to older men. He goes on to discuss the marital relationship and sexual values French society held and maintains that the expression of sexuality was highly repulsed. Ultimately, the French society believed that “a properly groomed child was to learn to fear and find sex disgusting” (Zipes, 2006, p. 50). These societal expectations are incorporated into Perrault’s tale and seem to be a reason why he does not include the rape of the princess, which is evident in earlier versions. The society was repulsed by the idea of

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 83 expressing sexuality and so Perrault makes sure not to include any expression of sexuality within the relationship of his prince and princess. Hence, this makes the relationship between these two characters all the more acceptable.

In his attempt to avoid even intimating sexuality, Perrault goes so far as not including any sexuality, that his prince merely kneels at the princess’s side when he comes to her. He does not give her the obligatory kiss that is included in the version commonly told today. Hogstad (2011, p. 5) points out the significance of the kneeling prince, maintaining that the kneeling is an extremely respectful and aristocratic act. The very fact that he kneels in front of the lady enforces proper etiquette and behaviour that was held as important by the aristocrats of seventeenth century France. This shows the reader that men are expected to be respectful to women, continuing Perrault’s aim of showing the reader that what is expected of good men and women is proper etiquette and respectable gender-related behaviour.

As he portrays the marriage between the prince and princess in a way which agrees with the societal expectations of heterosexual relationships, and places marriage as the most important goal for the hero and heroine in the tale, Perrault reinforces to the reader that their most important goal should also be marriage and finding a significant other (Zipes, 2006, p. 42). So the extreme happiness experienced by the prince and princess becomes the desired destiny of any fairy tale reader, and he or she becomes socialised into believing marriage to be the ultimate goal.

Perrault sums up the lessons taught within his Sleeping Beauty tale by adding a moral at the end. The moral is that in order to receive the all-important marriage to her true love, a woman must wait patiently and submissively for a man to find her. Zipes (2006, p. 40) reinforces this as he states that the moral is a “hymn of praise to patience” in women. Furthermore, he comments on how most women would not be able to wait years on end for a man to come along, but nevertheless admire Sleeping Beauty who was able to do just this. The princess waits one hundred years for her prince and it is her submission, passivity, beauty and purity that afford her the relationship with the handsome prince. He emphasises the importance of waiting for love, instead of recklessly getting into relationships at a young age by stating that “it [love and marriage] grows better by delay” and later repeating this again by stating that “philosophers may prate how much wiser 'tis to wait” (Perrault, 2009, p. 65). In

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 84 essence, he is telling his readers that the longer they wait, the better the true love they receive will be. The moral is in line with late seventeenth century expectations as it reinforces the injunction that young people stay away from getting into sexual relationships with others before they are married. By encouraging patience and obedience, he acts to educate his readers that they should act upon the expectations of their society and he does this by very clearly and repeatedly emphasising the French society’s social expectations.

3.3 The Grimm Brothers’ Briar Rose (1812)

3.3.1. Synopsis of the Tale The tale told by the Grimm Brothers is slightly different from the one told by Perrault, highlighting the change in societal structure and expectations over the almost two century gap. It starts with a depressed king and queen who wish deeply to have a child. While in her bath, the queen is met by a frog who tells her that she will have a child within a year, and, as he foretold, the prophecy comes true (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 31). When she is born, she is so beautiful that the king cannot help but throw a big celebration. However, different from Perrault’s tale, the king knowingly invites twelve out of the thirteen fairies in the kingdom. The fairies begin to give the princess gifts, which include “virtue… beauty… [and] riches”, all the things a young girl could want (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 31). However, before the final fairy can give her wish for the princess, the fairy that was purposefully left out of the celebrations enters and gives the Sleeping Beauty her own gift. She places an enchantment on the princess that she will prick her finger and die when she is only fifteen. Luckily, the final fairy is able to alter the enchantment and makes it so that she will just fall into a deep sleep that would last a hundred years. Wanting to protect his precious princess, the king sends out a command that all distaffs (spindles) should be destroyed and in this way the princess is kept safe for many years.

In her fifteenth year, the princess wanders through the castle and comes across an old woman spinning. The princess insists that she be allowed to try to spin and pricks her finger. This completes the prophecy as the princess, along with the entire castle’s inhabitants including the king and queen fall asleep, including the king and queen (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 33). As the years pass, a thick bush of briar roses grows around the castle, which does not allow anyone to pass. Throughout the years a

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 85 legend is told across the kingdom about the beautiful Briar Rose and so many princes try to enter the bushes. The bushes prevent any princes from entering, catching them in the bushes thorns, and, despite their struggles, they eventually die. One day a prince hears the tale from his grandfather and vows to find the princess. He is not scared even after he hears of the many who have died trying to enter and so he goes to find the princess (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 34). However, as he gets to the bushes, they part, allowing him entry into the castle. As he walks through the castle, it is deathly quiet as all are asleep, but he makes his way to the princess. When he arrives he is so astounded by her beauty that “he could not take his eyes off her” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 35). As the hundred years were over when he kisses the princess and she wakes up, so do all the others in the castle. Straight after she awakens, the prince and Briar Rose are married and the story ends with the typical “they lived happily until they died” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 35).

3.3.2. Feminist Analysis 3.3.2.1 Briar Rose Just as with Perrault’s Sleeping Beauty, the Grimm Brothers’ sleeping princess is often portrayed as a typical patriarchal girl and, later, woman. The first glimpse the reader gets of this character is when she is born to the king and queen. When she is introduced to the reader the Grimm Brothers explain that she is so very beautiful that her father was full of happiness and excitement. Along with this, the gifts from the fairies typically embody the patriarchal society’s expectation of girls and women. The gifts include “virtue… beauty… riches” and many, many more (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 31). As in the Perrault version, the act of the fairies giving the princess gifts of femininity (which she will be expected to live by) can easily be compared to the expectations thrust on all girls and women, in this case by patriarchal, nineteenth century, German society. Kemptner (2009, p. 23) states that “the culture in Germany at the time [was] interested in beauty, virtue and money for their women.” If women had these three, they were desired and highly valued, but only through these traits were they allowed to be princesses. By incorporating the societal expectations of women in their tale, especially placing them on the beautiful heroine, the Grimm Brothers are able to make the expectations highly desired. Just as the princess begins to live by these gifts, the female readers’ minds are moulded into also wanting to live along these lines. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2011, p. 1615) defines the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 86 first gift of virtue as “a quality considered morally good or desirable”; the very fact that its definition includes its desirability means that it is something people within the society want and wish for. It is a popularly desired trait and so the Grimm Brothers use it to mould their Briar Rose, as by using an extremely desired trait, the reader is more likely to accept the princess and identify with her. The trait of beauty is again thrust upon the princess as a ‘gift’ and, so through this, the Grimms reinforce the quality of beauty and physical perfection. As it becomes repeated more and more, the reader too begins to be moulded by it, as they begin to want this physical trait. These ‘gifts’ appear in the first few lines of the tale itself and already place expectations and limitations on the very tiny princess by the end of the first page.

However, it does not stop there and the rest of the tale seems to dedicate itself to portraying the princess in the most feminine ways. Only a few lines later is the reader introduced to the teenage princess and again she is described as having extremely feminine traits. The Grimm Brothers describe her as so “beautiful, modest, kind, and clever” that everyone who knew her loved her. Hence, it is because she is able to portray the feminine expectations so well that everyone likes her. She is liked and loved only because she is able to portray her femininity so well. This, says Neikirk (2009), tells the reader that there exists a strong “correlation between a loveable face and a loveable character” and leaves him or her wondering if she would be as loved if she was not so feminine.

The Briar Rose character is one that has a serious impact on the actions and thoughts of the reader, especially a female reader. So far in the tale, the princess has embodied the expectations of her and so she is loved by those around her. The reader begins to realise that in order to be liked and accepted by the society in which she lives, she needs to live according to the gender expectations set out for her. Hence, their behaviour and thoughts begin to embody the princess’s as they monitor themselves according to her behaviour.

The tale does not disappoint and later the Grimm Brothers again comment on the princess’s physical looks. When the prince hears of the “lovely” princess, the emphasis on her beauty is enough to encourage him to take on the quest. Kemptner (2009, p. 46) maintains that “the Grimm’s’ prince’s motivation to get to the princess was to see the beautiful Little Briar-Rose”, and so he goes to her, not because he heroically wants

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 87 to save her, but only because she is so beautiful and he must see this beauty. With this, the Grimm Brothers seem to be placing the value of the princess on her physical appearance. The highpoint of the quest occurs when the prince finally lays eyes on his beautiful princess. Just as within Perrault’s tale, the princess’s beauty is so spectacular that the prince becomes mesmerised and cannot take his eyes off of her. This is a clear example of how the male gaze, the depiction of society from a masculine, patriarchal point of view, is common within fairy tales. As Vandermassen (2010, p. 69) indicates, the male gaze objectifies women, focusing attention on her physical traits. As the prince only leaves to rescue the princess because of his desire to look at her and fulfil his own need of seeing a beauty, the Grimm’s Briar Rose is limited only to her physical traits. She is important only because she is beautiful and no other traits are considered by the prince when he leaves to find her. Thus, Briar Rose is limited to being very one dimensional − beautiful.

In fact, her very name, Briar Rose, brings up many interesting points when discussing her one-dimensional character. The fact that the princess is provided a name at all shows somewhat of a development by the Grimm Brothers from Perrault’s tale. Whereas Perrault did not even provide his princess with a name, intimating how insignificant her character truly is, Grimm has at least provided her with a name of her own. Briar Rose is the name of a thick bush of roses. Rose, says Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges (2006, p. 235), was a common name used throughout the nineteenth century, often in reference to the Virgin Mary. Interestingly, the Virgin Mary is one particular archetype which is expected of the fairy tale princess. The Virgin Mary archetype is pure, good and caring (Carroll, 1986). Therefore, Briar Rose is to be as beautiful as a rose and is to be as pure as the Virgin Mary. By giving the princess the name Briar Rose, the Grimm Brothers are placing patriarchal expectations of beauty and purity on her. Hence, although she is provided her own name, it does not allow the princess to be her own person or able to make her own decisions.

The Grimm’s princess is not only depicted as beautiful, but she is also extremely passive and submissive. These traits, just as Perrault’s sleeping princess, do not only show themselves when she is asleep, but when she is awake as well. The princess is not allowed to decide on the events in her life for herself. Instead, she is controlled by those people and events external to her, which limit her immensely. This is seen most especially as the princess is under the control of men and masculine figures

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 88 throughout the story. She is initially placed under the rule of her father who aims to protect her from the curse placed upon her. Along with this, the curse from the angered, recluse fairy sets Briar Rose’s future out for her, allowing her to have no say in it at all. Above this, her father seems to be the only one who truly fights against the inevitable curse and creates a ruling which bans spinning throughout the land. His actions keep the princess safe until she turns fifteen and the spell takes hold. Her sleep does not, however, stop her father’s ruling over his daughter as his rule over her only ends when the prince’s rule begins. The princess is left in a motionless state for one hundred years and it is only the prince who is able to rescue her from her devastating circumstances. Without the prince, it seems that Briar Rose would never be able to overcome her comatose state. Hence, she is passed from being the daughter of the king, to the wife of the prince when she awakens and so is never able to live independently of men. Gayle Rubin (2004, p. 777) further explores this phenomenon and discusses its work within so many societies. She maintains that the sex/gender system evident in many societies enforces a domination of men over women and specifically discusses marriage as a system which allows such domination. Therefore, the Grimm Brothers’ construction of the relationships between the princess and the masculine, male figures in her life symbolise that within society women have little independence. This is because they are constantly placed under the rule of one man or another. As the Grimms constructed their tales to educate their readers about proper conduct and morals, it seems that placing the princess under the rule of the men in her life teaches a lesson to the reader that women cannot develop without men; they need men if they are to truly succeed and receive the reward of marriage.

The Grimm’s princess, just as Perrault’s, is provided with both reward and punishment, both of which aim to govern her behaviour. When she acts in perfect feminine form, she is rewarded with happiness and peace; however, when she embodies any masculine traits, or her behaviours seem to push the boundaries of feminine expectations, she is punished severely. The scene which includes the young princess, who finds an elderly woman spinning in a room of the tower, results in a punishment of a hundred years of sleep for the princess. When she meets the woman, the princess speaks for the first time (The Grimm Brothers, 1909). However, when she speaks here, she is inquisitive and forceful, taking the spindle away from the woman and attempting

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 89 to spin herself. Her actions here do not resemble nineteenth century feminine expectations, as Weitz and Kwan (2014) maintain that the nineteenth century was a time when patriarchy and gender stereotypes projected women’s behaviour as submissive and obedient, characteristics marked out for a good wife. Women should not act independently or aggressively, but work quietly in the home, drawing very little attention to themselves. Therefore, through her actions the princess has clearly acted against the societal expectations of a woman and so she is punished for it. She pricks her finger and fulfils the spell cast upon her. She then must spend the next hundred years in a motionless, silent sleep.

The only role she plays while in this state is to be endlessly beautiful. Embodying the expectations of her gender, the princess is rewarded one hundred years later for her behaviour; the handsome prince rescues her from her inactivity. Interestingly, when she awakes, her behaviour is different. When she meets the prince she is elegant and loving. The Grimm Brothers do not allow her to speak at all when she meets the prince and so she remains a silent beauty. Although she has just spent many years asleep, in a motionless state, she does not once moan or comment about her suffering. Again, her significance in the tale is limited to her incredible physical beauty; her suffering and own view points are not important. Smith (2013, p. 106) maintains that “pure, virtuous girls who suffer in silence are rewarded” and in Briar Rose’s case, she is provided with a husband. Even though she is so limited here, it is this behaviour and feminine portrayal which leads to her second reward, namely a marriage to the prince. As she has been able to maintain the patriarchal expectations of her gender, the princess is provided with a patriarchal reward. Marriage and, subsequently, motherhood are held as one of the highest roles a woman can play and so the princess is rewarded with this because she has behaved so very well.

The constant rewards and punishment received by the princess throughout the tale not only socialise the behaviour of the princess, but also that of the female reader. The reader also wants to receive the rewards provided to the princess and avoid the punishments she faces and so they make sure to mould their thoughts and behaviours according to those of the princess. Just as the princess learns not to act in masculine, powerful and controlling ways, the reader learns that as well. They become quiet, submissive to the expectations of the society in which they live, passive and controlled.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 90 They learn not to question their situation and suffer through any difficult situations in order to receive patriarchal rewards.

3.3.2.2 Other Female Characters As the Grimm Brothers eliminated a significant amount of text from previous sections, their tale does not leave much room for characters other than the prince and princess. They have not included the second section of the tale which includes the ogress, in keeping with their societal expectations, and so Perrault’s evil ogress does not make an appearance in the Grimm’s tale. However, the angry fairy and elderly woman spinning do make their appearances. Firstly, the reader is introduced to the fairy who is angered when she is not invited to the celebration of the princess’s birth. She is not invited merely because the king and queen do not have enough golden eating utensils for all thirteen fairies. The fairy is infuriated that she was left out and so she places a spell on the princess, which destines her to die once she pricks her finger on a spindle. In contrast to the passive and submissive princess, this evil fairy openly reacts to the wrong done to her. She becomes angry, aggressive, and hateful, as she actually does something in order to show to those around her that she will not take this wrong silently. Hence, the evil fairy portrays many masculine expectations and does not at all act with feminine behaviour. Her actions have monumental ramifications as she not only alters the happiness that previously ran through the tale, but through her actions she actively questions patriarchal gender expectations. She does not fit into the mould of a feminine woman and so this is her only appearance in the tale. Her punishment for her incorrect behaviour is that she is not allowed back into the tale and the reader soon forgets about her. Her spell is a punishment for the king and queen’s terrible manners in not inviting the thirteenth fairy to the celebrations. Here the Grimm Brothers actualise their goal to socialise their readers as they educate the reader on social etiquette.

The second character worthy of discussion is the elderly woman. Once the princess turns fifteen, she finds an elderly woman spinning in the castle and pricks her finger, falling asleep instantly. It is the appearance and actions of this elderly woman that causes the deep sleep of the princess. Neikirk (2009, p. 39) maintains that, very often, in fairy tales, elderly women interrupt the beautiful heroine’s life and the spinning woman definitely embodies these expectations. Through her negligent actions in

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 91 continuing to spin, although a ruling prohibiting all spinning has been sent out by the king many years before, results in the hundred year sleep for the princess.

As in Perrault’s version, the tale seems to pit women against women, so the Grimm brothers harbour a suspicion of any woman other than the heroine and follow the same archetype of women versus women that Perrault’s tale follows. The Grimm’s Briar Rose definitely experiences this fairy tale archetype, as she meets both the evil fairy and the old woman who change her life by their actions. Hence, the princess needs to overcome the problems these women place within her life, or she will be unable to develop further and be happy. However, as already discussed, patriarchy maintains that she may not actively question or challenge her situation, and so she is left motionless and waiting for her destined prince to rescue her. The handsome, heroic prince seems to be her only hope of living a truly happy and fulfilling life.

3.3.2.3. The Prince Character Neikirk (2009) maintains that Grimm’s heroes are most commonly portrayed as brave and handsome characters and the Prince in their Briar Rose follows this hero- prototype. Where Briar Rose is a typical female character, the prince is “aggressive, handsome, wealthy and powerful” (Peksen, 2012, p. 156) and thus embodies the typical male characteristics and patriarchal expectations.

The prince character is not described much throughout the tale, in fact the only description of his physical looks is that he is “young” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 34). Just as Perrault’s prince character, the minimal description of the prince leaves his physical description up to the imagination of the reader. He or she is able to paint his or her own subconscious picture. What does help, however, is that this character is a prince, which is an extremely heroic and masculine male archetype. As he is characterised within this very masculine role, the reader is moved to perceive him as masculine, powerful and heroic.

In contrast to the princess, the prince’s looks come second to his actions. What matters more than his looks, are the heroic, masculine steps he takes within the tale. The Grimm Brothers add to the masculinity of this character by portraying him as brave and determined. When he hears of the sleeping princess in the castle, he is not at all shaken by the massive quest ahead and states: “I am not afraid, I am determined to go and look upon the lovely Briar Rose” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 34). It seems

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 92 that this bravery is extremely unnatural and this is highlighted as the old man who tells the prince about the princess tries hard to convince him not to go. This older man symbolises older, less powerful and less physically attractive men who are not brave enough to start the journey to see the princess themselves. The contrast between this meek character and the brave prince allows for the reader to see the prince as even more heroic, brave and masculine. The Grimm Brothers use all efforts to allow for the prince’s quest to find Briar Rose to be seen as romantic and inspiring. After all, what more could a helpless princess ask for than a heroic prince to save her from her doomed state? However, it is the driving force behind his determination that is of interest here. He is not interested in saving the sleeping princess from her death-like state, but rather it is her looks which encourage him to seek her. Although it is a heroic act for him to take the journey to find the princess, the reasoning behind his actions make them a little less heroic and romantic.

Like the princess, the prince is also rewarded when he follows the gendered expectations set out for him. He is expected to be handsome, young, strong, powerful and in control of himself and those around him. If he can portray these gendered expectations, the prince will receive all he desires; he will be rewarded greatly and live a happy life. Lieberman (1986, p. 188) enforces this point by stating that within the fairy tale, “boys win if they are bold, active and lucky”; all the prince needs to do is portray these masculine traits. If he does not portray these characteristics, he will not be rewarded, but punished. This discussion has already discussed many of the masculine traits held by the prince; he is young, most probably handsome, brave and heroic. The height of his masculinity is shown when he journeys to find the princess. He overcomes the intimidating thorn bushes around the castle and makes his way around the eerily-quiet castle alone, eventually finding the sleeping Briar Rose. Enchanted by her beauty, he kisses her and she awakens from her prolonged sleep. Here, the prince has embodied all gendered characteristics expected of him by the patriarchal society and so he is rightfully rewarded. His reward is a beautiful, young princess who is his to marry and start a family with. The princess has already been described by the Grimm Brothers as so beautiful, young and feminine that she becomes heavily sought after, not only bynthe prince, but the reader, whether male or female. Therefore, she is the ideal reward for a courageous, masculine prince and the desired reward for the male reader, who sees a beautiful princess as the ultimate prize

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 93 for his masculinity. The reward provided to the prince shows the male reader that he needs to act in ways which are patriarchally expected if he is to receive the reward. Hence, readers are expected to shape their thoughts and behaviour patterns to embody those of the heroic prince; they become masculine in their own lives as they seek the same rewards as the prince.

3.3.2.4. Gender Relationships Just as with Perrault’s prince and princess, the relationship between the Grimm Brother’s couple includes many examples of gender inequality. Interestingly, the Grimm version of Sleeping Beauty is quite short compared to previous versions, having left out any mention of the princess having children and excluding an evil, ogress mother or step mother figure. Tatar (2003, p. 7) states that the Grimm Brothers “did their best to eliminate from the collection through vigilant editing… references to what they coyly called 'certain conditions and relationships. Foremost among those conditions seems to have been pregnancy.” The decision taken by the Grimm Brothers to leave out the second section of the tale entirely symbolises the societal expectations of Germany in the nineteenth century. These expectations, says Zipes (2007, p. 78) included ideas of Christianity, ensuring correct morals were upheld within the society and, lastly, patriarchy, which controlled societal structure and gender expectations were followed.

Although they left out many sexual exchanges and other relationships evident in previous versions of the tale in order to keep in line with the morals and expectations of Germany in the early nineteenth century, there are still many references to sexuality; however, these references are placed within the tales to educate the reader on socially expected behaviours and morals. The first instance of this is seen in the Brother’s choice to include thirteen fairies in the tale. The number thirteen, according to Knight (2004, p. 3), can often be related to the thirteen lunar months which were once used to separate the year. This lunar calendar, years ago, has also been used by women to track their menstruation cycle. However, the lunar year varied in length and so in order to create a fixed yearly length, the year was split into twelve months of specific lengths. Thus, the Grimm Brother’s use of thirteen fairies can be tied to the menstruation of the princess. The curse of the elderly princess can then be compared to the ‘curse’ of menstruation in her future and the beginning of the discussion of sexuality (Knight, 2004, p. 4). Menstruation, the milestone securing a girl’s ability to

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 94 have children, is seen as a taboo topic for the Brothers who felt very uncomfortable around the topic of sexuality. Tartar (1999, p. 367) furthers this by commenting that the Grimm Brothers found the idea of premarital sex and the expressions of sexuality, in general, very troubling and so they included ideas into their tales in order to educate the young readers that premarital sexual activity was not condoned. The actions the king and queen take to protect their little girl of the inevitable ‘curse’ of menstruation is an expression of the Brother’s uncomfortable response to any discussion of sexuality.

Additionally, the Grimm Brothers endeavoured to include a kiss in the scene where the princess awakens and Hogstad (2011, p. 5) maintains that “the Grimm Brothers may have seen Perrault’s prince as passive, for they replaced his kneeling with a kiss on the lips.” The significance of this kiss is that it may hint at the sexual awakening of the princess, as she has spent so many years in a passive, sexually inactive state while awaiting her prince. The kiss seems to be the beginning of the sexual relationship between the prince and his princess. The hundred year sleep places the princess in a state which forces her to wait for the perfect prince to come along; she cannot meet other men and, especially, she cannot be sexually active. This emphasises the social, patriarchal expectation of this time where women were expected to quietly wait for the right man to come along and take them as his wife. Young girls were expected not to actively seek men and definitely not be sexually active with any men until the right one, their prince charming, came along (Tyson, 2015, p. 84-85). In the tale, when the prince comes for the princess and finally kisses her, the journey of their marriage and sexual relationship begins. Now that her prince has come for her, the princess is expected to give herself sexually as a wife, but not before. The Grimm Brothers, hence, very subtly here are educating the young reader of what is expected of them by the society. Girls need to wait quietly and patiently for boys who will heroically rescue them from their passive state. The Brothers’ uncomfortableness with sexuality can be attributed to their society’s expectations that women are to be pure and submissive if they are to be married to a handsome man. Through placing the princess in a sleeping state until the prince comes for her, the Grimm Brothers are able to ensure that their princess stays pure and submissive. This also ensures that the female reader sees the importance of abstinence and purity, if she wants to marry a handsome man.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 95 The significance behind the Grimm Brothers ending their tale with the marriage of the two characters emphasises the reward given to both characters for their patriarchal behaviours. This final scene is a celebration which elicits many happy, excited feelings within the reader who is manipulated into viewing marriage as the penultimate ending for the prince and princess, and his or her own life as well. Finally, the Grimm Brothers conclude with “they lived happily till they died” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 35). This last statement assures the reader that the marriage was perfect and the relationship produced nothing but happiness, stressing even further that marriage is the best reward for good, moral and patriarchal behaviour.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 96 Chapter 4: Remakes over the Years Throughout the years, many writers have endeavoured to remake a number of original fairy tales. Each writer revises a particular fairy tale in a new way, altering it and creating a unique tale from it. These writers take what they know and experience from their society’s constructions and expectations and design tales significant to and representative of their society. Semsar (2014, p. 1) maintains that “fairy tales are reflections of a society’s social norms and offer commentary on gender roles and values.” Therefore, as writers have taken so many fairy tales and reconstructed them over the years, when one looks at these reconstructions on a timeline, societal changes can also be identified.

Zipes (1987, p. 107) maintains that many fairy tale stories have now become myths. A myth is a particular structure of a tale that society knows very well and so it becomes the blueprint as to which other remakes must respond. The myth of a tale is placed within a particular society and set of social beliefs. As tales originated hundreds of years ago, when societies were beset with gender, racial and class inequality, very often they also contained these inequalities. As the years passed, societies developed different ideals and social hierarchies. However, even though today’s society would like to be more understanding and accepting of complete equality, there still exists many class, race and gender discriminations. Nevertheless, these differences in social backgrounds mean that original tales often contain concepts which support different values and constructions of hierarchy and social responsibility than what is believed today. Hence, each fairy tale writer inevitably creates constructions reminiscent of societal views and values so that what Zipes calls the “frozen constellation” of myth is reordered (1987, p. 109). Through these reworked fairy tales, readers engage with and learn dynamic, contemporary ideals.

The fairy tale, Sleeping Beauty, is no different, as throughout the years many writers have re-written and re-created this classic tale. In order to keep a universal standard from which to analyse each tale, Wexelblatt’s ABC structure of the fairy tale is helpful. This structure is an exact example of Zipes’ ‘myth’ concept; the fact that Wexelblatt is able to construct this ABC structure of Sleeping Beauty means that this tale has undergone a mythification. Wexelblatt (2001, p. 94) maintains that the Sleeping Beauty tale commonly known today has a specific ABC structure. “A” represents the princess’s birth, which includes the royal celebration and the curse from the angry

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 97 fairy. “B” includes the king’s declaration to have all the spindles burnt and the spindles banned from the kingdom. “C” is illustrated by the princess pricking her finger and falling into a deep sleep. “D” involves the prince coming for the princess and getting through the briar rose bushes. “E” is shown when he kisses the princess and she wakes from her sleep. Finally “F” involves the prince and princess marrying and living happily ever after. The many Sleeping Beauty remakes take the original version and alter the typical ABC structure of the storyline and characters of this well-known structure, making each tale unique from the other versions, thereby communicating an alternative message to the reader. As readers have come to expect certain events and characters to occur in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale, however, with the remakes, they ponder the changes and their relevance to their contemporary situation.

4.1 Anne Thackeray Ritchie’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood (1890)

4.1.1 Background of Anne Thackeray Ritchie and the Tale When it comes to re-makes of fairy tales, Duggan, Haase and Callow (2016, p. xvi) maintain that “collections of tales by or about women have been especially common.” This means that writers have utilised the remake genre to provide a unique and entrancing approach to the traditional tale. Women who rewrite tales, avers Slotkin (1986), often emphasise and question the common expectations of women. Thus, these writers seek to construct their female characters in vibrant, contemporary ways which are oppositional to traditional female roles. The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood, a remake of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale, written by Anne Thackeray Ritchie is one example of a tale reconstructed by a woman, which subverts traditional gender roles.

Anne Thackeray Ritchie lived from 1837 to 1919, and thus she published her works during the suffragette movement and is now considered as part of the first wave of feminism when campaigners were fighting for women’s rights in education (the right to education equal to men), politics (the right to vote) and marriage (rights to inheritance, property and children). Semsar (2014, p. 2) confirms that these “elements of a first-wave feminist perspective are present” within Ritchie’s writings. Hence, in many texts she is defined as a ‘protofeminist’, as many believe that she “exposed the feminist point of view before it had a name” (Shankman, 1994, p. x).

As her mother was diagnosed with a mental illness when Ritchie was very young, she spent most of her life under the care of her father, William Thackeray, a renowned

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 98 writer himself. Shankman (1994, p. ix) maintains that Ritchie was extremely talented and imaginative at a very young age, so much so that her father once commented that she would become “a man of success”. This comment not only shows her creative side, but also draws attention to the gender prejudice of the time. It was not common for women to succeed outside of the private sector and success was generally equated to men. The mere fact that her father calls her a ‘man of success’ means that becoming a ‘woman of success’ would demean her worth as an author. Although Hill (2012, p. 13) maintains that many new ideas and inventions were evident in the 1800s ‘new world’, patriarchy and clearly identified gender roles were still firmly in place.

Even though aspects of feminism can be identified within her texts, Mourao (2001, p. 57) states that Ritchie did not “openly embrace a feminist identity” as she was “constrained by social pressure to conform.” Within her text, The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood, the desire to express individualism is clearly evident but the gender restrictions limit the possibilities for independence. However, through these “subtly subversive interrogations” Ritchie is able to make comments on gender expectations and, most especially, Victorian marriage proscriptions (Mourao, 2001, pp. 57-58).

Ritchie’s The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood has an interestingly modern take on the fairy tale. With regards to Wexelblatt’s (2001) ABC format, Ritchie includes parts D, E and F in her tale, as the ‘prince’ does come for the ‘sleeping princess’ and after a kiss she ‘wakes up’ and they fall in love. However, her narration of the tale identifies that the awakened Cecilia and Frank, her suitor, exist in a world of gender inequality and patriarchal ideas.

4.1.2 Synopsis of the Tale The tale begins with the narrator explaining to the reader about her discussion with an individual she calls ‘H’ regarding the phenomenon of fairy tales and their continued relevance throughout history. She suggests that fairy tales are much more easily accepted by individuals than realistic stories, as “we are all princes and princesses in disguise, or ogres or wicked dwarfs. All these histories are the histories of human nature” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 5). They move on to discuss the many different Sleeping Beauties of the world, some of which are colourful and beautiful, others of which are grey, but gentle and others of which are described as dark and ugly. The latter type

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 99 reminds the narrator of a young girl named Cecilia, whose existence was so very boring and common that the speaker finds her distasteful (Ritchie, 1890, p. 5).

Cecilia is a young woman who grows up in a very dreary, dull house surrounded only by adults. Her mother (Mrs Lulworth) and the unwed Miss Bowley who cares for her believe that women need to be under strict rule throughout their young lives. They train her to be prim and proper and ensure she avoids the usual childhood games. In addition to this, she is never allowed to leave the garden of their house and is limited to walks around the garden with her care taker constantly at her side. These restrictions are enforced until Cecilia turns twenty-five, ensuring that she is obedient and ignorant of worldly ways.

On one particular evening, Mrs Dormer is shocked to realise that Cecilia Is already twenty-five years old and is determined that Cecilia must marry soon or she will never marry. However, Cecilia expresses her intention to never marry as she says: “I think people are very stupid to marry” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 16). However, this conversation sparks something inside her, as later, Cecilia begins to think about whether her simple life is all that there is. She wonders if she is missing anything by living only inside the walls of her house.

Soon after, the family gets a letter from a family member who wishes to resolve the family conflict. The writer of the letter proposes that his son Frank marry Cecilia to settle the family dispute, and Mrs Dormer agrees. When he arrives, Frank is shocked by how dead and quiet the house and its contents are. He describes everything as dull in colour and all the people as sleeping and inactive. When he meets Mrs Dormer, he moves in for an embrace, but she comments that she is too old for such greetings and that he should instead embrace his cousin, Cecilia. Cecilia walks into the room surprised and shocked to see a handsome young man sitting with her great aunt. When Frank embraces her, Cecilia is so shocked that she gasps, blushes and then begins to cry in absolute horror (Ritchie, 1890, p. 24). Frank then concludes that he should leave the house as Cecilia obviously wishes him to do so. Mrs Dormer is completely upset with “idiot”, “silly” Cecilia and she instructs her to go upstairs to get changed.

When she returns, Cecilia is “blushing and more lovely than ever” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 27). Frank, a perfect gentleman, gives her his hand and asks for her forgiveness. She

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 100 is so completely entranced by him that when she is called by another, she does not respond. It is as if she has been awakened by her prince, who now takes her full attention. The narrator concludes that the couple “lived happily all the rest of their lives” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 28) and had children who were also happy, maintaining that many beautiful Cecilias can be witnessed in society, living happily with their children and husband.

4.1.3 Feminist Analysis 4.1.3.1 Cecilia In contrast to the princesses of the original tales of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, Ritchie’s princess is initially described as “unutterably dull, commonplace, respectable, stinted, ugly, and useless” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 6). Thus, from the very beginning the reader is led to believe that Cecilia’s story is a pathetic one. Before the tale even commences, the reader already feels sorry for poor Cecilia. Not only is Cecilia described in this manner, but so is the home in which she resides and “travellers passing by sometimes asked if the place was uninhabited” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 6). When Frank, the prince of Ritchie’s tale arrives, the cook and butler of the house appear to be sleepwalking as they wander around the house (Ritchie, 1890, p. 21-22).

However, it is not only the house and its workers that are described as listless, Cecilia is also described in this way. She is referred to as “unconscious” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 23) and even her behaviour suggests a comatose state. Since Cecilia’s birth, Miss Bowley has shadowed her, helping her dress and accompanying her on garden walks. Cecilia’s mother conforms to the Victorian notion that children must be heavily controlled through “scoldings, whippings, dark cupboards, and dry bread and water” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 8). This over-protective and domineering, even abusive, way of caring for Cecilia has led to her living a confined senseless existence locked away in the prison that has become her home. Her imprisonment has reduced Cecilia to a woman who at twenty-five is no more than an ignorant, inexperienced child. Dicker (2008) states that women in the 1800s were limited with regards to their education and rights. A Victorian women was supposed to “be a good homemaker”, as she was expected to spend the majority of her life in the home (Dicker, 2008, p. 21). This defines Cecilia who is expected to sit quietly and not comment on the discussions which take place around her; she is to expected listen without complaint to the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 101 instructions given to her by others and be well practiced in tasks common of good homemakers, such as embroidery. Her limited knowledge and lack of education is commented on throughout the conversation between her and the other adults. As Mrs Dormer informs Cecilia about the proposed marriage, she is “amazed at being told anything” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 17). Her silence is chalked up to her inability to understand such adult discussions and information, emphasising the fact that very often she is not informed about what is happening in her life, or the lives of her family members. Her lack of knowledge and social experiences build to a climax when Frank embraces her and Cecilia resorts to tears. Cecilia is so shocked by this embrace which is so different from her physically undemonstrative interaction with others, that she beseeches aid from her mother as would a young child (Ritchie, 1890, p.25-26), evidencing her lack of social skills. Shocked by her daughter’s reaction, her great aunt belittles her, calling her response “nonsense” and referring to Cecilia as an “idiot” with a “silly noodle” for a brain (Ritchie, 1890, p. 25). They blame Cecilia for her innocence and don’t recognise their complicity in creating this naive, simple child, who is neither happy nor unhappy, but simply exists. Her repetitive cycle of day-to-day nothingness means that Cecilia’s life never moves forward and she, like the original Sleeping Beauty, acts as if she is asleep.

In addition to this description of Cecilia are her physical attributes which are an interesting elaboration to those of the traditional princesses. Initially, very little attention is paid to her looks. The first reference to her looks is that she has pink cheeks, Schaus (2006, p. 39), who discusses the ideal beauty within women, maintains that society believed that European women, who have white skin and pink cheeks, are “especially ascribed to beautiful women in art and literature.” Hence, this initial description of Cecilia allows the reader to assume that Cecilia is beautiful. However, not even a page later the narrator describes her as stout, an unfeminine characteristic which is not attractive in a western patriarchal society. This quickly changes the image of a beautiful Cecilia, to a dull woman with an expressionless face. As the story continues, there is not much reference to her looks again, until Francis Lulworth enters the picture. As he meets her, Frank is attracted to her as “such a pretty girl” with a “lovely fresh face” and eyes of a “wax doll” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 24). As the princess’s beauty is mentioned when the young man enters, it is as if his presence allows her to become beautiful, to blossom into a beautiful woman under his male gaze which represents

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 102 women as “objects displayed for visual pleasure” (Sellnow, 2010, p. 99). Thus, under patriarchy, in order to win the desire, love and affection of a handsome man, women must be beautiful and appealing to the eye. The sudden change in her apparent physical appearance once a man has looked at her symbolises the ridiculousness of this expectation of beauty. This is further emphasised when Frank embraces his cousin. It does not matter whether Cecilia is ready for a relationship or not; because she is beautiful she must be embraced and hence taken by a man. This is the same expectation of patriarchal societies: beautiful, young women need to get married and there should be no second option.

Alternatively, Cecilia’s view on marriage is completely different to what patriarchy expects of young women. She does not see why she should marry and references the unhappy marriage of another woman she knows in order to support her views, saying “I think people are very stupid to marry” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 16). This way of thinking is supported within the tale, however, as Mrs Dormer calls Cecilia “wise” for it (Ritchie, 1890, p. 16). A woman not wanting to marry is a modern development and, contrary to earlier patriarchal expectations and Gayle Rubin’s typical sex-gender system of marriage. Marriage was traditionally identified as the end goal for women, as they were expected to bear children for their husbands in order to continue family legacies. Goodsell (1934) maintains that from the 1700s, even though women had more of an influence in the ‘new world’, patriarchal thought still placed them as less significant positions than their husbands and other men. Ritchie’s decision to portray a character who does not agree with marriage makes it clear that she is pushing the boundaries of her society and its expectations of women and, ultimately, following Rubin’s (2004, p. 787), calls for action to question patriarchal sex/gender systems. Unlike Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, who wrote in the same century as her, Ritchie aims her text at challenging the gendered expectations of women.

However, marriage plays a larger role in the tale than this. Interestingly, Mr C Dormer, who writes the letter to Mrs Dormer, suggests that his son and Cecilia marry in order to patch-up the family feud − but these two characters are cousins. Reading this suggestion and realising that Cecilia and Frank do in fact marry at the end, is enough to make the modern, twenty-first century reader cringe. Yet, remarkably, this is a reflection of many marriages from the seventeenth century, until new developments changed gender relationships and marriage laws leading into the twentieth century.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 103 The arranged marriage is also proposed to solve the family’s feud, another reference to marriages during the 1800s, where a marriage was often arranged and “considered an economic partnership between men and women” (Hill, 2012, p. 14). In contrast to Cecilia’s initial resistant view of marriage, this abruptly changes when she meets Frank. Once they embrace she falls in love with him. She gives up her stance against marriage and Cecilia seems to become the typical married women by the end of the tale. She is so blinded by love, that she no longer sees the injustices that she once was in marriage.

Further it appears that she is dressed for marriage as when she enters the room and meets Frank for the first time she is described as if she is wearing wedding clothes with the requisite “veil” and “gown” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 23). By representing Cecilia in this way in her first encounter with Frank, Ritchie is commenting on the patriarchal expectation that a woman must always be ready for a man to walk into her life, so they can marry. Tyson (2015, p. 85) supports this as she states that “the proper patriarchal woman is sexually dormant until ‘awakened’ by the man who claims her”, but, states Lieberman (1986, p. 137), in order to be claimed, a young woman needs to be a ‘good’, patriarchal woman who is ready for marriage. Women are only seen as valuable according to what they can provide a man and this means that they need to always look their best and be on their best behaviour, as a woman never knows when a man may come for her.

This is emphasised even further when Cecilia does not answer her mother and great aunt who call out to her. It seems that she does not hear them because “the princess [is] awake now” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 27) and she is too focused on her prince. Thus, the tale suggests that, although a young woman may not want to marry and may want to act in ways which oppose patriarchal expectations, more often than not she will give in to these expectations and end up living her prescribed gendered life. So the initial attempts to challenge a sex/gender system comes to nothing in the end.

The narrator also comments that once she has met the young man, and they have embraced, Cecilia awakens from her dull life and blossoms. This idea is shown near the end of the tale when her mother attempts to call her over, to get her attention. However, Cecilia is too distracted and invested in Frank that she neither hears nor responds to her mother. Cecilia is no longer required to follow the drab rules of her

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 104 mother, which limit and paralyse her. Instead, she is awakened to the possibilities for love and fulfilment that the young man projects. It is his appearance alone which has the ability to open her eyes to new adventures, and frees her from her dull life and home, her unconscious state of waiting.

Following the tradition set out by the Grimm Brothers, Ritchie provides her heroine with a name, thus handing her an identity which is her own and which makes her an individual. Although this was done before by the Grimms, the name they give their princess, Briar Rose, is still heavily related to the feminine expectations of beauty and purity. However, Ritchie’s ‘Cecilia’ has a very different origin. Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges (2006, p. 50) state that the name Cecilia is a female form of the word Caecilius or Cecil which, when translated into English, means “blind”. This is an interesting term, as it symbolises how very blind and unaware Cecilia is, until she meets Frank. So, it further emphasises her dependence and the extent to which she is blind and useless in her commonplace environment. It also highlights the important role Frank plays in awakening her. This movement away from labelling the heroine, through typical, patriarchal means and towards a label which shows a particular flaw in the princess, symbolises how Ritchie uses her tale to disregard the typical expectations of women. Through this, Ritchie develops a character that is not solely based on her looks and feminine-like behaviours. Rather, her heroine’s name sheds light onto the unrealistic expectation that women are blind, helpless and useless before men enter their lives.

What is important here is that it is her family who initially limits Cecilia’s development and ensures that she is constrained and hence narrow-minded, as Frank’s influence on her life only occurs much later in her life, once Cecilia has already been blindfolded. These female characters of Mrs Lulsworth, Miss Bowley and even Mrs Dormer can be compared to the evil fairies of Perrault and the Grimm’s tales, who work to hinder the happiness and development of the beautiful heroine. This phenomenon shown by Ritchie’s tale, which discusses how women are moulded into being feminine and ‘the prefect women’ through societal expectations and gendered limitations, is further discussed by Simone de Beauvoir. She maintains that all women (and men) are born as blank slates and have the ability behave, think and communicate in a wide variety of ways. However, she says that these blank slates are altered through the ways in which they are moulded by gender-specific societal expectations which limit certain behaviours, thoughts and interactions to men, and others to women. Consequently,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 105 de Beauvoir comments, men and women are not born as masculine or feminine, but acquire their behaviour from societal experiences and expectations (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 330). Even though she is given a name from birth, Cecilia’s social upbringing is what turns her into a patriarchal woman who is submissive, uneducated and docile and ensures that she truly becomes the ‘blind’ woman expected by patriarchy.

Nearing the end of the story the narrator goes so far as to call Cecilia “the princess” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 27); this comment directly compares the newly-beautiful Cecilia to the Sleeping Beauty princess, who is awakened and rescued by a handsome prince. The previous renditions of Sleeping Beauty are able to construct desire in its reader, as he or she is led to want the ‘happy ending’ of a heroic young prince, who rescues his beautiful maiden from tragedy. So, by comparing Cecilia to a princess, Ritchie creates this same desire in her reader and the event of Frank coming in and whisking away Cecilia from her horribly dull life seems as the perfect ‘happy’ ending.

4.1.3.2 Other Female Characters Mrs Lulworth is Cecilia’s mother; however, her actions are not those of the loving and caring motherly figure or benevolent fairy godmother one would expect. Mrs Lulworth’s views on child rearing seem extremely punitive. Philippe Ariès (1960, p. 125), who wrote extensively on how child rearing has developed throughout the years, maintains that in early societies “the idea of childhood did not exist”. This was because children were likened to small adults at a very young age and so they were expected to work and behave as adults would. Hence, any overactive and childish actions received corporal punishment. In addition, the belief that children were born with a natural tendency towards sin led to parents using excessive punishment on their children and Goodsell (1934) maintains that this abuse and discipline was so intense that the child mortality rate was very high. In comparison, Mrs Lulworth’s understanding of children and child rearing was very much like this medieval way of childrearing. When Cecilia is only three years of age, her mother calls Miss Bowley to look after, but more importantly, discipline Cecilia. To perform her duty Miss Bowley keeps a very close eye on her to make sure that Cecilia adheres to her mother’s expectations. As Mrs Lulworth believes that “for grown-up young people the silence, the chillness, the monotony, and sadness of their own fading twilight days is all that is required” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 8), these expectations require that Cecilia be a quiet, obedient home maker.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 106 As Mrs Lulworth maintains that children should be disciplined through reprimanding and beatings, it is likely that Cecilia’s childhood was severe.

Therefore, Mrs Lulworth and Miss Bowley’s raising of Cecilia has led to her dismal and dreary life, and, in turn, this has developed her dull demeanour. Lulworth and Bowley are an example of the common fairy tale trend which portrays elderly women as those who get in the way of the development of younger women (Lieberman, 1989). These two women do just this, as their control over Cecilia is what causes her under- development and initial unconscious state. All in all, it is the actions of these two women which inhibit the social, psychological and behavioural progress of Cecilia. Thus, Mrs Lulworth and Miss Bowley can be compared to the evil fairy, elderly woman spinning and ogress in Perrault’s tale and evil fairy and elderly woman spinning in the Grimm Brother’s tale, as each of these older women act against the development of the young princess.

Mrs Dormer is the other female character in the tale. She is an elderly woman (who allows her family members to stay with her. Semsar (2014, p. 3) maintains that through this character Ritchie introduces a new, more modern female character, one that is independent, powerful and “capable of decision-making”. Traditionally, unmarried women or those who no longer have a husband are often portrayed as useless and pitiful; however, Mourao (2001, p. 57) states that Ritchie aimed to “depict the social position of unmarried women in a positive light” and so Mrs Dormer acts completely opposite to gendered expectations. As she is extremely wealthy and owns a number of properties, Mrs Lulworth, her husband and their daughter (Cecilia) move in with her. Mrs Dormer is respected, as it seems as though she is the head of the household (even though there is a man in the house) and so she has a degree of control over those who reside in her home. This independent character represents the drive of Ritchie’s writing, a move away from the gendered expectations of women to be submissive and powerless with regards to men.

Mrs Dormer is also Cecilia’s godmother. Due to the traditional fairy tale characterisation of the godmother, one would expect Mrs Dormer to be a loving old woman, who exists in the tale just to aid the heroine. Indeed, it does seem that she is loving and a typical caregiver, as when Frank first meets her, he takes note that “she had a kind face” (Ritchie, 1890, p. 23). It is also evident that she has Cecilia’s best

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 107 interest at heart, as she comments that, “for Cecilia’s sake”, they should see more of society and the real world outside the walls of the garden (Ritchie, 1890, p. 14-15). Mrs Dormer brings Cecilia into the adult conversations, which indicates the potential she sees in Cecilia to blossom into a ‘normal’ woman. In addition, she is also the only other character (besides Frank) to truly recognise Cecilia’s beauty; it is as if she sees the potential lost in the young woman. It is this realisation that frustrates the old woman. When Cecilia acts out of the ordinary towards Frank, Mrs Dormer becomes irritated and calls her an “idiot” and “silly”, blaming her behaviour on being locked away in the house her entire life.

Interestingly, Mrs Dormer seems to be the only female concerned with Cecilia being unfit for a husband. She comments on two occasions that Cecilia should already be married and that her behaviour and demeanour would scare any man away – marriage seems the be all and end all of the old lady’s worry for Cecilia. As she is a woman who no longer has a husband, but has made a success of her life, one would assume that Mrs Dormer would be supportive of Cecilia’s decision to not marry, but she is the opposite. This means that even though Mrs Dormer is the most supportive of Cecilia, she is critical of the fact that Cecilia is not ‘marriage material’ and is frustrated that she is not like others who are able to socialise well and understand the common social conventions. Mrs Dormer does, therefore, have hints of typical gendered expectations and these make their way out in her frustrated outbursts.

4.1.3.3 Francis Lulworth (Frank) Although Mr Lulworth (Cecilia’s father) is mentioned a handful of times throughout the text, Frank is the only male character within the tale that has a major role. When introduced to Cecilia, Ritchie (1890) presents him as “a very intelligent young man” (p. 23) and later there is another reference to his traits: “he looked so kind, so amused, so gentle and handsome” (p. 27). The traits discussed here are those of the typical prince charming character. He is expected to be good-looking, warm and clever, with a hint of heroism and bravery, in order to be the ideal man. Frank is all of these things and thus this makes him an easily likable character.

There is an immense contrast shown between Frank and those who live inside Mrs Dormer’s house, including the house itself. As he enters the grounds, he is astonished by how dead and motionless everything is. Entering from the hustle and bustle of the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 108 outside world of reality, Frank is puzzled and bemused by the house and its inhabitants, who are certainly more asleep than anything else. The blinds are down, not much smoke exits from the chimneys, the dog is asleep, the cook looks especially sleepy, the butler and under-butler are no more alive than the cook and the inside of the house is dull, dusty and “ugly” (Ritchie, 1890, pp. 21-22). The extent of his confusion and shock when he enters the grounds emphasises just how different he is to the house, and because of this he becomes the breath of fresh air needed to awaken the sleeping princess.

Although Frank is not a prince and his kiss does not literally awaken the princess, he can still be compared to the princes of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers. His embrace of Cecilia is what figuratively wakes her from her purposeless life. His close ties to patriarchal expectations can be seen in how he is able to change Cecilia’s mind on marriage. It is as if he represents her hidden desires and the social ‘norm’ that all women really want and need is to marry a handsome man and live happily ever after. When faced with this social norm, Cecilia can do nothing to reject it and so she simply embraces it and becomes the woman Frank expects her to be. And yet, she is said to find joy in it, which suggests that this is something she desired all along.

4.1.3.4 Gender Relationships The relationship between Cecilia and Frank is very similar to those in Perrault and the Grimm’s tales. Cecilia is provided very little power and choice within the small glimpse Ritchie shows to her reader. Frank enters the house with the idea (provided by his father) that he is to marry Cecilia in order to solve the family conflict. Thus, he expects that she will soon be his wife. Indeed, Cecilia is given such little choice in the matter, that his presence in the house and his embrace nullifies her previous view on marriage. She completely surrenders to the expectation of marriage and falls into the trap of conforming to this social demand.

The very idea that Cecilia cannot wake herself from her ‘sleep’ and needs Frank’s heroic intervention to rescue her from her mundane life, furthers the discussion of gender roles in the tale. Cecilia is painted as helpless and mindless before Frank enters and this can be compared to the Sleeping Beauties of the original tales who lie in wait for their princes to come. It, thus, illustrates Cecilia’s passivity and inability to work through her problems and survive alone, and suggests that women lack the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 109 ability to manage their own lives, as their only way to happiness is to be with a man -- more specifically, to be married to him.

Ritchie also brings focus to the expectations of marriage through her hero and heroine being cousins. She has already brought much attention to this marriage by representing the change of heart by Cecilia, however, adding incest into the mix is an extreme criticism of marriage in the 1800s. The idea of incest is followed by a number of negative emotions and thoughts, linked to it being illegal in contemporary times. Hence, the reader automatically rejects the notion of this marriage and it is this rejection that Ritchie relies on. By subtly encouraging the reader to reject the marriage between cousins, Ritchie is able to emphasise the ridiculousness of the expectation that all men and women should marry, be it for love or political reasons. This subtle rejection of patriarchal practices indicates not only Ritchie’s view on marriage, but the ridiculousness of gendered expectations within society.

4.2 Angela Carter’s The Lady of the House of Love (1979)

4.2.1 Background of Angela Carter and the Tale Along with Ritchie’s remake of Sleeping Beauty, Angela Carter is another woman writer who uses her feminist flair to reconstruct the iconic fairy tale. Her unique mix of the gothic and fairy tale genres provide a potentially novel approach to describing gender roles, which is helpful to this research on the Sleeping Beauty tale.

Angela Carter wrote her rendition of the Sleeping Beauty tale in 1979, in the midst of second wave feminism. Semsar (2014, p. 3) maintains that throughout the time Carter wrote, feminists were focused on receiving equal opportunities for women and men. These second wave feminists also wanted to gain sexual freedom for women as well as increase their opportunities in the job market. Further, the movement wanted to interrogate and discredit the gender prescribed role of motherhood for women as second wave feminists felt that this task was too demeaning and restrictive. Moreover, Semsar (2014) maintains that Carter’s The Lady of the House of Love falls in line with this wave, as within her tale she provides “commentary on social positioning of women and men’s gender roles” (2014, p. 3). Carter realised that “western culture has shaped limiting concepts of gender and sexuality” (Bristow & Broughton, 1997) and so she uses her tales to present to the reader alternatives to the gender roles enforced on society by patriarchy. Karjalainen (2010, P. 8) adds that Carter creates alternatives

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 110 that “do not simply reify patriarchal versions of ‘woman’ but rather such that question and undermine essentialist views of males and females.” What is important to Carter is that her tales both identify gender oppressions and provide fascinating alternatives to these oppressions.

This tale is, however, written using a gothic style and Harris (2015) comments on these recurring elements in gothic texts: a castle setting containing mystery and suspense, ancient and supernatural characters and events, and a female character that is often in distress and threatened by a more powerful man. The gothic theme is something which seems in complete contrast to the original happily-ever-after fairy tale, hearkening back instead to the earlier original more violent versions. However, Ghoshal (2014) maintains that gothic novels and fairy tales actually have many similarities. Many fairy tales, although containing the typical happy, positive nature of a tale, also include very grim, execrable elements. Through her gothic representation of the fairy tale, Carter is able to tell the passionate story of an imprisoned woman vampire and a heroic soldier.

As a version which is completely different to Perrault and the Grimm’s stories, Carter’s The Lady of the House of Love does not follow the ABC format set out by Wexelblatt. There are, however, a few similarities, as the princess does prick her finger (aligning to step C in the well-known tale) and there is a wall of rose bushes which surround the castle that maintain a barrier between the castle and the outside world. Other than this, however, Carter’s tale differs immensely. There is no real kiss between the prince and princess and definitely no ‘happily ever after’. Carter has taken a new stance on the traditional tale in order to challenge gender roles and question social structures.

4.2.2 Synopsis of the Tale The story begins by introducing a young vampiress who is queen of her people. She is absolutely beautiful and radiates perfection in her physical traits. Due to her vampirism, she is locked inside a castle, away from the light. Referred to as ‘the countess’, this vampiress wears an oversized wedding dress and sits at a table all day dealing out tarot cards (Carter, 1975). Above all, the countess wishes to be human and free herself of her vampiric tendencies, and rejects being locked in the darkness of the castle. She appears to seek freedom from these constraints, as is illustrated in the songbird she keeps locked in a cage in her room. The countess wonders to herself

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 111 “can a bird sing only the song it knows, or can it learn a new song?” (Carter, 1975, p. 135), suggesting she also wants to sing a new song with her own life.

On moonless nights, her keeper (a mute crone), allows her into the garden to go hunting for dinner, at which time her animal instincts emerge and she becomes a predator, howling and ravenous for blood. To protect outsiders from her bloodlust, the garden is separated from the rest of the world by a large, overgrown rose bush which encircles the castle. However, the countess is no longer satisfied with animals and she decides to prey upon men, and finds to her disgust and delight various shepherds and gypsies who wander by her castle (Carter, 1975, p. 137-138). After feasting on these visitors for a time, she finds a young British army officer has found his way to her courtyard. Through her habitual game of fortune telling, the countess, to her surprise, plucks not the Grim Reaper card, but the lovers card and anxiously wonders what this sign portends. Yet, the morbid nursery rhyme “be he alive or be he dead; I’ll grind his bones to make my bread” (Carter, 1975, p. 139) plays in her mind, which suggests she is still considering draining his life blood. This is in stark contrast to the original Sleeping Beauty who is revived by her hero awakening her with his restorative kiss, with the ogre attempting to kill the innocent lad from Jack and the Beanstalk, leaving the reader uncertain as to the outcome of this auspicious meeting.

However, when the officer meets the countess, he is shocked. She appears child-like, fragile, almost skeletal in her thinness, except for her mouth which is “morbid” (Carter, 1975, p. 142). He is ignorant of where he is and whom he is meeting, which means that his shock is not because he is scared of the countess and her desire to consume him, but rather due to his pity over her death-like appearance. The officer describes her as “a ghost in a machine”, and comments on how she seems to have no control over herself. There, in fact, are many portraits of male ancestors who seem to be watching the countess and her visitors (Carter, 1975, p. 142). As the evening continues, the countess’ hunger increases and soon she begins to imagine the crone burying the officer’s left-over bones under the rose bush (Carter, 1975, p. 146). When the couple move into the bedroom, and the countess prepares for their consummation, she attempts to take off her wedding dress, but realises that she needs to take off her darkened glasses as well; however, as she does, they fall and break. When she picks them up, she cuts her finger on the broken glass and her blood begins to flow. Shocked

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 112 by the sight of her own blood, something she has never seen before, the countess sits in awe, staring. In sympathy, the officer takes her hand and tries to kiss her wound.

The tale jumps to the following morning as the officer awakens to find that the countess has gone (Carter, 1975). All the shutters are open and light fills the room. He looks for her, all the while hoping to take her to Zurich and cure her many afflictions. He finds her dead near her tarot cards, and, at the crone’s instruction, soon flees the castle. Back at his army quarters, the officer finds a rose in his pocket and, remembering the countess, he places the rose in water to give it life. Before long the wilted rose has revived and opened into a beautiful flower, emitting a “reeling odour” (Carter, 1975, p. 148). Finally, the tale ends as the officer is deployed to France where more death awaits him.

4.2.3 Feminist Analysis 4.2.3.1 The Countess The reader is first introduced to the countess within the first few lines of the story and Carter refers to her as “beautiful” (Carter, 1975, p. 135), while later an explanation of her true beauty is provided. She is perfect with regards to her physical beauty, so beautiful that it is unnatural. This resembles Perrault and the Grimm’s Sleeping Beauty, who is described as an ethereal beauty beyond comparison. In the same way, the countess is initially depicted only in terms of her physical appearance. Karjalainen (2010, p. 13) maintains that the fact that Carter uses this typical, patriarchal description of her female protagonist shows that she is ridiculing the patriarchal expectations of women. Just as the countess appears to be significant only for her looks and not her character, so patriarchal society expects women to have no personality beyond their expected beauty. By duplicating this trait, Carter shows just how ridiculous these expectations are, for, in the case of the countess, she has lost her humanity to her vampiric characteristics and now lacks a soul. By creating such a soulless character, Carter shows how it is not possible for a woman to only be her physical traits and nothing more, as one cannot be reduced to physical beauty. Even if such a woman did exist, who was to be limited by physical traits, she would not be human.

In a clever twist, as the tale continues, Carter creates, not a flawless beauty, but a monsterous vampire who “possesses all the haunted forests and mysterious habitations of his vast domain; she is the hereditary commandant of the army of

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 113 shadows” (Carter, 1975, p. 136). This explanation indicates that she rules over other dark forces of the region. Because she is a vampire, the countess has power over the humans around her and this power comes from her having to feed off humans for survival. The text maintains that her vampire instincts compel her to drink the blood of men and, in reversal of previous tales, it is her lust for human blood that drives her (Carter, 1975, p. 137). In order to have the men she needs, the countess uses her beauty and physical attractiveness to seduce the men who meet her. In contrast to traditional fairy tale gender relationships, Carter’s countess is the powerful character while the men are powerless to resist her. Thus, the beauty of the countess goes hand- in-hand with her being the ideal femme-fatale character. As she is beautiful, she is able to seduce the men she meets and this leads to their ultimate demise. She sees the “shepherd boys and gypsy lads” who make their way (with the help of the crone) into the castle and to her chamber, as food (Carter, 1975, p. 137-138). Emphasising even further her monsterous, ravenous character, the countess is caught saying “fee- fi-fo-fum I smell the blood of an Englishman” (Carter, 1975, p. 138), a phrase closely related to fairy tale ogres who seek to consume humans for dinner. Rodríguez-Salas (2008, p. 121) maintains that Carter portrays her character as a femme-fatal because it is a “role tailored for women”. Society has placed the femme-fatale negatively and so it is generally an undesirable role for women to model. However, with the countess, Carter is able to show how this role is significant for women as it allows them to challenge patriarchal expectations. Thus, the countess is not the innocent, helpless heroine, as portrayed in previous tales, but a strong decisive character, which affords Carter’s countess a more masculine role in which she has the power and control over men.

Therefore, the countess resembles a beautiful princess and an aggressive, masculine, man-eating monster. This binary is emphasised even further by the Countess in Angela Carter’s Vampirella, a play version of Carter’s The Lady of the House of Love. “I am both beauty and the beast, locked up in the fleshly castle of exile and anguish, I cannot help but seek to assuage in you my melancholy” (Carter, 1996, p. 15). Interestingly, the countess is not happy with who she is. In much of the story, she emphasises her disgust at the situation she is in and expresses her desire to be something else. This theme is introduced at the beginning of the tale, when she questions if her songbird can learn a new song (Carter, 1975, p. 135), which subtly

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 114 intimates the countess’s desire to change her nature and impulses and become something new and different to what her male ancestors have pre-determined. This is emphasised again as Carter states that “the Countess herself is indifferent to her own weird authority, as if she were dreaming it. In her dream, she would like to be human; but she does not know if that is possible” (Carter, 1975, p. 138). However, her monstrous side always overpowers her will to be human and so when she does give in and drinks the blood of the animals or men she finds, she becomes disgusted and even “nauseated’ by her actions” (Carter, 1975, p. 137). Not only does she actively express her dissatisfaction with being a vampire, but her appearance reflects this sorrow as her hair is said to fall like tears. Furthermore, when the officer first looks upon her, he comments that her “lost look” almost brings him to tears as well (Carter, 1975, p. 142). Her enforced vampiric nature compels her to seduce and consume men, a behaviour which denies her humanity and reinforces her tragic state. Carter’s representation of a vampire who does not want to be limited and is frustrated with the role she has been placed in, goes along with Betty Friedan’s (1963, p. 66) discussion of the feminine mystique. This mystique involves the misleading phenomenon of social structures which paint women as undoubtedly comfortable in their gendered roles. As the countess is intensely unhappy and expresses this in every way possible, Carter is able to bring to the attention of her reader that women are not simply happy and accepting of their patriarchal limitations. Thus, Carter creates a new female narrative and argues that it is important to question gendered limitations and expectations.

Karjalainen (2010, p. 13) states that Carter saw patriarchy as a concept which sees women as being women first and humans second. This means that women are not initially seen as being humans with characteristics, personalities and feelings, but rather they are limited to being women, and hence different and less than men. To reinforce the countess’ inhumanity, she is often compared to animals. Initially, she is described as cat-like, with the “gestures of a cat” (Carter, 1975, p. 137). Additionally, she often refers to her caged bird and constantly wonders whether it can change its tune, that is whether it can be set free. This comparison to a small, helpless bird furthers her non-human state. However, the metaphor also illustrates her desire to be recognised as human, a yearning reminiscent of the feminist notion of women seeking to be recognised as equal to men. Simone de Beauvoir maintains that “man is defined as a human being and woman as a female—whenever she behaves as a human being

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 115 she is said to imitate the male” (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 85). De Beauvoir emphasises here the same problem questioned by Carter, the fact that women are not seen as humans who are the same as men. Rather, they are represented as ‘women’ and the ‘other’ to man, who is human. What de Beauvoir emphasises then, is that women wish to be seen as human, which signifies that ‘man’ will no longer represent the entire human race and the “absolute human type” (de Beauvoir, 2011, p. 25) and ‘women’ only the negative of this humanity. Women will be one step closer to equality. By creating a non-human countess who wishes to be human, Carter is able to represent this feminist notion and portrays to her women readers the desire to be seen as human, and, therefore, significant.

Additionally, when the officer arrives, he is shocked by the countess’s ghastly looks. He does not see her as beautiful, as she is represented in the beginning of the tale. He describes her as death-like, a “girl with the fragility of the skeleton of a moth” (Carter, 1975, p. 141), and her appearance is ghastly and something that the officer wishes to heal her from. Her physical appearance does not agree with his ideas of beauty and perfection. In the tale, Carter maintains that the countess’ “beauty is a symptom of her disorder, or her soullessness” (Carter, 1975, p. 136) and is thus a symbol of her masculine and powerful qualities. The officer’s determination to cure her through the use of westernised practices (doctors and beauticians) symbolises the patriarchal aspiration to alter women to suit male expectations. The significance of the male gaze is, thus, indicated here, as the countess’s looks are only worth something, if males are attracted to her.

Although much attention is given to the physical traits of the countess, little reference is given to a name. Many writers believe that the line “the white hands of the tenebrous belle deal the hand of destiny” (Carter, 1975, p. 136) is a hint at a name for the countess − Belle. Likewise, many refer to her as Belle. However, it seems that Carter does not name the countess, leaving her as a character without any individuality nor identity, representing the more universal state of women. Thus, the countess is only a function; she is only important to the text through what she is, namely a powerful woman defined by patriarchal expectations and limitations. Along with her portrayal as a mere function, by not providing her with an individual identity, the countess’s experiences can more easily be understood and internalised by the reader. Through this, the female reader is able to identify situations in her own life in which she appears

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 116 nameless, which allows the reader to question this signification and change the way she is affected by them, thus enabling her to resist patriarchal controls.

Besides the ironic beauty of the countess, there are other events within the story which Carter has used to critique patriarchal expectations. These are: her enforced castle imprisonment and her choice of attire, a wedding dress. Rodríguez-Salas (2008, p. 123) explains how Carter uses the patriarchal expectations of women in her stories in order to critique them, stating that “Carter plays with traditional associations with femininity to prove how harmful they might be for women”. Firstly, the countess is limited to the castle. Although she is allowed out in the evenings to prey on animals, for the most part, she is forced to remain indoors. Her vampirism, the very part of her which gives her unnatural beauty and immortality, also limits her movements. Her being confined to the castle is similar to the princess, constructed by Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, who is trapped asleep in the castle for decades, awaiting her rescuing prince. In the same way, the countess’s imprisonment symbolises the patriarchal limitations which assign women to restrictive gender roles and limit them to the home.

Along with being confined to the castle for most of her life, the countess also seems to have been waiting for the soldier to come for her. Stuck in a motionless state, just like the patriarchal Sleeping Beauty, Carter paints a picture of a helpless woman who has to depend on a man to find her and bring her back to life. Therefore, she is expected to wait for his arrival. This is reinforced within the tale as the countess exclaims to the soldier that she has been waiting for him, stating: “See, how I'm ready for you, I've always been ready for you; I've been waiting for you in my wedding dress, why have you delayed so long” (Carter, 1975, p. 144). The countess is unable to function socially outside of the castle and has been stuck in this same confined space for many years. By portraying the countess in this light, Carter is able to emphasise the ridiculousness of the patriarchal expectation that women are to stay within the confines of their home awaiting the opportunity to become the perfect wives. The patriarchal expectation which Carter uses to limit the countess ensures that she spends the majority of her life desiring a change, but she is only able to change at the end of the tale, after years of suffering in her current state. Her immobile state suggests to the reader the terrible outcomes which women who blindly follow patriarchal expectations have to contend with.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 117 Secondly, the countess is not only confined to the castle, but she is confined to a wedding dress as well. Destined to wait many years indoors, as a consequence of her non-human state, the countess is forced to wear a wedding dress to entertain her prospective suitors. When the soldier meets the countess, interestingly, it is the dress that he sees first, before he really sees her (Carter, 1975, p. 141). The dress’s size and faded design is a tragic representation of her long wait to remove her unmarried state. As the soldier sees the wedding dress first, it seems that he is more intrigued by the marriageability of the countess rather than the person she is. The fact that she wears the wedding dress comments on the patriarchal view that marriage is the ultimate and only goal for women. By placing her in an out-dated wedding dress, Carter emphasises how outdated these patriarchal notions are.

In addition, the officer is struck by how young the countess is. Carter maintains that “he saw how beautiful and how very young the scarecrow inside the amazing dress was, and he thought of a child dressing up in her mother’s clothes” (Carter, 1975, p. 141). This creates the image within the reader’s mind of a very young child in a wedding dress, and the two do not fit together. The reader understands that children do not belong in wedding dresses; this should be attire worn only by adults. However, the dress is a symbol of marriage and thus speaks to the patriarchal expectation for women to be ready for marriage. So by painting this absurd picture of a young child dressed in wedding attire along with white negligée, (of a girl so young but ready for marriage) Carter is able to ridicule the patriarchal expectation which forces women (no matter how young) to marry or at least to eagerly anticipate the event. Rodríguez- Salas (2008, p. 124) maintains that the dress which is “the only dress she has, her mother’s wedding dress”, has been passed down from generation to generation. He maintains that Carter is narratively illustrating how women prepare themselves for marriage even as young children. However, Carter’s story challenges this expectation, by illustrating it as ridiculous and absurd.

Palmer (1997, p. 31) maintains that Carter uses two female character representations of women in her tales, and the first of these is the representation of “femininity as entrapment” and this female character is one that is passive and controlled by external authority. She is a “puppet” and has very little power over her own choices. The second female representation, Palmer (1997, p. 31) calls “femininity as self-invention and role mobilization” and this character is a lot more independent and self-motivated. She is

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 118 able to make her own decisions and strives to be independent. A connection between these two female representations is often found as Carter commonly allows her characters to transform. This transformation, says Olson (2010 p. 29), “echoes Carter’s ideas of how women should see themselves.” As she provides many examples in her texts of females who are able to transform from passive to independently powerful characters, Carter suggests to her reader that these transformations are possible and should be the ultimate goal of any women.

The countess certainly does resemble the puppet metaphor, as she is portrayed as a passive character. It seems that she has very little substance herself and is even compared to a “cave full of echoes” (Carter, 1975, p. 135), which truly emphasises her emptiness. When he meets her, the officer is struck by the poor, helpless, young girl he sees before him. He compares the countess to a “machine”, “scarecrow” and “ventriloquist’s doll” because to him she seems like something that is souless, a mere shadow of a person who has no control over her behaviour. The tale would suggest that the countess is controlled by the men in her life. Although her mother is mentioned briefly, Karjalainen (2010, p. 15) maintains that her father (Nosferatu) and Vlad, the impaler, seem to be more influential ancestors. The countess is controlled by the vampirism she has inhereted from these male family members and it seems that they haunt the walls of the castle thereby ensuring that the countess follows in their monsterous footsteps. The countess is required by these men to stay within the confines of the castle, not only by the vampirism she inherited from them, but their ghostly supervision of her. By portraying her as powerless to the vampire urges inherited from her male ancestors, Carter shows how patriarchal control can destroy a woman’s life. In this way, Carter illustrates that male dominance does not ensure happily-ever-after, as the earlier fairy tales suggest. Rather, it results in women leading unfilling lives of unhappiness and despair.

Throughout the tale, love or a romantic relationship continues to come up as a solution for the countess’s depression and confinement. She looks to her tarot cards to tell her the future and longs to see something other than the Grim Reaper whom she always turns up as she is preparing to entertain (Carter, 1975, p. 136). The countess begins to believe that her future is unchangeable and that she will soon meet her fate. She wishes that the card of the lovers, the card which symbolises love and romantic relationships, would come up in her cards and change her fate. Her seeking this lovers’

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 119 card builds up to the moment in which she finally does see it and when the long awaited card finally appears “she shakes, she trembles” (Carter, 1975, p. 139). She becomes very excited. The card symbolises that love may be the solution for the countess’s fate and so the reader believes this to be true. Ultimately, it is when the officer arrives at the castle that romance blossoms. Bonnici (1997, p. 14) identifies many romantic instances which occur in the tale once the officer arrives, such as “reference to the kiss of Sleeping Beauty, the unique turning up of the card called Les Amoureux, a different nervousness, a seductively caressing voice, the candle-lit room where coffee is served, her lace négligé, her boudoir, her touch and smile.” Furthermore, when the officer says that “he would like to take her into his arms and protect her from the ancestors who leer down from the walls” (Carter, 1975, p. 146), it seems as though romance is thriving, the love which should set the countess free. Carter leads her readers to believe that love is the answer and so the reader begins to accept that just like the other Sleeping Beauty tales, this one too will end with love and happiness. However, this is not the case. As Bonnici (1997, p. 14) argues that this romance is “threatened” by the patriarchal figures whose portraits watch over her in the castle and her vampirism (represented by her monstrous comment of “fee-fi-fo- fum”) which was provided to her by these patriarchal figures and unleashes her vampiric urges. These patriarchal elements lead to the end of the tale which is a contrast to the romance when the officer and countess meet.

As the countess and officer prepare for the consummation, the countess realises that to take off her dress, she must first take off the glasses she wears. These glasses have always kept her in the dark, but now she must expose herself. When they break and she pricks her finger (just as the traditional Sleeing Beauty characters do), the countess is not put to sleep for one hundred years. Rather, when she pricks her finger, she bleeds (Carter, 1975, p. 146). Mesmerised by the sight of her own blood, for the first time she sees that it is possible to reject the expectations of her. Although there is no reference to what the countess does with her own bleeding finger, it can be assumed that she drinks the blood herself. So filled with the desire to suck the blood of the officer, when she sees her own blood the countess is mesmerised. It is possible that she decides to feast upon herself and, in turn, is able to reject the officer’s blood and so he is set free. Therefore, by pricking her finger and drinking the blood, the countess is awakened from her stagnant, motionless ‘sleep’ as a vampire who is

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 120 confined to her coffin all day and forced to survive through drinking the blood of others. The vampire within her, which compels her to the confinement and drinking of blood, forces her to act in ways she does not agree with. Hence, her actions of turning away from the officer’s blood and, instead, indulging in herself, allows her to finally act independently of the expectations of the vampire men in her family, the men who gave her the vampirism and stare down at her from the walls, ensuring she does what is expected of her.

This contradicts traditional story lines which enforce that when she pricks her finger, the princess falls asleep. Carter’s countess, however, is not put to sleep, rather she is awakened and set free by it. Rodríguez-Salas (2008, p. 125) maintains that she learns she can take off the “oppressive wedding dress”. Taking off the dress is a symbol of the countess realising she can be her own person and no longer needs to confine herself to the limitations set for her. Hence, she transforms and begins to embody the second female character Palmer (1997, p. 31) describes. She becomes a new woman: independent, powerful and in control of her own life. The countess takes this new knowledge and is set free of her cursed earthly role, leaving behind the lark that is no longer locked away in a cage (Carter, 1975, p. 147). For Carter, this free lark is a symbol that the countess is no longer bound by oppressive, patriarchal expectations. Just as the lark is freed from its cage and is able to spread its wings, so the countess is freed as she is able to finally experience humanity − even if that means death. The countess also leaves a single rose when she dies: “the dark, fanged rose I plucked from between my thighs, like a flower laid on a grave”. Bonnici (1997, p. 14) emphasises that the symbol of a black rose represents “loneliness and isolation” and maintains that the countess alone is able to stand up against her vampire ancestors and animalistic drives. As vampirism represents the patriarchal expectations and limitations of women, the countess’s successful overcoming of her vampirism and becoming a human represents women overcoming the patriarchal gender roles which restrain them.

Roses play an interesting role as they are mentioned throughout the tale. Just as in the Grimm Brother’s Briar Rose tale, roses hold an important symbol for the female protagonist within the story. The wall of roses which divides the castle’s garden from the outside world, emits a powerful fragrance to all who are near, and Carter explains that a “great, intoxicated surge of the heavy scent of red roses blew into his face as

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 121 soon as they left the village… blast of rich, faintly corrupt sweetness strong enough, almost, to fell him. Too many roses. Too many roses bloomed on the enormous thickets of roses” (Carter, 1975, p. 140). Rodríguez-Salas (2008, p. 124) maintains that the roses within the story are a symbol of femininity and that the rose bush is specifically important here. The roses within the bush are a symbol of the “external and sensual beauty” patriarchy expects of women (Rodríguez-Salas, 2008, p. 124). The rose bushes are constantly referred to in a negative light and this represents their destructive nature. Interestingly, the countess mentions that the crone buries the men she kills and consumes under the overpowering roses and it is this ‘food’ which enriches the soil and gives the roses their “rich colour, their swooning odour that breathes lasciviously of forbidden pleasures” (Carter, 1975, p. 146). The carnivorous nature of the rose bushes, feasting on human flesh much like the countess, emphasises their overall destructive quality, and represents how the powerful feminine (rose) can overpower the masculine (men). In contrast to the roses, the thorns which grow beside the roses on the “fierce” rose bushes (Carter, 1975, p. 147), are also a symbol of the harm that oppressive femininity can cause to women who follow it.

These roses were initially planted by the countess’s mother, and the rose bushes, which have now become over grown and confine the countess to the castle, were put there by her mother (Carter, 1975, p. 137), suggesting the perpetual nature of enforced female confinement. With this imagery, Carter comments on how patriatchal expectations are not only instilled in women from the men in their lives, but very often older women also enforce these expectations. Just as the mother has planted the bushes which keep the countess confined to the castle, so many older women of society place patriarchal limitations on their female children.

In addition, the rose is also mentioned at other times throughout the story. The countess drinks out of rose-painted china, illustrating her role as the perfect hostess; her lips are compared to “the obese roses in her garden” (Carter, 1975, p. 143), reflecting her role as the sensual temptress, and, finally, the rose given to the officer at the end is said to have been “plucked from between my [the countess’s] thigh” (Carter, 1975, p. 147), illustrating her role as the seductress. Furthermore, whenever roses are presented within the story, they have a connection to the countess. They, therefore, seem to resemble her femininity and the female body in both its beauty, sensuality and devastation.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 122 4.2.3.2 The Crone The only other female character within the story is the crone who takes care of the countess. A mute, the crone has no other role in the story except to look after the countess and ensure that her needs are provided, no matter how grotesque. The character of the crone is a female archetype within literature, and commonly cast as old and wise woman (Brennan, 2004, p. 139). Similarly, in Carter’s tale, the crone is an elderly woman who is dedicated to the care of the countess, even to the point of supporting her ghoulish appetites. She is the one who ensures that the countess never sees the sun, that she is safe from harm and spends her day safely tucked away in her coffin (Carter, 1975, p. 136-137). The crone also ensures that the countess gets her prey as she ventures out to find the young men for the countess to feast on, as evidenced in the statement “she will invite you with smiles and gestures; you will follow her” (Carter, 1975, p. 137). This is exactly what she does when she brings in the officer; because she is so warm and motherly, the officer feels safe with the crone and thinks of her as “friendly and helpful” (Carter, 1975, p. 141).

She is an aid to the countess, ensuring she does not leave during the day, and very rarely at night. Semsar (2014, p. 3) maintains that the crone “keeps the countess within the confines of her social position.” The crone, therefore, embodies the typical fairy tale archetype that includes an elderly woman who enslaves the princess to patriarchal expectations and in so doing hinders the development and happiness of a much younger and prettier woman (Lieberman, 1986). Therefore, her actions which limit the countess from developing past her oppressed position can be compared to the elderly women in Perrault and the Grimm Brothers’ tales. Just as with her earlier counterparts, the crone stands in the way of the beautiful, young protagonist and her true happiness for freedom and independence.

4.2.3.3 The Officer The male protagonist in Carter’s story is cast as a hero, and as with the countess, he is described according to his beautiful appearance. He is introduced to the reader as “a young officer in the British army, blond, blue-eyed, heavy-muscled” (Carter, 1975, p. 138), thus resembling the typical masculine figure. The warrior is one of the four male archetypes discussed by Moore and Gillette (1990) and is often used in reference to men who fight in battle. This male character is extremely masculine and physically capable. Being an officer in the army who is exploring the region, he initially comes

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 123 across as masculine, adventurous and heroic. He is able to go into war and fight against the enemy, traits which show his heroic bravery and desire to protect the weak, all qualities defined as the patriarchal man. Rodríguez-Salas (2008, p. 125) comments on how the officer is portrayed as the expected hero come to rescue the countess from her imprisonment. The officer is not afraid of where he is nor is he afraid of the darkness and shadows which surround him in the castle. One can easily compare this officer to the princes created by Perrault and the Grimms, just as they did not fear the rose bushes which fought to protect and enclose the princess from the outside, the officer is not afraid of the beautiful monster standing in front of him. Carter, however, makes it clear that the assumed bravery of the officer is not a symbol of his heroic spirit; rather it is a representation of his naivete. The officer is a virgin and so is yet to be impacted by the shadows which possess the countess (Carter, 1975, p. 144). His virginity is another intriguing adaptation of the virility and sexuality of the fairy tale male character. In the traditional tales, it is the princess who is the pure virgin; however, Carter’s heroine is far from a pure virgin as she has had many men in her chambers in order to feast on them. So Carter portrays her hero, the officer, as a virgin, naïve and good hearted in his purity. He is the one who is to be overpowered by the countess, and not the other way around.

Along with being young, handsome and virginal, the officer is also extremely rational. His rationality ensures that he is not capable of recognising that such monstrous superstitions exist in reality. In the text Carter ensures her reader that “to ride a bicycle is in itself some protection against superstitious fears, since the bicycle is the product of pure reason applied to motion” (Carter, 1975, p. 138). Therefore, his rationality and realistic thinking is what allows him to fearlessly walk into the castle and be in the presence of the countess. His incapacity to think beyond realistic expectations makes him into a ‘hero’. However, he is only a hero, fearless and brave, in this instance, as he is extremely naïve and is unaware that the shadows and danger which the countess represents exist. All in all, “this lack of imagination gives his heroism to the hero” (Carter, 1975, p. 145). This very fact takes away the true heroism of the officer; he no longer seems heroic like Perrault and the Grimm’s princes, as he does not know the true danger he is facing. Interestingly, not only does the officer’s bicycle symbolise rationality, but the light he requires to see in the dark castle is also a symbol of his knowledge. In Western cultures, light is seen as a symbol of enlightenment, science

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 124 and overall, knowledge, which he appears to possess. Ironically, however, it is this ‘light’, this rationality, knowledge and education which does not allow him to understand. In addition to this, Karjalainen (2010, p. 14-15) maintains that “Carter‟s text should be understood as a critique of the patriarchal obsession with science, logic and rationalism.” Even though the officer is a symbol of rationality and knowledge, he knows very little and comes across as ignorant of worldly matters and myths. Thus, his naivete mocks his assumed ‘knowledge’.

The patriarchy which the officer represents is seen clearly near the end of the story. When the countess begins to bleed, the officer takes it upon himself to do all in his power to remove the sight of the blood. He “dabs away the blood with his own handkerchief, but still it spurts out” (Carter, 1975, p. 146), and the blood cannot be concealed as much as he tries. As the blood is a symbol of the countess’s humanity, it should not be hidden, but rather embraced for its importance. However, the officer acts to stop it; his actions seem like those of patriarchy attempting to hide the countess’s potential outside of male domination from her. His patriarchal spirit is also brought forward when he wakes up the following morning. He has plans to take the young girl and treat her sicknesses; in his rational way he wants to heal her presumed “nervous hysteria”, problematic eyes and teeth and ensure her unconventional nails are corrected (Carter, 1975, p. 147). He, therefore, wants to turn her into a beautiful young lady able to go about in society, one who will accept the male gaze and live within patriarchal expectations and gender oppressions.

Although as a soldier he is a wielder of death, he is afraid of what the death of the countess may mean for him. Forced from the castle by the crone, he remains ignorant of the danger he faced and the cause of the countess’s death. He returns to his patriarchally inscribed role of warrior and heroic soldier, thus symbolising his unchanged spirit. The very fact that he is unchanged and his thinking unaltered symbolises the unchanging structure of patriarchy. Even though the countess is able to free herself from her gender constraints and truly become responsible for her life, the patriarchal man remains unchanged. He leaves, taking with him a rose (the symbol of femininity, beauty, virginity and love) and captures it in his tooth glass (Carter, 1975, p. 148), symbolising that he has consumed her and not the reverse. This specific reference to a tooth glass can be seen as a reference to the concept of ‘vagina dentana’ by Barbra Creed, with the woman sexually consuming the man. Rodríguez-

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 125 Salas (2008) states that the officer taking the rose is a symbol of patriarchy continuing to capture and entrap young women in their gender-biased ways. By placing the rose in a glass, he traps it from the outside. This entrapment is a symbol of the power and control which patriarchal men have over women and the ability of patriarchy to limit the development of women through its fear of these women becoming more independent and powerful than men will allow. Here, Carter is showing her awareness that not all women are able to rid themselves of patriarchy and oppression. Rodríguez- Salas (2008, p. 126), furthers this by stating that, unfortunately, the myth of feminism “will always find women who will be forced to follow the role to have a place in patriarchy.” The officer who represents patriarchal values could not get the countess, but he holds the rose, a reference to her sexuality and beauty.

4.2.3.4 Gender Relationships The relationship between the countess and officer is a very complex one. The power balance seems to have flipped in comparison to the relationships of Perrault and the Grimm’s prince and princess. Mäkinen (1992, p. 9) maintains that Carter’s text “constructs woman as the sexual aggressor where a man plays the role of the virgin victim.” Carter places her vampire countess in control within the relationship as she intends to prey on the officer. The countess’s instincts push her to want to overpower him and consume him. She even goes so far as imagining their consummation, his subsequent annihilation, and the crone burying his body under the roses. This references what Betty Friedan (1963, p. 145) argued is an extremely important element in fighting the feminine mystique — creating new, dynamic and independent women as alternatives to traditional, submissive women.

Although she seeks love and a normal human relationship, the countess finds it difficult to surrender her blood lust. Interestingly, what hinders her ability to have a human connection with the officer is her vampirism, which was forced upon her by her male ancestors. Again, these patriarchal figures are inhibiting her ability to achieve what would truly fulfil her.

Whereas in earlier tales the women were often portrayed as submissive and uneducated, Carter portrays the male protagonist as naïve and innocent. The officer does not know that the countess is a vampire, but only sees her emaciated state. He knows very little of what is going on right in front of his eyes and this is what allows

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 126 him to feel confident, unafraid and in control. His inability to understand what the countess seeks to do to him is due to his sexual inexperience and western logic, both of which deny the vampire’s intentions. In contrast, the countess is forewarned by the revelation given by her tarot cards as well as the previous success of her seductions and bloodlust. Thus, unlike the soldier, her power partly lies in her foreknowledge and intent.

The relationship between the countess and the officer can also be viewed with regards to the contrast between light and dark. The countess represents darkness. Her vampire nature means that she must avoid sunlight or even bright indoor light. Not only this, but her physical features are also represented as dark and depressing. This is seen by the officer’s comment on “her lovely death's head surrounded by long, dark hair” and “her enormous, dark eyes [which] almost broke his heart with their waif-like, lost look” (Carter, 1975, p. 142). These features are suggestive of her evil, desperate nature.

In contrast to the countess, the officer represents the light. When he walks into the castle, he struggles to see and needs light in order to see the countess. Karjalainen (2010, p. 14) states that in western society, light is positive as it symbolises education and enlightenment. Hence, the officer is a representation of this westernised, patriarchal knowledge and expectation. However, within Carter’s tale, light symbolises the exact opposite. The light brought into the room pains the eyes of the countess. By portraying light as a destructive force, Carter illustrates that the “patriarchal obsession with science, logic and rationalism” (light and/or enlightenment) negatively impacts young women who are prevented from experiencing them (Karjalainen, 2010, pp. 14- 15). When exposed to the light, or the officer who resembles this light, the countess dies, and so when women within society are exposed to patriarchal oppressions and limitations they become seriously limited and their development hindered or in essence die to their potential. Thus, it is through this binary relationship of the officer and the countess that Carter is able to critique patriarchal oppressions.

4.3 Robert Coover’s Briar Rose (1996)

4.3.1 Background of Robert Coover and the Tale Coover is noted as a postmodernist. Postmodern literature’s main aim is to question, emphasise and deconstruct certain universal knowledge so as to emphasise the social

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 127 and linguistic origin of each ‘universal truth’. Postmodern thinkers, such as Jean- Francois Lyotard, maintain that the modernist era, which encouraged scientific facts and explanations of certain aspects, has limited narratives and language. Lyotard (2004) maintains that science is at war with the narrative; it limits the endless nature of the narrative to certain accepted ‘truths’, explanations and understandings. These ‘truths’, says Lyotard (2004, p. 357) are not only scientific fact, such as “the earth revolves around the sun”, but they also include social expectations and limitations, such as “minimum wage”, etc. By following these accepted truths, narratives and language no longer have the potential to discuss any and all possibilities, and, instead, are moulded by certain social hierarchies which limit society’s freedom. As society limits the language and societal concepts available for discussion within literature, narratives are developed which include elements of the hierarchy and inequalities of a particular society. As these ideals are readily available to readers and present in all literature, they begin to mould the reader’s mind into seeing these ideals as truth, and, ultimately, accepting them.

Hence, postmodern thinkers identify the importance of deconstructing and ‘delegitimising’ such knowledge, so as to make way for questioning their relevance and origins. They do this through the use of intertextuality and the understanding that all texts are interconnected and that each text resembles or includes concepts from previously written texts. Often, postmodern re-writings of texts are written as parodies which find humour in and criticise previously written texts. Sünje (2004, p. 10) says that the fairy tale is a common genre from which many postmodern authors write. Therefore, the reader needs to be aware of the existence of the earlier texts and to “have internalized a set of rules and conventions” based on those previous texts, if they are to truly understand the message sent by the postmodern re-make. Previously published tales (such as those from Perrault and the Grimm Brothers) have already moulded what society expects from these stories and it is these expectations which are “indirectly or directly addressed” (Sünje, 2004, p. 10). By addressing them within their new, postmodern arrangement, the writer is able to force the reader to question their blindly-accepted expectations and their eyes are opened to new ways of interpreting the information.

Williams (2012, p. 3) highlights this concept with regards to fairy tale reconstructions and gender. She states that tales which keep to the structure of the tale are limited in

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 128 how they can discuss and represent gender, as each fairy tale has a fixed structure and places expectations in the minds of readers. Zipes (1987, p. 107) furthers this when he maintains that traditional fairy tales are myths as they are blindly accepted by society and have become “frozen, purified, eternalized” by individuals. Therefore, society associates certain elements, characters and events with certain traditional tales and so the re-make which simply follows the traditional plot will find it difficult to step away from traditional gender representations in order to provide new and dynamic ones. In contrast, Williams (2012, p. 3) maintains that re-makes which “pull fragments rather than plot structure from fairy tales have more possibilities in conceptualizing gender.” This is true as these re-makes do not need to battle with preconceived gender expectations as they already step out of the mould through the crafting of different plots.

Within his tale Briar Rose, Coover does just this. He takes the well-known tale Sleeping Beauty and deconstructs it and adds his own, postmodern twist. He adds a realistic element to the tale, which allows for a new dimension to the tale. In addition, Evenson (2003, p. 23) states that Coover uses features of “realism and naturalism” and couples them with “absurd and surreal elements”, allowing the reader a new, dynamic view of aspects such as gender relationships and societal structures. Coover tells the story from within the minds of the prince, princess and an old crone fairy. It is written in such a way that reality meshes with the character’s thoughts, dreams mesh with imagined actions and the reader finds is difficult to follow a logical storyline. Within the tale, says Williams (2012, p. 191), Coover creates characters that are “trapped in the fairy tale roles they no longer want to inhabit” and so they question and express the will to act against them. Ultimately, through the character’s desire to subvert the typical Sleeping Beauty ABC structure and actions expected of them, the reader’s own mind is opened. The tale opens up a dialogue within the reader and he or she begins to question whether anyone within society has the ability to act against social conventions and expectations. Williams (2012, p. 191) maintains further that, although Coover does not directly comment on gender relationships, “his fragmenting of the concepts of identity and reality, as well as the resulting gaps, invite readers to imagine possibilities not present in the source fairy tale.” His remake allows for a fresh interpretation of characters and gender roles.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 129 Zipes (2006) reiterates throughout his writing that fairy tales are constructed either to instruct their readers or to encourage their readers to criticise social structures and order. Just like these tales, fairy tale remakes are developed to fulfil two purposes. The first purpose is fulfilled by portraying familiar aspects from previous tales, but these tales depict these aspects in a new way in order to represent their negative side, which ultimately causes readers to really think about and discard these previously accepted aspects. The second type uses aspects from traditional tales; however, these aspects are placed in new plots and ultimately develop new options and varieties within tales. Gupta (2008, p. 8) maintains that Coover makes use of both of these types within Briar Rose. Firstly, he uses the same characters as traditional versions and he even begins his tale in a way which allows the reader to assume a fairy tale, happily ever after structure to the tale. This romantic feeling is represented in Coover (1996) through the use of words such as “seductive caresses” (p. 3) and “transcendental love” (p. 16), phrases which encourage the reader to assume that the tale is one of love, honour and will end in a ‘happily ever after’. However, only after a couple of pages does the tale turn and reveal a new take on the tale and its characters, a plot twist which opens the readers’ minds to new information and allows them to question traditional elements of the tale. The feeling of romance and love in the beginning of the tale transforms completely, and with the use of terms such as “deadly illusion” (p. 26), Coover is able to present a sinister and more depressing side to this common tale.

With regards to Wexelblatt’s (2001) ABC structure, Coover’s tale is stuck between phase C, which involves the princess pricking her finger, and D, which involves the prince waking the princess. By using a narrative structure which moves back and forth between the thoughts of the prince and princess, neither character gets further along with life throughout the tale; instead, each is stuck in the same position he or she was in initially. Through this approach, Coover forces the reader to re-think his or her original concept of the perfect relational conclusion with the gloomier results that he projects.

4.3.2 Synopsis of the Tale The story begins with a heroic prince entering the rose bushes around a castle. He is motivated to enter as he wants to be touted as the hero who was able to break through (Coover, 1996, p. 1). The prince has heard the stories of others who died in their vain

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 130 efforts to enter and as he makes his way through the bushes, he can smell the bodies of those who attempted the quest before him. However, he is not afraid; illustrative of his heroic character, “it entices him” to carry on” (Coover, 1996, p. 4).

Coover then moves to the thoughts of the princess, whom he says only knows “rage and lust” (Coover, 1996, p. 2). She dreams non-stop while in her sleeping state, but is never able to remember any dreams. She is aware of what happens around her as she sleeps, but is never able to recall any of it. The princess is accompanied by a crone-like fairy that takes care of her and keeps her mind entertained by telling a number of tales about a young girl named Sleeping Beauty. These tales are of a beautiful woman who is awakened by her heroic rescuer after one hundred years of sleeping. There are many variations to the story, but many end with the wives of Sleeping Beauty’s rescuers wanting to kill and often eat her. These tales frighten the princess and often she asks “Why me?” (Coover, 1996, p. 28), questioning why she must endure this terrifying life. Additionally, the princess asks who she is and the fairy tells her that she is a young woman who is desired by many. She tells the princess that she is so beautiful that brave men risk their lives in the bushes to reach her, hoping to awaken her. The fairy, in another post-modern twist calls the princess “a murderess” (Coover, 1996, p. 13), as so many have died attempting to free her.

As the princess sleeps and dreams, the prince makes his way through the thick rose bushes. As he battles the vicious ‘briars’, he thinks of the stories he has been told of the princess. She is supposed to be beautiful and the perfect representation of femininity, and he anticipates her as his reward after his long, harrowing journey. Initially, he has no doubt that it is he who will wake the princess; however, after a long while of battling the briars, the prince begins to question whether he is indeed “the one” (Coover, 1996, p. 22). He even wonders whether the tales he heard were nothing but myth, a story created by an evil, old fairy in the castle. He also begins to feel sorry for the trapped princess, who has not been able to leave the small room in the castle for years (Coover, 1996, p. 25). Now, not only does he think of making a name for himself when he reaches her, but begins to realise that the princess needs rescuing. She needs to be saved from her ‘horrid life’.

Coover tells of the many suitors (some young and handsome, some not at all attractive and once or twice even her father) who have visited the princess before and slept with

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 131 her, but none are able to wake her from the curse. Luckily for the princess, when men enter her chamber and continue to sleep with her, she is able to “leave her struggling” and go in search of something to keep her mind busy (Coover, 1996, p. 34). However, she is very aware that terrible things are happening to her body and so she complains to the fairy constantly. Her keeper, the crone-fairy, is found in either the kitchen or a chamber spinning, almost always doing some sort of household duty when the princess seeks her. The fairy is often frustrated by her repetitive role as care-taker, ceaseless retelling of the stories and hopeless reassuring of the princess. When the princess does complain, the fairy constantly reminds her that she is so lucky (Coover, 1996) with her immense beauty which seems to attract all manner of men. Thus, the fairy suggests that she is fortunate to be so beautiful and desired, and warns the princess that she should not complain [about] or be ungrateful for her position because generally women only want to be lusted after and pursued by men.

The prince, still making his way through the briars, is struggling to fight against the bushes which seem determined to ensnare him. He thinks of the princess and imagines what she looks like sleeping in her chamber. However, he does not think of her beauty and attraction any more, rather he thinks of “more cadaverous traits” (Coover, 1996, p. 38). He imagines her as dying, pale skinned, thin boned and rotting. As time passes, the prince imagines himself free: scaling the walls, searching the halls and waking the princess. He imagines what could have been, if he had made it through the bushes and met the beautiful princess. This means that now he has accepted that he is not the one; he will never reach the princess and will likely die in his foolhardy attempt.

In the meantime, along with the men who come to sleep with her and the horrific stories told by the fairy, the princess has a number of dreams about suitors who come to find her (Coover, 1996). Each one of the dreams ends terribly; very often she is humiliated and injured by her prince as these men are never charming or caring men. Instead they are selfish, lustful and dishonourable, committing adultery to fulfil their fleshly cravings. Her nightmares cause the princess to seek the crone who again discourages her with tales of hateful men and their vengeful wives.

The story continues to jump from prince to princess, from reality to dreams, and in doing so the story progresses revealing more and more the characters’ desperation.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 132 On the one hand, the dreams of the princess become more and more aggressive. By the end of the tale, it is she who acts out in fits of rage, scratching at the prince’s face, refusing to remain the submissive, silent, helpless partner (Coover, 1996, pp. 77-78). She also suspects that all tales end tragically and their story lines become painfully familiar. Similarly, the prince exhibits personal growth, transforming from a self-centred man who seeks the princess only for personal gain, to seeing her not as a quest, but as an actual person with her own problems. He realises that there is something else to the quest; something beyond rescuing the princess to realising he is to set her free.

Even though they develop within themselves, by the end of the tale, the characters have still not progressed to freedom from their separate entrapments. The princess still lies in her “moldy bed” and waits for her prince who never seems to come (Coover, 1996, p. 85). She continues to dream of waking and fulfilling her ‘happily ever after’, but this does not happen. Similarly, the prince is captured by the briars, unable to escape. He thinks of the princess in her chamber and wishes to escape the briars, but arrives at the tragic conclusion that he is not ‘the one.’ As with the many before him, he will remain entangled in the briars and will not reach his desired destiny. For both, they linger in their timeless state of dreadful entrapment.

4.3.3 Feminist Analysis 4.3.3.1 The Princess Just like all the princesses discussed before, Coover’s princess is physically beautiful. It is this beauty which draws many suiters into the chamber where she lays. There have been many stories spread around the kingdoms of her beauty and she is expected to be “the most beautiful creature in the world, fair and good, musically gifted, delicate, virtuous and graceful and with the gentle disposition of an angel, and, for all her hundred years and more, still a child, innocent and yielding. Achingly desirable” (Coover, 1996, p. 4). The men who seek her desire only her beauty and perfectly pure feminine character. Thus, these expectations define her; they limit who she can and can’t be, they allow no room for development or divergence. Ultimately, these expectations of her are in line with the gendered expectations of women, which suggests that each prince who seeks her anticipates her beauty and feminine graces. Just as the feminine gifts presented by the fairy godmothers in Perrault and the Grimm’s Sleeping Beauty and the apparent beauty of Carter’s countess, Coover’s

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 133 princess is also defined by her physical features and character, qualities which both classify and limit her potential.

Another area in which the princess is limited by gender expectations is her confinement to the castle. She must wait in her chamber until her heroic prince comes to rescue her from her hundred year sleep. Helpless and defenceless, the princess is dependent on those around her to protect her, as she can do none of this for herself. This reinforces a patriarchal notion that has been in question since first wave feminism. It maintains that women are nothing unless attached to men and so they are moved from their father to husband, never able to be independent and develop on their own (Dicker, 2008, p. 21). Gayle Rubin (2004, p. 777) furthers this as she maintains that many sex/gender systems exist throughout societies, which place women under the constant control and guidance of men. However, Coover does not follow the traditional tale which ensures that the princess is under the protection of her father. Instead, this father leaves his daughter defenceless, resulting in her body being ravaged by many lustful suiters and on-lookers. The text even suggests that her father visited her (Coover, 1996, pp 10-11). By presenting the reader with a ravished princess, Coover breaks the traditional mould and leaves his princess unprotected. By bringing in this new plot twist, Coover shows that there is a problem with the traditional plot. Hence, he is able to challenge his reader to see the horror of the princess’ defenceless, entrapped state and thus introduces the reader to an alternative view to traditional tales.

Although she spends the entire story asleep, the princess imagines herself able to move about the castle and seems aware of the crone fairy and numerous suitors (Coover, 1996). Each of these instances allows the reader to view the princess playing her role in a number of ways. Interestingly, the princess is often depicted as doing things which are typical of a female character. When she does wander around the castle, she is frequently drawn to the kitchen, symbolising the domestic sphere, and Coover goes so far as to call this room her “refuge” (Coover, 1996, p. 6). Along with this, the princess is also very often depicted as a mother. Coover’s (1996) princess has babies in many of the tales told by the fairy (pp. 18 & 40-41) and once even goes in search of babies to look after (p. 44), in an attempt to leave reality as men assault her body. In this way, she is again placed within a role expected of women. Yet, these

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 134 dreams do not offer freedom, but confinement as they limit this Sleeping Beauty to the required gender role of homemaker and mother.

Another way in which Coover breaks the traditional mould of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale is through creating a princess who questions her position in life. When she is with her fairy godmother, she often asks “why am I the one?” (Coover, 1996, pp. 28 & 34). She cannot understand, nor does she want to understand, why she must be sentenced to such a mundane and painful life. Here, Coover is shedding light on the very common feminine mystique, which paints a picture of women as inherently happy and accepting of their expected femininity and limited roles (Friedan, 1963, p. 66). He criticises this inaccurate mystique by creating a character that is not happy with her exploitation and limited life. Thus, Coover points out that not all women are passively accepting and happy with their lot in life. This shows Coover’s readers that they ought not to quietly accept the lives provided to them by patriarchal societies, but that they should actively question and fight against what makes them unhappy. When she asks these questions, the fairy tells her not to be silly, that she has everything and is “one of the lucky ones” (Coover, 1996, pp. 31, 35 & 36). She reminds the princess that she is someone who has such immense beauty that men risk their lives to find her. However, she counters this compliment with the accusation of “murderess”, blaming her for the deaths of her suitors ensnared by the rose briars (Coover, 1996, p. 13). Coover reinforces this by stating that the princess is “more captor than captive, more briar than blossom” (Coover, 1996, p. 29), suggesting that she is not the pure, defenceless creature the reader has always imagined, but rather a villainess, whose beauty traps her victims. Irigaray (1985a) enforces the notion that in order to reject the gender binary that is enforced on men and women through patriarchy, women need to take on feminine traits. This will make a statement that masculinity is not the only option, but typically feminine characteristics and behaviours are an equally viable option for women. Coover’s Sleeping Beauty uses the feminine trait of beauty to her advantage and it is her beauty and perfect looks that make the men come in search of her and meet their doom. Her beauty gives her an element of power and control over men, who are expected to dominate her.

Furthermore, the crone continues to subvert the notion of the pure virgin when she explains that it does not matter that men come in and violate her, as the princess should count herself fortunate that she is so beautiful that men desire her. The fairy

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 135 crone seems to ignore the horror of rape, focusing instead on the satisfaction of winning willing suitors. This intimates again the complicity of some women in enslaving other women within the patriarchal paradigm of submission, as she discourages the princess from questioning her captivity and destiny spent waiting for a man. Presumably, she should be overjoyed to meet and marry her rescuing prince and she will forget her century of confinement. Coover’s princess, however, does not see herself as lucky; but trapped in an endless nightmare. This Sleeping Beauty’s misery warns the reader to avoid the comatose state of waiting for her prince to come. Just as it becomes absurd to expect the princess to wait silent and satisfied, content in her beauty, Coover seems to suggest that it is also ridiculous for the contemporary woman to do the same.

Sleeping Beauty’s unhappiness is constantly emphasised throughout the tale, as the princess questions her position. Not only does she ask why she is the one who must endure the suffering, but she also questions the stories told to her by the old fairy. These tales are definitely not the typical fairy tales which society has come to know and love. Just as in Coover’s tale, each starts out in the typical ‘happily ever after’ way, which instils in the reader the expectation that the story will end in happiness and marriage between the main characters. However, each of the tales told ends with the hero being married to another woman. The hero then neglects the princess as he is only there to make a name for himself, and not to really rescue the princess. However, Coover’s princess does not accept these terrible endings; she interrupts the fairy constantly as she continues to tell the tales and often comments that “real stories aren’t like that” when the stories go bad (Coover, 1996, p. 51). Fine (2008, p. 10) emphasises that the princess’ questioning of these unhappy, loveless tales can be compared to the “dismay of feminists in the 1960s and 1970s who began to speak aloud their frustration, rage, disappointment, and despair” at their entrapped state. The oppressive fairy, who would like it if the princess kept her mouth shut, is frustrated with the active role played by the princess. Contrary to the princesses of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, Coover creates a proactive princess who challenges her position and the morbid tales told to her. Although she is unable to change her situation, she is still aware that it is an injustice and so she challenges it.

The princess’s questions show the reader the many problems with her position, and Coover emphasises how each of the problems brought forward should be questioned,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 136 rejected and altered. He calls attention to them by adding a touch of reality to his tales, by staying away from the ‘happily ever after’ structure. This reality, Coover adds, portrays the unlikelihood and illogical nature of the traditional tales and their events. He stresses that not everything is a happy ending, not every wrong can be set right and, finally, that not every injustice can be rectified. By identifying them as problems, Coover is not only able to comment on the patriarchal, gender-biased problems within the tale, but also within the society at large.

Even though she does represent a more active princess, the princess still expresses many passive tendencies which emphasise her limited role even further. Although she is upset by the men who ravish her body and her motionless state (stuck between dreams and a dark reality), whenever (in a dream or reality) a man comes to her, she is excited that her true love may have arrived. She becomes completely mesmerised that the prince is there to rescue her, and once is even “excited by his excitement and by her own feeling of helplessness” (Coover, 1996, p. 43). When the princes are near, she cannot help but take on this helpless, passive role. She accepts completely that she is to be awakened by a handsome, loving prince and not once does she question it. Also, when asked by the fairy what her ideal life situation would be, the princess maintains that she wants “to live happily ever after” (Coover, 1996, p. 66), a typical fairy tale expectation of princes and princesses. Therefore, she eagerly anticipates the day when a handsome prince will wake her. She may be upset and air her grievances about the terrible and lengthy waiting for the prince; however, when he does come, she is more than willing to accept him and become the feminine, submissive maiden expected of her. Every time a prince comes to her in a story or dream, she is quick to welcome him, because she craves her happy ending. Just as the princess expects a happy ending to the finale of each real prince visiting her, dream or story told by the fairy, so the reader expects this same happy ending. Each tale told within the story begins with a romantic atmosphere which draws the reader in and allows him or her (if only for a second) to hope and think ‘finally, true love has arrived’. Coover breaks the spell of this fantasy by ensuring the tale never ends, and emphasises the disappointment of love for his reader. Love and happy endings become less expected as the tale nears its end, and so the reader realises that the traditionally expected happy ending is not a realistic expectation, as, in fact, reality includes a lot more sorrow than happy endings.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 137 The realistic spin placed on the tale succeeds in painting a grim picture of love and relationships in contemporary society. By bringing up the perpetual ill-treatment of the princess, Coover suggests that, in the real world, men’s lust supersedes their interest in protecting and ensuring the happiness of their beautiful princess. This notion is furthered when, as the tale continues, many of the characters wonder if it is not better for the princess to stay asleep. These characters see reality as much more woeful and pessimistic than that of motionless sleep and so they feel that the princess is better where she is. Firstly, when hearing one of the many stories told by the fairy, the princess is disappointed by the fact that the prince who woke the princess was in fact married and shouts out, “but it's terrible! She would have been better off not waking up at all!” (Coover, 1996, pp. 20). Coover’s subversion of the ‘happily ever after’ with infidelity and adultery is jarring, and he even suggests that it is better “to arrange for her to expire before suffering the misery of the ever-after part of the human span” (Coover, 1996, p. 80). The prince also wonders: “Won't it all be spoiled if I wake her up?” (Coover, 1996, p. 65). In constructing reality as filled with vile betrayal, Coover shows his reader that the fairy tale expectations of ‘happily ever after;’ are not realistic. Finally, through pointing out these expectations and criticising them, Coover is able to provide new meaning to the tale, as well as alternative representations of gender roles.

Eliggi (n.d., p. 273) maintains that, as the story continues, “the point of view of the different characters begins to vary”. This means that the princess who starts off the tale develops in her character and the reader is able to experience a different side of her by the end. Coover foreshadows the two sides to the princess at the beginning of his tale, as he states that “all she [the princess] knows [is] rage and lust” (Coover, 1996, p. 2). The initial docile but beautiful, ‘happily ever after’ princess is replaced by a princess who is outspoken, conflicted, violated and angry. Within her fits of rage specifically, the princess reveals a violent and aggressive spirit. In one of her dreams, her new prince charming sits beside her and out of the blue “she flies into a sudden rage and wheels round to dig her nails into his face, her crown toppling” (Coover, 1996, p. 74). This fury takes over her one more time during another dream. Her prince states that he will rescue another stranded princess, whom he says he will kiss awake. This is a huge betrayal suffered by a princess who sleeps for one hundred years waiting for the man of her dreams to rescue her. As such, she is so infuriated by his callous disregard of her and his apparent unfaithfulness that she “explodes with sudden fury,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 138 clawing at his face as though to scratch his eyes out” (Coover, 1996, p. 77). Thus, this princess does not represent the docile, silent woman of previous tales, who endures the abuse of others. Through this princess, Coover is able to stress that there are women within the patriarchal society who, although they are often not given a voice to speak or a platform to stand on, are not happy about the way they are treated and mishandled by men. So he gives them a voice in his Briar Rose and, by doing so, he opens up a dialogue within the society. He shows his reader that, although patriarchy allows them to believe differently, women are not satisfied with their ill-treatment and so will demand better.

4.3.3.2 The Fairy The only other character within the tale, except for the prince and princess is the fairy crone who is depicted as both good and evil within Coover’s tale. As a result, she takes on the role of the evil fairy and fairy godmothers of Perrault and the Grimm’s tales. As in Carter’s tale, the fairy is commonly referred to as a crone, and is required to be the princess’s keeper. Although she is to keep the princess both entertained and safe, she is rarely encouraging or protective.

The fairy often reminds the princess of her immense beauty, perfection and that she needs to be quiet, “hush”, and not question what happens to her (Coover, 1996, p. 40 & 49). In this way, the fairy keeps the princess confined to patriarchal expectations. She ensures that the princess is aware of the position that she is in and just how lucky she is to be in this position. She constantly tells the princess the value of her beauty and emphasises that nothing but her beauty actually matters. As well as this, the fairy is consistent in the degrading ways she refers to the princess, using such demeaning words as “ninny” (Coover, 1996, pp. 36, 41, 68 & 81). This term is used repetitively to refer to the princess whenever she complains, interrupts or questions what is happening to her, suggesting that she is foolish. This harsh treatment undermines Sleeping Beauty’s sense of self as an intelligent, worthwhile human being.

Along with her ill-treatment of the princess, the fairy also does not take much care in protecting the princess from the many men who find and rape her. Over and above this, she does not even try to comfort the princess when she seeks refuge from her frightening dreams or the men who rape her. Instead, she reiterates again and again to the princess that her experiences do not matter; rather, she should be happy that

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 139 men find her attractive at all. In addition, the fairy adds to the princess’s nightmares by telling her terribly chilling tales of suitors who seek a princess fast asleep for one hundred years. Her tales, however, often end in despair with the men married to other women, angry wives who seek revenge against the sleeping princess (Coover, 1996, p. 19, 22 & 35) and self-centred, malicious men who seek the princess for their own gain and worry very little (if at all) about the princess.

As a character who is first assumed to be the princess’s protector, the fairy turns out to be the opposite. Similar to the relationships between the heroine and other female characters within Perrault, the Grimm Brothers and even Ritchie’s and Carter’s tale, the fairy in Coover’s tale is an older woman who hinders the development of a younger girl. By having the fairy constantly demeaning the princess, and demanding that she silently accepts her state, while frightening her with horrifying stories of marriages sorely lacking fairy tale love and happiness, Coover highlights the reality of the, sometimes, twisted relationships between young beauties and older women. He suggests that the relationships between women are often spiteful and vindictive, and that there exists very little comradery between women who are all oppressed in similar ways. Coover, therefore, uses this relationship to open the eyes of his reader and show how devastating and challenging fighting against patriarchal expectations can be, if no unity between women exists.

4.3.3.3 The Prince The only male character in the tale, Coover’s prince, seems to be a representation of the many men who have previously sought the princess. Initially, the prince surprises the reader as Coover portrays him as different from what one would expect of the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale. Instead of being a heroic saviour, Coover describes his prince as an “inflated legend” (Coover, 1996, p. 12). This term emphasises that the prince’s position within his society, and the title he holds within the mind of the reader, may just be a little exaggerated and inaccurate. By presenting him in this way, Coover plants seeds of doubt in the mind of the reader from the opening paragraph that the prince is far from perfect and may not be able to rescue the princess. Later, the reason for the prince’s visit to Briar Rose’s castle becomes clear. He aims to find her to elevate his own name in the kingdom; he wants to be known as ‘the man who could find and wake the princess’ (Coover, 1996, p. 1). Again, the reader’s initial perception of the prince as the flawless hero of the tale is put into question. In addition, the prince is

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 140 married. In contrast to the princes of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers, he already has a woman with whom he has promised to spend the rest of his life with, living ‘happily ever after’. What this ultimately means is that even if the prince does get to the princess, they can never have a ‘happily ever after’ ending. This creates another distasteful dimension to the prince, who the reader initially and mistakenly assumes is driven by heroism and love. However, in reality, he is a proud, self-centred cheat.

Yet the prince appears heroic in his brave quest for the princess, even willing to battle the deadly briar. He has heard the stories of others who have been ensnared by the briars, but he is not afraid. Courageous and possibly a little arrogant, he enters the briars confident that he is “the chosen one” and that it is he who will wake the princess (Coover, 1996, p. 14). In this way, he is very similar to Perrault and the Grimm’s male characters. However, unlike their princes, the bravery, courage and confidence of Coover’s prince are tested soon after he enters the rose bush and the briars begin to stab at him. However, he is initially not worried by the briars and is “driven on by his dreams of the prize that awaits him and by his firm sense of vocation” (Coover, 1996, p. 21). Nevertheless, as he continues to feel the briar’s sharp points all over his body, self-doubt sets in and the prince begins to lose his arrogant nature. Interestingly, however, Coover stresses that even though he suffers, the prince is “never ceasing to resist (he will remain a hero to the end)” (Coover, 1996, p. 38). So this prince seems to be the typical determined hero.

Just as the princess’s thoughts develop and change as the tale continues, so do the thoughts of the prince. He begins to think more about the poor princess stuck in her tower and the implications that such a life would have on a woman. In addition, he ponders the real reason for his quest and begins to think deeply about whether he needs to change in order to succeed. This self-reflection causes him to wonder if “the test is not of his strength and valour but of his judgment” (Coover, 1996, p. 8). In this, Coover uses the thoughts of the prince to question the heroic traits typical of the fairy tale prince. Coover (1996) includes comments such as “the vanity of all heroic pursuits”, “the illusions of immortality”, “self-delusion” (p. 45) and “the brevity of all amorous pursuits” (p. 75), which allow the reader to question the unrealistic emphasis put on the bravery and heroism of the fairy tale prince. This challenges the gendered expectations placed on men to perform in particular ways in order to be seen as masculine, invincible heroes. Thus, through emphasising the false expectations of the

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 141 prince, Coover also exposes and questions the misleading expectations of men within the society.

Unfortunately, the prince never reaches the princess. He becomes another man killed by the rose bushes which surround the castle. ‘Happily ever after’ is not reached in the tale, which represents the tragic but realistic endings of romantic experiences in contemporary society. Ultimately, the reader becomes aware that the traditional expectations of a heroic prince, who rescues the princess out of dedicated love and heroism, are not an accurate portrayal of true life events.

4.4 Neil Gaiman’s The Sleeper and the Spindle (2014)

4.4.1 Background of Neil Gaiman and the Tale Neil Gaiman is an English writer, who has written across multiple genres, including graphic novels, comics, short stories, theatre and even screen plays. He is well-known for many works including: The Sandman (1999), American Gods (2001) and interesting to this analysis, Coraline (2002), which is a story that portrays a strong, independent female character. This text, thus, represents his feminist stance and modern take on gender roles and expectations. His work is appreciated by so many that he is even listed in The Dictionary of Literary Biography,Volume 377: Twenty- First-Century British Novelists as one of the top ten living writers of the post-modern era (Ue, 2016). Born in 1960, he has enjoyed a varied but successful writing career. Writing during the modern times of feminist development and newly constructed tales, he is heavily influenced by the fresh, contemporary and very often feminist tales, which have been constructed over the years. In an interview, Gaiman maintains that he admires the work of Angela Carter and her approach to the fairy tale, stating that “Angela Carter, for me, is still the one who said: 'You see these fairy stories, these things that are sitting at the back of the nursery shelves? Actually, each one of them is a loaded gun” (Wood, 2014). Influenced by writers who were testing the boundaries of tradition and patriarchy, Gaiman built his unique fairy tale retellings with remakes that resemble a new way of thinking that the traditional way of writing is not the only way. He explained why he aimed to create tales which were different from what was available in the current society:

…growing up, I wanted to read something that was unapologetically a fairy tale, and just as unapologetically for adults… A fairy tale, intended for adult readers.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 142 It was a form of fiction I loved and wanted to read more of. I couldn't find one on the shelves, so I decided to write one. (Gaiman 2007).

Within his remakes, Gaiman also ensures that he adds a feminist twist to his characters and their stories. Each tale, specifically The Sleeper and the Spindle, has its own twist which ensures that patriarchy and gender roles found in the traditional fairy tales are not present. Before writing the tale, Gaiman (2015, p. xxxix) states that he was interested in the possibilities available through combining two stories and asked himself: “what if the women who were already the subjects of the stories had a little more to do, and were active and not passive…?” His interview with Wood (2014) depicts Gaiman as a man who worries about the way his characters and themes are portrayed, intending to send a message to his readers. He states, “I don't have a lot of patience for stories in which women are rescued by men”, so the message he intends to send is: “you don’t need princes to save you” (Wood, 2014), hoping that his work encourages his female readers to be independent and become heroes in their own right.

Gaiman’s tale is so unique that it includes only part D, which involves the prince’s quest and breaking through the brairs, and E, which includes the kiss that wakes up the princess, of Wexelblatt’s (2001) fairy tale structure. However, even though this basic structure is present in the tale, the subversion of each fairy tale character and their gender relationships allows for Gaiman’s tale to take on a completely new and dynamic set of gender expectations.

4.4.2 Synopsis of the Tale The tale begins with three nameless dwarfs who are travelling to find a precious gift for the queen’s wedding (Gaiman, 2014). During their travels, they come by a pub in which they learn of the sleeping ‘plague’ which is overtaking the kingdoms. They learn that many are falling asleep and that this plague is spreading very quickly. They hurry back to the queen who is in deep contemplation about her future. She is worried that once she marries the prince she will lose her independence, her choices and be forced into a life of housewifery and motherhood (Gaiman, 2014). When the dwarfs reach their queen, she is standing in her wedding dress as her helpers work around her. However, when she hears about the plague, she quickly calls off the wedding that was to commence the following day. She tells the men under her that they are in charge

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 143 during her absence and instructs the prince that she must leave and he need not be upset that she must go. Before she leaves, the queen promises that they will marry when she returns and leaves her husband-to-be waiting for her.

On their journey, the queen and the dwarfs come across a number of sleepers who lay around the villages they enter. They notice that the sleepers actually move while they are sleeping. As their journey continues, they come in to contact with a number of these sleepers who speak to and chase after the travellers. As they chase them, the sleepers say things which allude to the original Sleeping Beauty tales, lines such as “Mama. It is my birthday” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 19), a reference to the spell which waited for the princess’s 16th birthday to commence. The question “Are you spinning? Can I see?” (Gaiman, 2014), p.25) points to the reason that the princess falls asleep — a prick from a cursed spindle, and “bring me roses” (p. 31) alludes to the rose bushes which surround the castle.

As the four travellers make their way through the sleep walkers, the reader is introduced to the sleeping princess and the old woman who haunts the castle. The old woman has not slept since the princess has fallen asleep, and is presented as angry, resentful and evil (Gaiman, 2014). She makes her way up the steps and enters the room where the beautiful princess is lying. The old woman wants to kill the sleeping princess with the spindle which lies near the bed, but it seems that for some reason, she cannot. One is led to assume from their interaction that the sleeping princess is indeed the sleeping beauty and the elderly woman the evil fairy who cast the spell.

Once they reach the roses which surround the castle, the queen and dwarfs begin to feel tired; however, they are able to avoid sleep with a sharp prick from one of the rose bush thorns (Gaiman, 2014). Once properly awake, the queen comes up with a plan to burn the rose bushes and, once they are burnt, the branches are easily chopped down by the queen’s sword. They enter the castle and make their way up the stairs, finally meeting the old lady who is on her way back down from her visit with the princess. The travellers take the old lady with them into the room and the queen kisses the princess awake (Gaiman, 2014). Finding the spindle lying near to the bed, the queen picks it up and the old lady begins to tell her story, explaining that it all began when she was but seven years old and had walked into the room while the then-awake princess was spinning. The princess pricked the child’s finger with the spindle and said

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 144 “now I take your sleep from you, girl, just as I take from you your ability to harm me in my sleep” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43). The princess finishes the story by telling the queen and her dwarfs that while she slept she stole small pieces from the lives of those who fell asleep. She continues, saying that while asleep she collected her “youth… beauty and … power” and created her army of “slaves” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43).

Infuriated by the princess and her idea for the queen to fall under her rule and “love” her (Gaiman, 2014, p. 50), the queen hands the spindle over to the old woman who stabs the princess with it. At first nothing changes, but then the princess begins to bleed and blood stains her white dress and soon she is turned into a pile of dust and bones on the floor (Gaiman, 2014). At this, the sleepwalkers awake and make it up the stairs to find the old woman asleep in the bed and a pile of dust and bones on the floor.

The queen leaves the castle and decides not to turn east and head back to her fiancé and wedding, but instead chooses to go west (Gaiman, 2014, p. 57), because she realises that she has more adventures before her and can determine her own future.

4.4.3 Feminist Analysis 4.4.3.1 Snow White The queen, who calls off her wedding in search of Sleeping Beauty deep in the woods, is most definitely the heroine of Gaiman’s tale. The references to her looks and past life experiences show that she is indeed Snow White, the heroine from another popular fairy tale about a young girl who falls asleep for a year until her handsome hero rescues her. In Gaiman (2014) she is described as having a “pale” skin and “raven- black hair” which are the typical characteristics of the Snow White character (p. 11). This, along with the reference to her having previously been asleep for a full year (p. 11 & 43) and her contingent of dwarfs, all symbolise that she is indeed this fairy tale ‘princess’.

Along with her physical attributes, the queen is also not provided a name in the tale. Gaiman does not even call her Snow White, but only alludes, through his descriptions, to the fact that she is this character. However, it is not only this character which is not given a name, all the other characters’ names are not shared either and Gaiman makes a point of emphasising his choice to leave out names completely as he states that “names are in short supply in this telling” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 14).

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 145 Although comments on the queen’s looks are evident in the tale, which present the queen as physically attractive, Gaiman’s character is not limited to her physical attributes. Instead, she is given power, knowledge and independence. Through placing his own spin on this fairy tale, Gaiman does not present this character in the way one would typically expect. The Grimm Brothers’ Little Snow White tale holds the story line of a beautiful, fair and pure young girl who is envied by an older woman because of her immense beauty (The Grimm Brothers, 1909). In the tale the young girl is everything that patriarchy expects of a young girl: she is beautiful, kind and more than happy to accept the role of housekeeper and caretaker to a number of dwarfs. She resembles the perfect patriarchal mould of a woman. With this in mind, Gaiman’s representation of Snow White here is a complete contrast, and hence, through presenting her in a way which provides her with more strength and individuality, he is able to critique gender roles and expectations.

When the dwarfs reach the queen, she is dressed in a wedding dress “whiter than the snow” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 11). By dressing her in this attire, the queen is represented as a typical woman created by patriarchal standards and their assigned gender roles. As a woman, she is expected to marry and happily settle down with a family, but Gaiman’s heroine does not feel this way at all, and seems to want to draw out her singlehood.

Marriage, just as in the traditional Sleeping Beauty tales, plays an interesting role in Gaiman’s tale, and the queen looks at this relationship very differently from Perrault and the Grimm’s characters. At the beginning of the tale, the reader is introduced to the thoughts of the queen as she dreads her own wedding. She sees marriage as something that would end her life and her ability to make her own decisions (Gaiman, 2014). These first few lines introduce the queen to the reader and, after only one page, it is obvious that she is not a ‘normal’ queen who accepts the usual female gender role. Instead, she is anxious about having to marry and does not think twice before deciding to go on her journey to find the sleeping princess. Similarly to Ritchie’s Cecilia character, Gaiman uses Snow White to refute the typical expectation of marriage. Rubin (2004, p. 787) further states that marriage is a sex/gender system which enforces patriarchal expectations of males and females, so she maintains that it must be contrasted and opposed in order to rid society of gendered expectations altogether. As Gaiman’s Snow White represents a subverted version of the typical system of

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 146 marriage, he is able to place Rubin’s theory into practice and provide a plausible opposition to this specific patriarchal sex/gender system. Furthermore, she appears to be dominant in the relationship with her soon-to-be groom, representing yet another reversal of traditional gender roles. When she decides to leave, she does not ask whether she may leave, or even consult his opinion on the matter, but instead she tells him she is leaving. When he gets upset, she tells him “not to take on so” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 12), but to calm himself down and not to be angered by her decision. She “chuck[s]” him under his chin, which is to touch his chin as one would a child (or someone inferior) and “kiss[es] him until he smile[s]” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 12). Her actions resemble more masculine behaviour, and her placating comment that she will still marry him when she returns “even if he was but a prince and she a queen” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 12), a statement which degrades the prince’s status even more. By presenting the reader with this communication between the queen and her prince, Gaiman is able to present the disparate relationships between these two characters while showing the queen to be both powerful and independent.

It is not, however, only in her relationship with the prince that the queen is presented as in control. When she calls for her minister and informs him that he is to look after the kingdom when she is gone, she says “he should do his best neither to lose it nor break it” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 12). This comment allows one to think that she does not trust this man to care for her kingdom. According to patriarchal structures, women are provided very little power and control over politics (and most other aspects of society), yet in Gaiman’s tale the minister is not fully trusted to have the wisdom or wit to care for the kingdom. Lastly, the relationship between the queen and the dwarfs who travel with her also emphasise the relationships between men and women. Throughout their journey, the dwarfs look to the queen for her knowledge and advice (Gaiman, 2014). She seems to have all the answers, of which they have none.

To emphasise this, the dwarfs often comment, “you are very wise” and “you always were very wise” whenever the queen provides them with important information or has an idea of what to do next (Gaiman, 2014, p. 17). Gaiman presents his heroine as an educated woman, again breaking the patriarchal stereotype that women lack sense and sensibility, certainly less than men. Examples of her educated thoughts and powerful demeanour can be seen in Gaiman (2014) when she concludes that those who sleep do not die of starvation, but the magic of the spell is able to keep them alive,

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 147 even though they do not eat (p. 17). Further, the queen is able to read and remember her maps and tales enough to recall how to get to the sleeping princess’s castle (p. 19), and especially when she comes up with the successful idea to burn the rose bushes in order to pass through them (p. 37). The extent of her knowledge and logic is shown when she burns down the bushes, as she is able to come up with another way to enter the castle rather than walking through the bushes, something (by looking at the dead men who remain trapped in the branches) which is not possible. The bravery and heroism of the men seems to have led them to their deaths in the bushes, however, the queen is able to use her logic and knowledge to find another way. This discussion of logic can be contrasted to Carter’s (1975) tale where the soldier is described as rational. Where Carter represents her male character as a symbol of logic and modern knowledge, Gaiman uses his heroine to symbolise these same traits. Thus, he creates a powerful woman, one even more powerful than men.

Important to Gaiman’s heroine is the fact that she is the Snow White character. In her fairy tale she is cursed to sleep until true love’s first kiss wakes her, and Gaiman tells the reader that she slept for a year before this kiss arrives. The kiss she received, which awakened her, seems to have not only awoken her physically, but can be seen as having symbolically awoken her from patriarchy. Within the tale, sleep can be recognised as representing a blind acceptance of patriarchal roles and gender expectations. Those who fall under the sleeping plague can be seen as those who follow patriarchal rules and do not make decisions on their own. These people are asleep because they allow something else to control them. They, thus, represent people who blindly accept the gendered expectations put in place by patriarchal society. This means that they go about on a daily basis, acting according prescribed roles, and become like a flock of sheep that follow one another for no apparent reason. This sheep mentality is represented by the zombie-like hoard of sleepwalkers who chase the queen and dwarfs.

The queen’s power is further represented as she is strong enough to overcome the sleeping plague. Because she has slept before and in her own tale was awakened from her sleep by a prince, she is now able to resist the sleep (Gaiman, 2014). Within the traditional fairy tales, sleep symbolises the gendered expectations of women being silent and submissive, all the while waiting for a prince to rescue them. So Gaiman’s queen’s ability to resist a helpless, comatose life spent waiting for a hero to rescue her

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 148 is what makes her a strong character. By being able to oppose patriarchal expectation, the queen becomes a truly modern, empowered female character.

Furthermore, when they discover the sleeping princess, it is the queen that decides to awaken the princess and bestows upon her the necessary kiss. This act is also an inversion of the previous tales, enabling a woman to break another woman free from the confines of her sleeping state.

Once the commotion has ended, the queen decides to go East, instead of West. This decision not to return to her kingdom or husband-to-be reflects her decision to take charge of her life. Dreading the life she must lead if she returns, such as the necessary dependence upon a man and the limitation of her assigned, dreary role, she chooses another path. Her decisions open up a new pathway for women who are limited by patriarchal expectations, as it states that “there are always choices” to go against the patriarchal grain (Gaiman, 2014, p. 57) and she chooses to be free. Throughout the tale, Gaiman presents Snow White as behaving in ways typically expected of men. Thus, she performs her gender in a new way which allows her to take on the personality traits and dominant power that patriarchy sets aside for men only. Through this character, Gaiman is able to bring forward Judith Butler’s (1988) theory of gender performativity, which states that gender is not a natural phenomenon (as patriarchy maintains), but is constructed through the behaviour and language of a particular society. Therefore, Butler states that people need to behave in alternative ways in order to enforce that gendered expectations are not natural law and can be altered and diversified. As Snow White represents a female who is not limited to what Friedan (1963, p. 31) calls the “chains” of patriarchy’s gendered expectations, but behaves freely as she desires, Gaiman is able to provide an alternative to typical and traditional gender expectations and, thus, show that the constructed gender expectations and limitations can be recreated.

4.4.3.2 Sleeping Beauty The Sleeping Beauty in the woods is initially represented only through her physical attributes. As Gaiman first introduces her when she is already under the sleeping spell, her looks are all that can be used to describe her. The princess in Gaiman (2014) is described as “fair” (p. 24), with hair that is the “golden yellow of meadow flowers”, lips “the pink of the roses” and her pale skin described as “creamy” (p. 29). Along with her

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 149 ‘perfect’ looks, the princess is also dressed in a white dress — symbolising both her purity and pre-marital state. The representation of the sleeping princess in this way is a picture of what the male gaze sees as beautiful and perfect. She is silent in her slumber and seems to be patiently waiting for her prince to rescue her. Her attire also suggests that she is waiting to be married off to the man who can reach her and wake her with a kiss. Therefore, at first glance, the princess seems to be the typical fairy tale princess awaiting rescue by her prince so she can assume her expected societal roles.

However, this appearance is definitely not reality. The Sleeping Beauty in Gaiman’s tale is not this disempowered woman who waits for her prince charming to save her. Instead, she has used her years asleep to steal the life of the men, women and children who have also fallen asleep in the castle (Gaiman, 2014). Originally, this princess was an elderly woman, similar to the old woman who spins in the original tales. She was not beautiful and so did not fit in with the male gaze nor gendered expectations of the perfect woman. It seems her ultimate goal was to become beautiful and so she devises her plan to become young again. Her plan involved pricking the finger of the young child who walked into the room in which she is spinning and in doing this ensures that the girl cannot fall asleep. Once she fell asleep, the old woman became beautiful and young again and hence she was able to “un[do] the ravages of time and [she] built [her]self a world of sleeping slaves” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43). She becomes an accepted female through the male gaze, once again.

As she becomes beautiful, what is important is that her beauty is not what limits her or negates her intelligence. Instead, it is what gives her power and control as the men who come to the castle to rescue her risk their own lives trying to ‘save’ her from her sleep. Gaiman’s Sleeping Beauty character has found a way to use what makes her feminine (expectations of beauty, silence and patience) in a way which gives her the strength and the ability to control others. This modern, independent Sleeping Beauty brings forward a new female character, one who does not simply accept her femininity and give in to gendered expectations, but uses her femininity to her advantage and, in turn, her femininity, silence and beauty are what give her the independence and control she has. This is emphasised by Luce Irigaray (1985a, p. 76) who states that in order to question or fight against patriarchal dominance and rule, women need to become feminine and accept their womanhood. She maintains that women who act as masculine in order to represent equality, only succeed in proving that masculinity

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 150 is superior. So she asks for women to become ‘women’ and not to act in masculine ways to prove that they can be masculine. Gaiman’s Sleeping Beauty character does this as she uses the expectations of women to her advantage and is able to rule a number of kingdoms because of it.

This power, however, stems from her being a witch and inherently evil, just as Snow White’s step mother is in the original tale, titled Snowdrop, by The Grimm Brothers (1909). Both of these characters strived for beauty and youth, to be “the fairest of them all” (The Grimm Brothers, 1909, p. 161), but received a death sentence instead. Therefore, the actions both of these women take to become the ideal patriarchal woman, lead them to their end. Here Gaiman is warning women to be careful in their pursuits of beauty and femininity, or risk facing a similar end to the sleeping princess. By killing off the woman who seeks to be feminine and beautiful with all her soul, but letting the queen who is independent, heroic and intelligent live, Gaiman shows what he sees to be the fate of women everywhere. Those who work only to become accepted by men and their male gaze are likely to become extremely unhappy and, more than that, evil and selfish; but those who take their lives into their own hands and realise that they have choices are likely to live happy and adventurous lives. The image when those awakened from sleep enter the room on top of the castle represents this dynamic. When they enter, the queen stands tall and triumphant over the pile of dust (that was once the sleeping princess) and the old woman sleeping in the bed. The queen is pictured as victorious and the sleeping princess as defeated.

Through her sleep, the princess has created “slaves” who are what she calls “biddable” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43). They are blind to the reality of the princess’s evil and follow her without question. As the princess seeks “youth… beauty and … power” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43), these sleepwalkers have helped her to achieve them. Gaiman’s sleepwalkers can be seen as a representation of the general public who follow the dominant, patriarchal ideology. They accept that beauty and gender roles are ‘law’ and do not question otherwise. Gaiman is making a statement that those who do not question the status quo, but ignorantly follow it, also have a hand in entrenching the status quo. It is only through ‘waking up’ and acting against patriarchal rule and gendered expectations (just like the queen) that change can be made in the world. This means that when it comes out that the princess has actually used her sleep to remain youthful and beautiful, and has used her beauty to control others; it becomes

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 151 clear that she must die. Once she is dead, the sleepwalkers awaken and soon find themselves in the room up the stairs of the castle (Gaiman, 2014). Their waking symbolises society’s realisation that patriarchy negatively affects the lives of individuals. As they recognise this reality, something can be done to work against it, and ultimately, change it.

4.4.3.3 The Old Woman Unlike the other old women presented by Perrault and the Grimm’s tales, Gaiman’s elderly character is not as evil and deceitful as one expects. When the reader first meets this woman, she is presented as angry and vindictive. Vexed to haunt the castle in which the princess sleeps, she makes her way up to the sleeping princess and says “if I drove this spindle through your heart, then you’d not be so pretty-pretty would you?” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 29). This comment alludes to the fairy tale archetype which maintains that elderly women often work to disrupt the lives of young, beautiful women. In addition to this, the old woman’s physical features add to the picture of her. She has hardly any hair on her head and “hobble[s]” when she walks (Gaiman, 2014, p. 24). The discussion about the animals she “butcher[s]” and eats until they “crawl with blueflies and maggots” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 24), brings forth a horrid and nauseating image, which furthers Gaiman’s picture of this old woman as an evil crone.

However, although the old woman seems vindictive, just like the sleeping princess, in reality, she is not what she appears. She is not the evil force in this tale, but is actually the victim. At a young age her own life was taken from her, as she was destined to be awake and alone in the castle as the princess and the rest of the kingdom sleep (Gaiman, 2014, p. 43). So it is the beautiful princess who has destroyed the old woman’s life, a contrast to the typical the fairy tale archetype. Through her need to become the ideal woman for the male gaze and a typical portrayal of gender expectations, the sleeping princess has not only affected her own life and become evil. Beyond this she has hindered the life of a young girl, who has now become an unhappy, old crone. With this, Gaiman is stating that seeking and blindly following the gender expectations of patriarchy hugely impacts young children who learn from others older than them to strive for beauty and patriarchal ‘perfection’ as well. Ultimately, this takes away the life and potential of the young child who becomes ruined by others’ quests for beauty and perfection.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 152 Finally, the old woman is able to kill the sleeping princess who took away her life. Gaiman’s message here is that the only way to end the vicious cycle, which includes those who seek for patriarchal perfection, by infecting the lives of younger children who are initially full of potential, is to completely get rid of those people who blindly follow gender expectations. Through the death of the princess, the young child becomes an elderly woman who is able to rest in peace.

4.4.3.4 The Dwarves In original tales, men are strong, handsome and are often sent on quests. The dwarfs do indeed engage in a quest to find a sleeping maiden; however, their lack of power and control throughout the quest demonstrates that they are a contrast to usual male fairy tale characters. They are not the heroes of previous tales, independent and resourceful, but are governed by an intelligent heroine.

The dwarfs are not the typical male figures most commonly presented in fairy tales. They are not handsome, masculine or very intelligent. Firstly, their lack of knowledge is shown through their relationship with the queen. While on their quest, the dwarfs are often puzzled about what happens around them and are unable to come up with logical reasons or solutions to problems. However, each time they wonder about something, the queen provides them with her logical, thought-out response. One example of this can be taken from when the dwarfs wonder about whether the sleepers will die or if the magic will allow them to sleep unharmed for a long period of time. The queen provides them with her insightful answer: “I presume the latter… obviously they have not starved or aged or died” (Gaiman, 2014, p. 17). Thus, the relationship between the illogical and uneducated dwarfs and the knowledgeable queen is a contrast to traditional male-female relationships. Within the patriarchal society, women are seen as best suited to work in the household and so their education was very limited. Even the traditional Snowdrop tale represents the dwarfs as the force of wisdom in the tale, and von Buchholtz (2007, p. 9) maintains that dwarfs are often “a representation of natural wisdom, sort of street-smartness.” Traditionally, they are the ones who provide Snow White with the knowledge and protection that she needs to avoid the evil queen. However, in his tale, Gaiman paints a picture of men who are less educated and, in some ways, even dependent upon a woman for guidance and knowledge.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 153 In addition to their dim-wittedness, these men are diminutive in size. Although Gaiman does not discuss the physical features or provide names for the dwarfs, traditional fairy tales have already created a general dwarf archetype. Dwarfs are often short, stocky, old men with long beards and a grumpy attitude (Haase, 2008b). Gaiman supports this archetype once with his comment about one of the dwarfs who has an “angry, brown beard” (p. 19). In the Grimm Brothers’ tale, the men are separated from the rest of the society and live in a forest where they make their living from the mines, suggesting their anti-social behaviour. As past tales have represented dwarfs this way, it seems obvious to assume that Gaiman’s dwarfs also take on these characteristics (as he does not state otherwise).

What makes his use of these characters so interesting and such a contrast to tradition is that these are the only male characters that have a physical role in the tale. There is no hero who comes to save the ‘helpless’ princess from her doom and the prince, the queen’s bridegroom, makes no appearance in the tale. This means that the only representation of men used by Gaiman is the small and dim-witted dwarfs who possess limited power. He has replaced characters that represent handsomeness, heroism, knowledge and overall masculinity with those that represent meekness, weakness and a lack of wisdom. This is a subversion of the original tales, which most definitely portray males that have features considered necessary for masculinity. As they are the only male representatives, the dwarfs’ characteristics and roles mock the usual, masculine expectation of men as powerful, as they are so very different to the expected male fairy tale character. This sardonic portrayal of the dwarfs subverts the general gender relationship structures. By placing these men right next to the queen, the dwarfs are emasculated even further, as next to the wise and powerful queen, they come across as even meeker, weaker and less educated than already perceived. This contrast between the queen and her dwarf followers not only diminishes the status of the dwarfs, but allows for the queen to be represented as immensely powerful and educated. Just as Gaiman’s representation of the queen is a demonstration of Butler’s (1988, p. 531) gender performativity theory, so is his representation of the dwarfs. By allowing the only men in the tale to act in ways less masculine than expected of men, Gaiman brings forward a new picture of male behaviour. With this he makes the point that masculinity is not the only available behavioural performance for men. In addition, by providing an alternative to typical patriarchy, he shows that men are able to take on

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 154 a number of different behaviour traits (masculine or feminine). Neither of which should be considered the traits of males or females, but simply a pool of traits from which individuals can select and use to create and perform their own gender. Thus, Gaiman’s tale provides alternatives to all the gender roles presented in the original versions and so he shows his reader that these alternatives are possible and equal to one another.

In conclusion, the remakes analysed above show that, once again, it seems that the fairy tale tradition is changing. Modern tales, which are being constructed and published, are directed at adult audiences, as they cover more mature content and discussions. All of the remakes presented in this chapter, each written in its unique time period and social structure, have been constructed in order to convey a particular message to its readers, one which examines patriarchally dominated societies and their expectations, and either questions or provides alternatives to these inequalities. This means that new, feminine characters and relationships are being constructed as fairy tale remakes are created. Interestingly, the most recent remakes have intensely critiqued patriarchal ideals and represented dynamic female gender roles, a development which symbolises that in contemporary times, more than ever before, male dominance is being questioned and/or altered.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 155 Conclusion The history of the fairy tale is an extremely complex one. They originated as tales that were told to older audiences for entertainment and to emphasise social expectations. Although fairy tales became a popular form of literature for children, adults never lost interest in the genre. This is specifically evident in this century where fairy tales are being remade and recreated for an older audience. However, as these tales began to be used as children’s literature, writers not only aimed to entertain their child-readers, but wanted to educate them as well. In fact, it is interesting to note that the original writers and publishers of tales actually aimed very much of their efforts at socialising their young readers through the stories they published. In this way, each tale portrayed the society in which it was written and, in turn, moulded the minds of the young readers so that they too would exhibit the roles and behaviours expected of them. The early societies, in which traditional fairy tales were published, however, were filled with gender inequalities and specific expectations of men and women. This means that traditional tales written in eras and societies where limited opportunities beyond strict gendered expectations and gender inequality was prevalent, made use of characters, themes and storylines which also included these expectations and inequalities. However, in more modern times, in which gender expectations and inequality is more seriously questioned and contested, characters, themes and storylines represent this more dynamic approach.

Theorists Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Luce Irigaray, Gayle Rubin, Judith Butler and Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, discuss this gender inequality which was so evident in early, traditional societies. Each theorist discusses the issues they have with the patriarchal structure and gendered expectations of men and women and provides her theory as to what can be done to rectify this inequality. Simone de Beauvoir stated that society’s gender requirements create specific expectations which mould males and females. This, subsequently, highlights how literature is also commonly used to structure the roles and responsibilities of males and females in society and so allows one to analyse each tale by determining the messages sent to their readers. In addition, analysing texts over a number of years provides a representation of how social structures changed.

Betty Friedan adds to this as she discusses that society places “chains” on women and these limit the possibilities available to women (Friedan, 1963, p. 31). She states

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 156 that these “chains” are difficult to get out of as they are often locked into the minds of the women themselves and create what she terms the feminine mystique. This mystique incorrectly portrays to women that they are happy and at their best when they embody patriarchal expectations. However, Friedan emphasises that women must work to release themselves from these chains and this can be done through altering and subverting the expectations of women. Her concepts allowed for the female heroine in each tale to be scrutinised for whether they are limited by the restraints and continue the mystique, or challenge the status quo and voice their unhappiness in their scripted gendered roles. This means that the heroines who actively question their roles represent more modernised tales and societies in which gendered expectations and the rules of patriarchy are disputed.

Luce Irigaray (1985) places emphasis on women embracing their femininity and differences to men. Through this, she encourages women to adopt what makes them women to show that women and feminism are equally as important as men and masculinity. Through analysing fairy tales, Irigaray’s theory was used in analysing those female characters that used their femininity and womanhood to empower themselves. These characters, hence, follow Irigaray’s views which see it better for woman to gain power from their femininity than take on masculinity and accept that masculinity is the superior power. Furthermore, Irigaray maintains that the dialogue of male and female characters resembles their position within their society. This allowed the analysis of the fairy tales to discuss the discourse of each male and female character and aided in developing an idea of their roles in the society and the extent of their patriarchal limitations.

The work of Gayle Rubin (2004) emphasises sex/gender systems and how they are present in every society construction, as it is these systems which determine the gender relations and expectations of individuals within the society. Through the analysis of the characters’ traits, the discourse used by each character and the events that occur in a particular tale, the sex/gender system of each tale has been identified.

Judith Butler (1988) maintains that the expectations placed on men and women are constructed by the behaviours and dialogue commonly expressed by them. Therefore, the only way to overcome gendered expectations is for society to behave and speak in new, dynamic ways. This theory allowed for an analysis of the fairy tales, which

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 157 examined the behaviour of the characters and determined whether the characters were acting according to traditional gendered expectations or in new, vibrant ways and pushing the boundaries of traditional expectations.

Finally, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar (2004) use their feminist literary criticism to emphasise the common portrayals of females in texts. These portrayals are limited in patriarchal texts and thus suggest similar limitations in the behaviour of the reader. However, they state that developing new female characteristics will create new possibilities for women. The analysis of the female portrayals in a particular tale thus lead to an understanding of the extent to which each tale continues traditional gendered expectations or provides alternatives to them.

While many texts have been created which aim to restructure the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale, this analysis of the original and a selection of its remakes has identified an interesting trend. By analysing these tales throughout the past four centuries and representing them on a timeline, one is able to determine the trend taking place in fairy tale remakes in order to see that, as tales are published in more modern times, so the characters, relationships and themes evident in each tale become more ‘modern’ and less traditionally patriarchal. This means that, on the one hand, as society changes its gendered views, expectations and behaviours, so tales and remakes of tales begin to change along the same lines. On the other hand, the tales and remakes created also have an impact on the society that reads them. Ultimately then, through analysing the texts and societies in which each text was constructed, the development of these texts and the changes in gender expectations within the society becomes evident. Thus, developing from the original tales that aimed at educating and socialising young children towards patriarchal expectations and gendered roles, new renditions of the tale are aimed at questioning and offering alternatives for these patriarchal gendered expectations.

Initially, Charles Perrault and the Grimm Brothers published their tales in societies which established clearly distinctive gender roles. Women were seen as less competent and capable than men and so their roles were often limited to the private domain. Society assumed that men and women were different according to their contrasting physical makeup and so men were expected to take on particular masculine behaviours and practices and women feminine behaviours and practices.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 158 Masculinity and femininity were perceived as set structures, where the characteristics of masculinity were expected for men and femininity was to be internalised by women. The masculine expectations required men to be powerful, controlling, heroic, adventurous and handsome — if they did not portray these characteristics, they were not accepted by the society at large. Along the same lines, women were only accepted by these societies if they exhibited feminine qualities, and this femininity meant that they had to be beautiful, submissive, obedient caregivers. These expected characteristics not only shaped men and women, but also created typical gender relationships. These relationships involved a man who is in charge of the household, who makes the decisions and is in control, and a woman who quietly and without question takes care of her husband and children.

This societal structure was mirrored by the tales that were published within this time. Male characters were portrayed as masculine, heroic and handsome while female characters were feminine, submissive and beautiful. The relationships between these characters are both unequal yet representative of patriarchal expectations. Both princes of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers are said to be attractive and powerful heroes who save their princesses from doom. They actively work to find the princess, who simply lies asleep, waiting for the prince to arrive. So it is through his actions that the princess is saved. She takes on her expected submissive role and is not able to save herself without the prince. Perrault’s tale takes this submissiveness even further and includes an interaction between the princess and her ogress mother-in-law. The princess is unable to save herself and her children from the ogress and it is only through the bravery of the prince that the ogress is killed and the princess is saved once more.

Beauty is also significant to the stories as both writers describe their princesses as breathtakingly beautiful while painting the other female characters as old and ugly. In fact, they are evil women who work towards ending the beautiful reign and life of the princess. These characters are, hence, immensely disliked because of their actions and so just as patriarchy does not accept these women as acceptable, the reader is likely not to accept these women as well. Therefore, the beautiful, submissive female character is adored, while the aggressive, powerful, less-attractive woman is not. As these characters and gender relationships portray patriarchal expectations, they not only follow the expectations of the society, but also maintain these expectations.

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 159 Anne Thackeray Richie published her Sleeping Beauty remake in 1890. However, the society in which she published was already beginning to see a difference in the way men and women were expected to act. The feminist movement was just beginning during this time, as women began to fight for the basic rights to education, voting and inheritance. Richie’s tale reflects these developments as her characters and their relationships break some of the boundaries of traditional gender expectations although hints of male domination and female subordination are still evident. Her female character is silent and submissive, beautiful but housebound, serving in the domestic realm expected of women. It is as if she is asleep. Her views of marriage resemble a more modern, independent perspective as Cecilia initially does not want to be married. Even when she meets Frank and he embraces her, Cecilia is totally horrified. However, even though Cecilia is resistant in the beginning, once she meets her ‘prince charming’ who comes to rescue her, she is excited by the idea of marriage and living the life of wife and mother, suggesting that patriarchy wins in the end. Just as in Perrault’s and the Grimm Brothers’ tales, Richie includes other female characters who limit this ‘sleeping’ beauty. Mrs Lulsworth (her mother) and Miss Bowley (her care- taker) limit Cecilia’s actions and this is what makes her into an incapable character. Even Mrs Dormer (her grandmother) orders Cecilia to marry and states that it is unacceptable that Cecilia is already over the age of twenty and still not married. Frank is another character that pushes Cecilia to ignore her thoughts of not marrying and, from the second he meets her, forces his affection onto her and Cecilia has little choice in the matter. Therefore, Richie’s text represents the struggle that the initial feminist movement was met with. Each step of the way, women (and men) who questioned patriarchy and fought for gender equality were brought down by others in the society who wanted things to stay the way they had always been.

Almost a century later, in 1979, Angela Carter published her remake of Sleeping Beauty, titled The Lady of the House of Love. This was when the second wave of feminism arose and had grown in power and voice. Women had already won freedoms in many spheres and continued to fight for equality in the social positioning of men and women. Carter’s tale speaks to this fight as she presents characters which are not typical of patriarchally enforced gender expectations. Her heroine (a countess) is in charge and her vampirism gives her power and control over the men who enter her chambers. Her power and independence continue although the crone works towards

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 160 ensuring that the countess remains entrapped in the castle, a place which resembles the private, domestic sphere and the patriarchal archetype thrust on women that they must be both loving wives and caring mothers working in their households. The officer is another contrasted character as he is not represented as masculine and heroic, but rather is portrayed as extremely naive and a lot less powerful than the countess. As a result, these two characters have taken on the expected roles of the others’ gender and thus offer a subverted image of patriarchy. It appears that the countess is still haunted by gendered expectations, which is represented by her entrapment in the castle which limits her to the domestic realm, and the wedding dress she always wears which limits her to the expectation that she must marry. However, these expectations do not force the countess into submission and a ‘happily ever after’. Rather, when she takes off her glasses and wedding dress, she becomes free of patriarchal expectations and the countess realises that she is free to be her own person. So Carter represents her heroine as powerful enough to overcome the limitations placed on her by society. The story thus suggests that women readers must take this stance in their lives as well. In doing this, she creates a new female identity; one which is powerful, strong and independent of men and breaks the binary expectation that men are masculine and women are feminine. This tale takes the subtle hints of feminism evident in Richie’s tale a step further and pushes the reader towards action.

Robert Coover’s rendition of this fairy tale, published in 1996, takes a completely new stance to Sleeping Beauty and restructures the tale. Writing in what was the third wave of feminism, the society in which he wrote was a lot more open to feminism and the questioning and contradicting of gender hierarchies and expectations of men and women. Through the use of postmodernist thinking, Coover was able to construct a tale which reinvents the original, traditional tales and in doing so probes alternatives for gendered expectations. Coover’s sleeping princess is initially depicted as the typical submissive, beautiful woman. However, it soon becomes evident that she is not what she seems. The princess actively questions the role that she has been put in and is unhappy about it. In addition, her beauty is what pushes many suitors to seek her, and meet their death in the briars around the castle. So her femininity allows her to actively ‘attack’ the patriarchal men who want to claim her physically or maritally as their own, and make her their wife. Although she is defiant, the crone tries to limit the princess’s defiance and voice in the tale. She does this by calling her names and telling

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 161 her to be quiet when she moans about her position in life. With the crone, Coover is able to examine the common occurrence wherein elderly, patriarchal women actively attempt to take away the happiness and freedom of a young and beautiful woman. Coover’s inclusion of the terrifying crone’s tales and the princess’s dreams that depict men and husbands who care more for themselves than their wives or the women they rescue, shed a new light on patriarchal men. Although they are heroic and handsome (typical patriarchal expectations of men), these men often have wives and families, but still lustfully seek the sleeping princess. The fact that they kiss the princess awake even though they are already married takes away the fantasy that men and marriage are the ultimate for a women. More than that, it shows that the patriarchal expectations of women who must wait patiently for heroic men to save them from their dreadful lives are indeed fantasy. In addition, it shows that, in reality, gender relationships that follow patriarchal construction often do not turn out as happily-ever-after as assumed. The prince in the tale who the reader accompanies through the briars has thoughts that emphasise even further this phenomenon. Initially, he is depicted as solely interested in rescuing the princess, because he knows that this will enhance his own status in the kingdom. It is only through his struggles that he realises that he cannot overcome the briars. It is through this realisation that he alters his macho ideas of rescue and seeks her out of ‘love’. His realisation that the briars are not a test of his heroism and bravery (which he lacks in any case because his initial reason for entering the briars is not to rescue the princess), but rather a test of his morals and judgements stresses the importance of ethics and morality as superior to patriarchal heroism, bravery and handsomeness. As the backdrop in which Coover wrote involved a broader, stronger feminist paradigm than Carter and, especially Richie’s society and era, he is able to construct a tale with fluid characters that use their gendered preconceptions to highlight and question gendered expectations and patriarchal roles.

Lastly, Neil Gaiman’s rendition titled The Sleeper and the Spindle was published in 2014. As he wrote so recently and in a time where gender identity is so fluid and contrasts to patriarchal expectations are so widely accepted by many, Gaiman’s tale represents these post-modernist views as well. His incorporation of two traditional tales, Sleeping Beauty and Snow White, allows him to present female characters who are independent of men and create their own reality. The first of these is the queen, who is in actual fact Snow White although never formally introduced as such. The

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 162 queen resembles many things which are patriarchally expected of men — heroic and brave, intelligent and powerful. She is in charge of an entire kingdom and has a number of male subjects below her, including her fiancé, the prince who follows her commands. The quest she goes on with the dwarfs is similar to those embarked on by male fairy tale characters and again places the queen in a position which subverts her expected female role. As she goes on the quest with three emasculated, simple- minded, unattractive dwarfs who can do very little for themselves, it is apparent that she is in charge, and assuming the masculine lead. The second powerful female character is thought to be the sleeping princess, who is actually not a submissive, useless woman as expected. Her master plan is to use her sleep to gain the life force from others so she can regain her beauty and youth, all the things expected by patriarchy. Additionally, she is attempting to create a zombie-like army who are willing to follow her every step. However, her striving to become beautiful takes away and destroys the life of the genuine princess who ages into an ugly crone while she is left to guard the castle and the princess. The destruction of this young, innocent life allows Gaiman to draw attention to the ruthless pursuit to fit in with the male gaze and patriarchal perfection. It highlights how this pursuit destroys the life of young children whose freedom and independence are taken away from them as they learn from older role models to blindly follow patriarchal expectations. Thus, with the modern backdrop of feminism and a society which more widely accepts alternative roles for men and women, Gaiman is able to create characters and gender relationships which completely contradict and subvert traditional gender roles altogether.

This analysis has clearly shown the trend of Sleeping Beauty fairy tale remakes in recent times to become more dynamic and represent alternative gender expectations, characteristics and behaviours. It does, however, leave an area for future research and analysis. In order to extend this study, research can be conducted on alternative fairy tales. The study of common, traditional fairy tales such as Cinderella, Snow White, Beauty and the Beast, Little Red Riding Hood, and many others and their own remakes could provide a fascinating interrogation of the influences of societal prescriptions and perspectives.

The new practice of recreating fairy tales into modern film productions can also be analysed in future research. Comparing and contrasting original fairy tales with the recent film adaptions will lead to a discussion of techniques used in filmmaking to

Monique Banks: An analysis of gender transformations in the Sleeping Beauty fairy tale page 163 portray fairy tales in new ways, and to enhance contemporary societal standards and structures. Hence, taking the research of fairy tales and expanding it from only written work to film would allow for an even broader discussion of the fairy tale genre.

In conclusion, through each tale it is clear to see how patriarchy influenced gender roles and, through the stimulus of feminism, how those roles have changed, thus providing alternative narratives within societies. Society has adapted and become more accepting of female independence, equality and freedom and at the same time, the traditional tales of Perrault and the Grimm Brothers have been adapted and re- made into new tales. The updated, more modern tales incorporate characters that represent this gender equality and freedom. Thus, what can be concluded is that fairy tales are closely related to the society in which each is written and published and so they are a great tool which can be used not only to identify the accepted gender archetypes in particular time periods and societies, but also to track social developments and changes in gender expectations over the years.

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