Plant and Environment

Plant and Environment https://journals.pagepal.org/index.php/plant-and-environment

Application of Bioremediation as sustainable approach to remediate heavy metal and pesticide polluted environments

Muhammad Mahroz Hussain*1,2, Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi*1,3, Waqas Mohy-Ud-Din1, Fazila Younas1, Muhammad Tahir Shahzad1, Muhammad Usman Ghani1,5, Muhammad Ashar Ayub1 and Abdul Qadeer1 1Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan-38040. 2University of Wuppertal, School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Institute of Foundation Engineering, Water- and Waste-Management, Laboratory of Soil- and Groundwater-Management, Pauluskirchstraße 7, 42285 Wuppertal, Germany 3Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, 23 St Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3UU, Scotland, UK

Article Info Abstract

Keyword s: Bioremediation is a technique, which involves different organisms and different Pollutants types, sources, substances to treat or detoxify the pollutants in an eco-friendly way. It involves plants, contamination, toxicity, microbes, fungus, and different nutrients and gasses. It can detoxify an extensive array remediation erosion of pollutants both the organic and inorganic e.g. heavy metals and different types of

pesticides. The use of microbes for this purpose is the most common practice as these Date: are ecofriendly and can be used anywhere i.e. in-situ and ex-situ. The pesticides and Received: 7 April 2020 the heavy metals are predictable. Regardless of their harmful effects, their use is Accepted: 16 September 2020 increasing. there are many techniques to cope with their harmful effects but there is Published: 15 February 2021 another issue regarding the side effects of these techniques. However, bioremediation is a sustainable way to get rid of pollutants from the contaminated sites as it leaves Volume: 01(02), 2021 detoxified products on the sites. In this review, we have discussed different types of pollutants, their sources, effects and remediation through a sustainable way with mechanisms, advantages along with the drawbacks with future needs of research.

helps to resolve the issues related to toxic metals (Borden, Introduction 2017; Hazen, 2018; Joye et al., 2018). In this technique, several plants, algae and microbial species are used to In the past century, the rapid development of remediate the contaminant from the environment in more industrialization, the rapid use of energy and the environment-friendly and cost-effective way (Ansari et al., exploitation of natural resources have been the main reasons 2016; Pandey et al., 2016). These plants can degrade, for the increase in pollution. Pollution has now seriously remove, immobilize or vaporize the pollutants on a wide threatened biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Various range area either the wetland or the terrestrial land system. toxic organic and inorganic pollutants are discharged into Phytoremediation is not a new technology, almost 300 years the water body, which further pollutes the soil and sediment. ago different types of plant species were utilized to clean up To overcome the pollution pressure, different approaches the wastewater (Qasim, 2017). The plant species like were used but due to limiting resources, extensive labor and Thlaspi caerulescens and Viola calaminaria were the first to environmental hazardous residues, these approaches were use as phytoremediator which could accumulate the discouraged. Phytoremediation is a green technology, which increased levels of heavy metals in their leaves (Carr et al., 2016). It has been reported that up to 0.6% Se can be accumulated in dry shoot biomass of Astragalus. One

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Plant and Environment Review Article

decade later, it was identified that up to 1% Ni could be It is best used in places with low levels of organic, nutrient accumulated in plant shoots (Yang et al., 2016). Extensive or metal contaminants and is suitable for one of five research has been carried out over the past ten years to applications: transformation, bioremediation of the investigate the mechanism of metal uptake by plant. rhizosphere, stabilization, extraction and rhizome filtration. Excessive metal enrichment is a phenomenon that is often The use of different processes of green plants for the associated with endemic types of metal-containing soils and detoxification, immobilization, and removal of an occurs only in a very small part of this metal plant (Hao et environmental pollutant from water, sediments or soil that al., 2019). They have been found in temperate and tropical are defensive against the pollutant (Jadia and Fulekar, 2009; environments on all continents. Known distribution centers Zhang et al., 2016). are Cuba, Brazil, Asia, New Caledonia, Southeast Asia, Using phytoremediation for soil contaminated with Southern Europe for Ni, Europe for Pb and Zn; Central and trace elements can represent an inexpensive bioremediation South Africa for Cu and Co. There are specific plant genera technology. It is possible to develop metal hyper- and families for example, Leucocroton (Senecio), accumulation systems that are required for HM polluted Asteraceae (Pentacalia), Euphorbiaceae (Phyllanthus), sites by introducing new features into transgenic plants with Brassicaceae (Alderaceae & Thlaspi) for nickel; and a high biomass content (Devi et al., 2017; Fai et al., 2018, Cruciferae (Thlaspi) for Zn remediation (Wang et al., 2016; Jesitha and Harikumar, 2018; Abid et al., 2019). Genetic Huang et al., 2018). manipulation of plants for phyto-therapy requires many Phytoremediation restores contaminated sites and uses optimization methods, as well as the mobilization of trace the plants natural characters to uptake, accumulate, store, amounts of HMs and their absorption in plant roots, stems degrade and remediate HM (McIntyre, 2003; Gómez et al., and other viable parts following detoxification and 2017; Sivarajasekar et al., 2018). During green revolution, distribution in plants (Labana et al., 2003; Qiu et al., 2007). pesticides and fertilizers polluted the soil with HM like Cd, This review aims to explain the sources and impacts of Pb, Ni, As and Hg. Pesticides, beside their biocidal and different pollutants on the living organisms as well as the fertilizing effects, contain considerable amount of HM in environment. Also, this review will highlight the approaches them which can be highly toxic and cause agricultural and mechanisms to cope with the enhanced pesticides diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases pollution globally, multiple and cost-effective ways to (Maipas et al., 2016; Bonner and Alavanja, 2017; Kabir et remediate the pollution, the major advantages and al., 2017). In addition, pesticides are becoming more disadvantages for using these approaches. expensive for farmers with increasing efficiency and selectivity. In the industrialized countries, however, the 1. Sources of organic and in-organic pollutants rapid transition from self-sufficient agriculture to intensive The HMs are defined as those elements that have higher agriculture has provided a way to fight the food security. In -3 past, legal context for the usage of pesticides and fertilizers atomic weights with density above 5 g cm . These are inevitable and cannot be avoided as they were found was implemented less frequently than in the present era naturally via. weathering (Alloway, 2013), volcanic (Rotter et al., 2018). In addition, society is less aware of the eruptions (Adamo et al., 2003), and fossil fuels (Callender, risks associated with pesticides and fertilizers. Enhanced 2003). Then used as raw and processing materials such as pesticides usage if on one hand providing us a path to fight the food security but on the other hand it also poses a threat platinum (Pt) in hydrogenation (Callender, 2003), arsenic to the environment especially the water bodies (Wong, (As) in pesticides (Hussain et al., 2019), cadmium (Cd) in fertilizers (Roberts, 2014) and other different industrial, 2018). domestic, agricultural and medical uses (Yedjou et al., However, this problem can be overcome by 2012). Pesticides contain HM as well as organic pollutants. phytoremediation, which can reduce organic and inorganic It is believed that almost all the HMs are widespread in the pollutants from the environment (Pascal-Lorber and environment due to anthropogenic and natural sources Laurent, 2011). Plants can bio accumulate, bio-transform (Kiran et al., 2008; Shan et al., 2010; Wei and Yang, 2010). and stabilize the pollutants (Li et al., 2003; Hermann et al., Hydrocarbon pollution is related to the combustion of fossil 2016). Other HM remediation technologies are expensive, fuels, oil pollution, and industrial and household waste. laborious and ecologically damaging. In contrast to organic Adjacent to refineries and fuel distributors, the pollutants, HM cannot be broken down. Therefore, concentration of hydrocarbons in sediments from transport immobilization is a best strategy for elimination of this activities and wastewater discharge is high (Medeiros et al., toxicity which is possible by using either the 2005; Garcia et al., 2010). There the diffusion of hyperaccumulator plants or microbes (Gao et al., 2016; hydrocarbons is controlled by freshwater emissions and Chaukura et al., 2017; Zhai et al., 2017; Villaverde, 2017). wind (Janeiro et al., 2008). In general, internal combustion

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engines, sugar cane combustion, diagenetic polycyclic anthropogenic with complex distribution and exposures aromatic hydrocarbons in urban and aquaculture drains, (Aelion et al., 2009). Fossil fuel combustion is a major lubricating oil and fuel for fishing and recreational marine source of HM and there is a dire need for the reduction of engines are the main local fuels. Source to mouth. dependency on this source by adopting other fuel Nevertheless, the PAK values will not adversely affect the technologies (Pacyna et al., 2007). Heavy metals which biota (Arruda-Santos et al., 2018). Some of these sources contaminate urban areas are Cu, Cd, Zn and Pb resulting are discussed below: from fossil fuel emissions by the traffic and paint industry (Alloway, 2012). 2.1. Natural 3. Harmful effects of heavy metal and pesticides on Heavy metals are result of volcanic eruptions, human health and environment sedimentary and metamorphic rock deposits, weathering and

Table 1: Sources of heavy metals and metalloids in environment 1. Weathering of minerals 2. Erosion and volcanic activities 3. Forest fires and biogenic source 1 Natural 4. Particles released by vegetation 1. Arsenic: Pesticides, wood preservatives, biosolids, ore mining and smelting 2. Cadmium: Paints and pigments, plastic stabilizers, electroplating, phosphate fertilizers 3. Chromium: Tanneries, steel industries, fly ash 4. Copper: Pesticides, fertilizers, biosolids, ore mining and smelting 5.Murcury: Au-Ag mining, coal combustion, medical waste 2 Anthropogenic/Man- 6. Nickle: Effluent, kitchen appliances, surgical instruments, automobile batteries made 7. Lead: Aerial emission from combustion of leaded fuel, batteries waste, insecticide and herbicides pedogenic processes occurring in the environment. These 3.1. Soil microbial community HMs are introduced then into soil and groundwater and Different HMs have different effects on soil microbes reach to human food chain (Bradl 2005, Buccolieri, and these microbes have evolved tolerance and adaptation Buccolieri et al., 2006). Similarly, Garrett (2000) and Dias mechanisms against HMs in soil environment (Bååth, 1989; and Edwards (2003) also stated that HMs are originated due Nie et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2017). Microbes are also a bio- to pedogenic processes and their distribution in other parts monitors of HM pollution in soil (Khandaker et al., 2017). of ecosystem is dependent on human activities. In addition Carbon content in microbial colonies in soil contaminated to theses, gases and fluids emissions from the earth's with Zn, decreases which shows a bactericidal effect and surface, atmosphere, seafloor, and volcanoes are other decrease in microbial activity (Nobili et al., 1995; Cheema et important sources of HMs. al., 2018; Sarkar et al., 2018). It was revealed that sixteen 2.2. Anthropogenic properties of soil microbes including respiration, nitrogen mineralization and microbial biomass etc.; thirteen enzymes Industrial activities, ore mining and the use of products of soil participated in N, P, S and cycling, with potential to that contain HM are responsible for their release in the differentiate various levels of heavy metal contaminations. environment. Other anthropogenic sources are agricultural However, enzyme activities and microbial biomass (MB) activities such as fertilizer use, pesticides, smelting, metal reduced with enhancing pollution of heavy metals, while this finishing, dyes, metallurgical activities, transportation, amount reduced among the different enzymes. It was showed energy production, animal manures (Lalah et al., 2009; Guo that the activities of enzymes participated in C-cycling less et al., 2019) (Table 1). Fertilizers provide essential nutrients effected, while the activities of different enzymes involved in to crops for sustainable and better-quality production, while P, N and S cycling represented significant reduction in their pesticides are applied to protect crops from pests and activities. This means that HM concentration in soil severely diseases; both contain HM in them. Moreover, soil affects function of soil microbial communities and damages amendments, derived from sewage sludge also contain HM certain nutrient cycles (Kampichler et al., 1996). in them which is mobilized during crop growth due to irrigation (Qiao et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2014). It is believed In another study, results exposed that microbial biomass that sources of Ni, Hg, Cu, Cr, Pb, and As are majorly (MB) in terms of carbon was depressingly affected by

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different levels of HM. Enzyme activity was significantly less than 50% as a result both pesticides desorbed into soil affected by HM stressed conditions. Activities of solution (Conde-Cid et al., 2019). phosphatase enzyme were observed in those soils which Heavy metals have negative impact on SOM. Field were found 200m away from the HM (Martens et al., 1994; trials have shown that the SOM is reduced by 40%. In zinc Shi et al., 2007). and copper contaminated soils, this content was reduced to 3.2. Soil organic matter <1.0%, which indicates that HM caused a decrease in the SOM concentration due to the reduced microbial activity It was revealed that soil organic matter contents and the plant growth caused by HM (Chander and Brookes, positively influenced the soil microbial communities. 1991; Temminghoff et al., 2002; Mustafa and Komatsu, However, available or total heavy metal cause negative 2016; Sobkowiak, 2016). influence on enzyme activities, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and microbial biomass; it is positively influenced Another study described that HM showed a positive metabolic quotient (qCO2). The organic matter play an correlation with SOM because adverse effects of HM on important role to decreased negative influence of heavy microorganisms of soil appeared increasing the metal pollution on microbiota, while the higher level of HM accumulation of OM, but the effects were negative on SR contamination in specific area was maintained through and MB due to the decrease in bacterial mineralization enhancement in soil organic matter (Stefanowicz et al., (Reuter and Perdue, 1977; Gigliotti et al., 1995; Madejón et 2020). al., 2016; Chen et al., 2019). For this purpose, biological nitrogen fixation, carbon and nitrogen mineralization, The detection of metal toxicity effect cause problem for respiration, and soil enzymes were evaluated (Brookes, different microbial responses. Microbial responses are 1995). The decomposition of organic soil leads to soil changed through existence of confounding factor changes that can be assessed by changing HM in the soil. particularly in field experiments. Different physicochemical Long-term using sewage sludge to modify organic soil, the properties of soil such as organic matter contents, texture SOM is reduced (Escolar et al., 2006; Govind et al., 2017; and pH, appears to be very significant primarily (Azarbad et Malina, 2018). al., 2013; Chodak et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2017; Stefanowicz et al., 2012). These properties sufficiently 3.3. Plants influenced microbial communities by maintaining the heavy Heavy metals availability in high concentrations from metal’s behavior directly or indirectly (Ciarkowska et al., disposal of industrial sewage sludge is increasing the 2014; Kabata- Pendias, 2011; Lauber et al., 2008). pollution problem for agricultural crops grown on these However, metal bioavailability and mobility particularly soils which receive these HM contaminated materials (Lv enhanced with reduction in organic matter, clay minerals and Wang, 2018; Gofman et al., 2019). Heavy metals limit and pH (Kabata-Pendias, 2011; Lair et al., 2007; growth and yield of plants (Ali et al., 2016; Ellis et al., Stefanowicz et al., 2014). Therefore, it is very important to 2017; Lian et al., 2019). Thus, might have negative effects realize that relationship does not always constant because of upon root growth, impaired water transport, and the complexity between the soil properties, for instance, as transpiration (Barceló and Poschenrieder, 1990; Lee et al., the contents of soil organic matter increased resulting in 2010). Generally, HM affects plant growth by causing decreased pH (Stefanowicz et al., 2014) due to which the cytological disorders, disturbing metabolic processes and concentration of organic (e.g. humic) acid also increased. physiological growth (Påhlsson, 1989). Furthermore, heavy The pesticides and its residues retained by soil particles, metals are involved in the production of reactive oxygen due to which reduced its entry to soil solution, reduced species (ROS), displace the metal ions which block transportation to aqueous environment and decreased their functional groups essential for biomolecules (Ernst, 1996; bioavailability as reduced the detrimental impact on soil Schutzendubel and Polle, 2002; Handa et al., 2017; Luyckx biota and preventing their transport to food chain (Arias- et al., 2019). Estevez et al., 2008). The different soil properties 3.4. Water influenced adsorption of pesticides in soil that include soil organic matter, clay, Fe or Al oxides, soil pH (Arias-Estevez Heavy metals contamination issue is increasing globally et al., 2008). For example, it was showed the influence of in environment including groundwater resources. pH and soil organic matter penconazole and metalaxyl Agriculture, coal-burning power plants, smelters, mining adsorption (Gondar et al., 2013). This, soil organic matter industries, and foundries leave the residues which leach contents significantly influenced the adsorption of terbutryn down into the groundwater and contaminate it. Arsenic (herbicide) and propiconazole (fungicide). However, (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), desorption experiment represented that when adsorption was and mercury (Hg) are major pollutants that contaminate

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water used for drinking and agricultural purposes (Ali et al., aluminum or iron oxide, clay contents and organic matter 2017; Chu et al., 2017). Plants growing on sites irrigated has impacts on organophosphorus pesticides persistence (Li with HM contaminated water when consumed by living et al., 2019; Yadav et al., 2019). These have a higher organism, become the part of the food web (Agarwal and affinity for the absorption/adsorption of pesticides which Mitra, 2018). When organisms are exposed to HM like Cr, affect plants, humans and animals. Parathion is an Ni, Cd and Pb, their accumulation is increased with organophosphate pesticide that has remained in the soil for increasing exposure time, harming consumer’s kidneys and more than 133 days at least (Wu et al., 2018). other body organs (Vinodhini and Narayanan, 2008). Water 4. Fate of pesticides in the environment pollution around the world also cause mortality and morbidity. If we demand the healthy environment then, we The mobility of pesticides can lead to redistribution must overcome the pollution problem and for this we must within the application site or to a certain amount of pesticide treat water (Wang and Yang, 2016). being transferred outside the site. After application, pesticides can: (I) adhere to soil particles, vegetation or 3.5. Humans other surfaces and remain near the deposit site; (II) stick to Heavy metals are most widespread pollutants and pose soil particles and move with drained or wind-eroded soil; a serious threat to almost every organism, including (III) dissolved in soil water and absorbed by plants, runoff humans. In agricultural soils, HMs such as Cd, Cu, Pb, and or leach down (IV) evaporates or erodes with the wind from Zn were lower but now have increased gradually to a higher leaves or earth and then turns into air. Mobility is affected level. Furthermore, in water the HM concentrations was by pesticide adsorption, water solubility, vapor pressure, lower but now it is increasing above threshold level. These and other environmental and site characteristics (including HMs are poisonous for human health because they pollute weather, terrain, canopy, and ground cover), as well as soil food and drinking water (Cheng, 2003). organic matter, texture, and structure. Occupational exposures to Mn, Cu, Fe, Hg, Zn, and Al may cause Parkinson's disease (Li et al., 2001; Birkett et al., 2006). Rice grown on HM contaminated soils, accumulate Cd in grains and pose kidney failure in humans consuming this rice (McBride et al., 2009; Sharma et al., 2010; Mahmood and Malik, 2014). The ultimately affected communities are plants and human, the sum of the impacts on them is discussed in the table 2. Organophosphate pesticides primarily boost degradation of neurotransmitter acetylcholine synapse. Accumulating neurotransmitter acetylcholine in synapses can lead to a nerve block, since the regeneration of acetylcholinesterase requires time even many days. This nerve block can lead to permanent paralysis and ultimately to the death of insects and pests. Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) is an important food ingredient for humans and is grown all over the world. It is often used as a Figure 1: Fate of Pesticides in the Environment salad and can also be used to prepare sauces and juices. Some pests and insects, such as miners, aphids, stems, fruit Depending on soil nature, pesticide type, and its worms and tobacco caterpillars, attack tomato crops. physicochemical properties, pesticides can experience the Various types of pesticides such as Cypermethrin, degradation and adsorption. Main processes involved in Deltamethrin, Profenfos and Chlorpyrifos can be used to such molecular transformations are mediated by protect tomatoes from pests (Jiang et al., 2008; Birolli et al., microorganisms (Yang et al., 2016; Kumar, 2018; Singh 2013). These types of pesticides are widely used by farmers and Mishra, 2019), as chemical transformation, photo to protect crops from pests and their spray at higher doses degradation and photolysis (Le et al., 2016; Trashin et al., leaves residues of pesticides which are harmful for human 2017; Baye et al., 2019). The overall fate of pesticides health (Cheah et al., 2005; Lein et al., 2015). therefore includes both biological and non-biological agents (Shamaan et al., 2017; Tu et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019). It’s Serious health problems are caused due to difficult to distinguish between chemical and microbial bioaccumulation of pesticide at higher concentrations. The degradation, since these two processes take place

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simultaneously. In addition, soil physical properties also conversion rate (Kiran et al., 2018; Zehetner et al., 2019). have indispensable role such as soil surface area increases Fate of pesticides depends upon the three main factors i.e., due to clay contents which increases the hydrolysis initial distribution, persistence and mobility (figure 1).

Table 2: Impacts of different HMs on humans and plants Sr. Heavy Plants Reference Humans Reference No. metals 1 Arsenic Effects the growth, (Pezeshki et al., Carcinogen, cyto and (Abernathy, Liu et al., biomass, protein 1993; Guijarro genotoxic, cause 1999; Anderson et al., contents, water et al., 1999; diabetes, cardiovascular 2007; Banerjee et al., potential and leaf gas- Fowler, 2013; diseases and disrupts 2013; Rathinasabapathi exchange. Hussain et al.,, DNA repair. et al., 2014; Xiang et al., 2019) 2016; Hussain et al., 2019). 2 Aluminum Decreases in biomass, (Burke et al., Neuro, geno and (Dórea, 2015; Jerobin et photosynthesis, protein 2014; Khan et cytotoxic, damages al., 2016). contents, disrupts al., 2015; membrane and DNA, NPK, Ca, Mg and S Meriga et al., cause chromosomal and uptake. 2016; Qi et al., lymphocyte aberrations. 2018). 3 Chromium Damages rhizobia, (Boutin et al., Carcinogen, damages (Heer and Egert, 2015; legumes symbiosis, 2016; Mishra DNA and reproductive Bonassi et al., 2016; increases production of and Bharagava, system with birth and Mishra and Bharagava, ROS and oxidative 2016; Shamshad growth defects. 2016; Bayliak et al., stress, cause low seed et al., 2017; 2018). germination and Bayliak et al., reduced nutrient 2018). uptake. 4 Nickel Reduces growth, (Shabani and Cardiovascular (Ito et al., 2006; Das et reduces photosynthetic Sabzalian, diseases, haemo, al., 2008; Uversky et al., pigment contents, low 2016; Ghnaya et immuno, neuoro, geno, 2016; Garman et al., crop growth, increases al., 2017; Xiaoe nephron and 2019). imbalance between K et al., 2017). hepatotoxic, carcinogen and Ca. and cause reproductive system illness. 5 Copper Low yield, failure in (Epron et al., Effects cardiovascular (Mäkinen et al., 1980; making seed, less 2002; Yruela, system and disrupts Flanagan et al., 1984; photosynthetic rate, 2005; Theriault enzymes activity. Scuderi, 1990; Pizarro et ROSs production, cell and Nkongolo, al., 2006; Houdart et al., damage, disturbs 2016; Yu et al., 2016; Moutinho et al., photosynthesis and 2017). 2019). electron transport. 6 Lead Inhibit photosynthesis, (Seregin and Mental retardation, (Römkens et al., 2007; imbalance water and Ivanov, 2001; growth impairment, Foucault et al., 2016; mineral nutrition, Sharma and comma, convulsions, Dickie et al., 2019). stunted growth, Dubey, 2005; anemia, hypertension, changes structure of Ashraf and renal impairment and membrane, blacken Tang, 2017; immunotoxicity. root system. Hans et al., 2018).

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7 Cadmium Reduction in soil (Samantaray et al., Carcinogen, harms (Scheidig et al., biota, stomatal 1997; Toppi and cardiovascular, 2006; Fowler, opening, Gabbrielli, 1999; immune and 2009; Liu et al., transpiration, and Gallego et al., reproductive 2009; Bernard et photosynthesis. 2005; Dumat et system, al., 2018; Hamid et al., 2016; Rengel nephrotoxic. al., 2019). et al., 2018). 8 Zinc inhibition of (Assche and Nausea, vomiting, (Solomons and several enzymes Clijsters, 1990; diarrhea, kidney Jacob, 1981; lowers Schwab et al., and stomach Sandström and photosynthesis 1994; Zhang et al., damage, burning, Sandberg, 1992; rate. 2017; Tyerman et stinging, itching, Liu et al., 2016; al., 2017). and tingling. Zhang et al., 2017). 9 Mercury Reduces soil (Mishra and Neurobehavioral (Rodier et al., microbes, poor Choudhuri, 1998; defects, walking, 1990; Römkens et plant growth, Boening, 2000; vision, hearing and al., 2007; Tonazzi reduced nutrient Munzuroglu and speech is affected, et al., 2018; Suzzi uptake, reduced Geckil, 2002; trembling hands. et al., 2018). seed germination, Kader et al., 2017; decreased Khalid et al., biomass. 2019).

When pesticides are released into the environment, soil. Persistence is affected by light, chemical and microbial many things happen. Sometimes washing out certain degradation. The rate of degradation depends on the herbicides in the root area leads to better weed control. chemical nature of the pesticide and the environmental Sometimes the release of pesticides into the environment conditions. The distribution between leaves and soil, as well can be harmful because not all chemicals used can reach as temperature, pH of soil and water, microbial activity and their destination. Pesticide properties (water solubility, other soil properties can affect the shelf life of pesticides. tendency to adsorb in the soil and persistence of the 5. Fate of heavy metals in the environment pesticide) and soil properties (clay, sand and organic substances) are important to determine the fate of chemicals In general, HM is released into the environment in the environment. The concentration of chemical residues through atmospheric deposits, erosion of the geological is determined by the recipe and the application amount as environment or human activities caused by industrial, well as the topography, vegetation and plant type, the domestic and mining wastes. Moreover, through city storms, number of plants and the weather conditions. Over time, the drains, landfills, coal and ore mining. However, natural pesticide can be redistributed within the application site, or metals get into water through chemical weathering of the fertilizer application site can be moved over the edge of minerals and soil leaching. Heavy metals always exist at the target area or the bottom of the root area. Pesticides background levels of non-human origin, and their sources in removed from the site cause economic losses and can the soil can be related to the weathering and diagenesis of pollute groundwater or surface water. rocks. It should be noted that the specific types of metal contaminants found in contaminated soil are directly related Pesticide persistence is usually expressed in half-life. to the operations on site. The range of pollutant This is the time it takes half of the original amount to concentrations and the physical and chemical forms of the decompose. For example, if the half-life of the pesticide is pollutants also depend on the activity and disposal of 15 days, 50% of the pesticide is still present after 15 days of contaminated waste on site. Certain factors that can use and half of the pesticide (25% of the original pesticide) influence the shape, concentration and distribution of is present after 30 days. In general, the longer the half-life, pollutants are the chemical composition of the soil and the more likely the pesticide will move. According to the groundwater as well as local migration mechanisms. half-life, pesticides can be divided into three categories: typical non-persistent pesticides with a half-life of less than 6. Movement and Behavior of heavy metal and 30 days, moderately persistent pesticides with a typical half- pesticides in environment life of 30 to 100 days or typical half-lives of pesticides, and persistent pesticides with half-life is more than 100 days in

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Translocation, mobility, uptake, and accumulation of transport of organic pollutants throughout the plant. Because contaminants in plants noticeably caused by main two of their hydrophobicity, they only migrate into xylem factors: (1) environmental factor and (2) genetic differences exosomes and into the leaves by simple diffusion (Hasan et between plant species to develop resistance against specific al., 2017). In addition, the migration of both organic and contaminants. inorganic pollutants is influenced by soil rhizosphere microorganisms that form a symbiosis with the roots (Van Movement of inorganic compounds within plants like Oosten and Maggio 2015, Malar et al., 2016). Microbes also nutrients, metals, and metalloids is generally carried out by have other functions: for example, they excrete organic active transport and passive diffusion. An example is nickel, compounds in the soil, which increases the bioavailability of in which high Ni concentrations influence passive diffusion, metals and their transfer from the roots (iron, manganese, while active nickel transport shows that absorption from a cadmium, etc.) to plants (Banerjee et al., 2015) (table 5). nickel medium with low concentration plays a decisive role in nickel absorption. Inorganic pollutants, which are usually Due to the distinct ability of HMs accumulation in carried by membrane transporters of the CDF (cation plants, they are divided into three classes: accumulators, diffusion enhancer) protein family, follow a conventional they acquire high levels of metals on the surface of the transport from the root membrane. However binding domain ground and self-reliance of metal concentrations from the of a protein only recognizes certain ions and is responsible soil; excluders, they have very confined transit of metals for their transport (Vera-Estrella et al., 2017). In contrast to from the roots to the shoots even the soil is enriched with inorganic transport systems, there are no specific carriers for the metal contaminants; indicators, they manifest the levels Table 5: Microbes responsible for heavy metals remediation under different processes Sr No Heavy metals Microbial species Techniques References 1 Hexavalent Geotrichum sp. Bioleaching system (Qu et al., 2018) chromium and Bacillus sp. 2 Arsenic Shewanella sp. Transport of (Lim et al., 2007) arsenic, coupled with microbe-mediated biogeochemical processes. As(V) was reduced to As (III) 3 Arsenic Eichhornia crassipes Bioaccumulation (Alvarado et al., 2008) and Lemna minor 4 Arsenic Shewanella Microbial leaching (Weisener et al., 2011) putrefaciens 200R and Shewanella sp. ANA 5 Mercury Functional Enzyme degradation (Dash and Das, 2012) genes are merA and merB 6 Mercury Bacillus cereus Bioaccumulating (Sinha et al., 2012) 7 Arsenic Pseudomonas, - (Das et al., 2014) Acinetobacter, Klebsiella, and Comamonas 8 Mercury Filamentous fungi Biosorption (Kurniati et al., 2014) 9 Arsenic Brevibacillus sp. - (Mallick et al., 2014) KUMAs2 10 Inorganic Bacillus cereus Volatilization (Dash and Das, 2015) Mercury BW-03(pPW-05) and biosorption 11 Lead Rhodobacter sphaeroides - (Li et al., 2016) 12 Arsenic Bacillus aryabhattai - (Sinha and Osborne, 2016) (NBRI014) 13 Hexavalent Sporosarcina Bioreduction (Ran et al., 2016) chromium saromensis M52

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of metal contamination in the rhizospheric soil (Kumar et and soil pH values improve chelation, and metals binding al., 2018). Most of the plants belong to the class of to the soil for a longer period which makes them less excluder, as in the case of Pb, its translocation to the shoots bioavailable to plants. Soil temperature is also a key is very confined but it accumulates in the cell walls of the parameter for explaining changes in the accumulation of cortex due to the weak transportation of metal ions to the HMs (Im et al., 2015; Xian et al., 2015). shoots (Goyal et al., 2003), or due to the prolonged distance By introducing various genetic changes into plants, it between the shoots/roots (Day et al., 2018). The degree of is possible to improve their survival at high metal uptake and its translocation vary from plant to plant concentrations of pollutants, increase their ability to bind species and it is one of the most considerable features of or remove toxins and influence the synthesis of enzymes, plant resistance (John and Shaike, 2015). Whereas plants thereby reducing the toxic effects of HMs (Dias et al., having ability of heavy metal accumulation to the one or 2015; Ullah et al., 2015). Plants with the genetic another level are recognized as hyperaccumulators, potential to absorb, extract, degrade, destabilize and fix accumulators, and non-accumulators (Alneyadi and Ashraf, pollutants are among the best tools to clean contaminated 2016). The Hyperaccumulators have 100 times higher soil during phytoremediation. concentrations in their shoots than the accumulators and non-accumulators. Till now, about 400 species have been 7. Bioremediation as green remediation technology characterized as metal hyperaccumulators as they If we talk about an economic, environment friendly genetically have a great capacity to accumulate bulk levels and green technology for decomposition of organic of HMs in their shoots. At the time of uptake from the roots, pollutants such as persistent pesticides, then, most the major fraction of metal is present in the plant rhizo dermis and cortex (Epelde et al., 2015; John and Shaike, recommended is bioremediation. Effective 2015; Clemens and Ma, 2016; Dar et al., 2018; Silverman et microorganisms which degrade propionate pesticides are Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia gladiolus, al., 2019). Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas putida. Profenofos Roots, shoot and various plant tissues are in converted to 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol metabolites by connection for the transport and accumulation of HM. microbial decomposition, its original complete These tissues classify the level of certain HM (i.e., Cd, mechanism is not known yet (Vangnai et al., 2017; Pb, Ni, Sr) in plants including (i) accumulation and Ratpukdia et al., 2018). Compounds of organic phosphate expression (epidermis and cortex), (ii) organic are detoxified by microbial hydrolysis, which is the most transporters (xylem and phloem), (iii) absorbent (root important method, making the organic phosphate bark), (iv) collector with functional barriers (endothelium compound susceptible to further degradation and for this and outer skin), (v) perinatal period, and (vi) storage reaction Esterase or phosphodiesterase is responsible. (root tip). By knowing various detoxification These microorganisms have been reported to have mechanisms, the distribution of the HMs and metal organophosphate hydrolase (Mudasir et al., 2016; Saez et transporters in the hyperaccumulators were determined al., 2017; Godínez et al., 2018). (Sarwar et al., 2017; Xun et al., 2018). As in this case, Ni From the pesticide contaminated soil some strains of is easily transported into the structure of the stele, while bacteria were isolated, and degradability of these strains the distribution of Cd and Pb is limited by the endoderm to the central cylinder. The accumulation and distribution was tested. Some of strains promoted growth of plants, of organic compounds in plants is diverse. Therefore, including the production of phytohormones, the dissolution of phosphates and the fixation of N (Neifar their accumulation in plants comprises three stages: 2 et al., 2018; Chaudhary and Shukla, 2019; Kumar et al., enzyme modification and degradation, cell wall binding 2019). In Pakistan, pesticide residues found in various and chelation (Yin et al., 2015). So far, it has been anticipated that knowledge of the metabolic and genetic fruits exceeded permitted limit. The results showed that processes that regulate metal tolerance will increase plant 42 fruit samples were collected from fruit market of Hyderabad, Pakistan and analyzed on GC/MS; most of resistance and HM accumulation using some samples increased their Maximum Residual Limit biotechnological methods and genetic engineering. (MRL). The concentration of chlorpyrifos in apple was The solubility of metals and other pollutants and found to be 1256 μg/kg in apple that is more than its their bioavailability for plants are mainly influenced by MRL, the concentration of disulfon was 398 μg/kg that is soil chemistry, e.g. cation exchange capacity, loading within the range of MRL. Likewise, tridimefon rate, soil pH, redox potential, organic matter, soil texture fungicides concentration reported in two apple samples is and clay content (Pishchik et al., 2016; Richter et al., 114 398 μg/kg that is less than MRL. Moreover, the 2017). In general, higher organic and/or clay contents concentration of chlorpyrifos and endosulfan sulfate in

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apple and orange were found to be 1091 μg/kg and 1236 in battery polluted soil in case lead contents (Adenipekun et μg/kg respectively, while concentration of chlorpyrifos al. 2011). Similarly, it has been found that Pleurotus sajor- above the MRL. The concentration of chlorpyrifos was caju, produced on duckweeds with metal-enriched substrate, also detected in two sample of orange and two samples of significantly up take cadmium contents more than permitted grapes with the amount of 882 μg/kg and 172 μg/kg, level (Jain et al. 1988; Hussain et al., 2019) respectively (Sherazi et al., 2011). 7.3. Microbial Remediation Research assessing bacteria that break down multiple Remediation of soil with microorganisms is known pesticides is still in its infancy to break down residues of from long time as a tool for remediation of the pesticides toxins in various cultures around the world. Current study pollutions as well as the HM from the environment. is important in assessing the polymorphic bacteria for (Carvalho et al., 2017; Padfield et al., 2019). Although Profenofos degradation and its role in promoting tomato industrial use of microorganisms to remove pollutants has growth (Mekky et al., 2009; Shalaby, 2016). More work existed for 30 years; microorganisms, aerobic bacteria, needs to be done to unveil the mechanism and possible anaerobic bacteria and facultative anaerobic bacteria have enzymes responsible for the bioremediation of the contributed to soil improvement for billions of years. They pesticides under dynamic environmental conditions. help to bind nitrogen, limit plant pathogens growth (Wang 7.1. Strategies of bioremediation and Tam, 2019). The process of using different organisms for immobilization The microbial flora feed on pollutants and break them and sequestration of the pollutants. This method does not down for energy and reproduction. There are three levels of use toxicants, although organisms that are harmful in some microbial remediation: cases can be used. Natural attenuation: This process takes place naturally 7.2. Mycoremediation using local soil microorganisms (Yong and Mulligan, 2019). With the help of nature's decomposition agents, most plants Biostimulation: Natural processes receive external help in and wood materials on earth are broken down into soil- the form of nutrients, moisture and the optimum pH of the forming life such as humus mushrooms break down organic soil to enhance and sustain the microbial population (Ma et pollutants (cellulose, lignin, humus mushrooms) as digestive al., 2018; Raimondo et al., 2020). catalysts for pesticides. Fungi can break down larger Bioaugmentation: Here, microorganisms are introduced hydrocarbon chains into smaller ones so that externally. Microorganisms that occur naturally can have microorganisms and plants can utilize them in life functions. impaired functionality and might die due to the intensity of Fungi accumulate HMs and concentrate in fruiting bodies the pollution (Kulkarni and Chaudhari, 2007; Cycoń et al., (Singh, 2006; Ulu et al., 2018; Aftab et al., 2019). Macro- 2017). fungi such as mushrooms consist of fruiting body which grow outside of the mycelium. It was reported that 7.4. Rhizofiltration mushrooms have different properties such as anti-cancer, Phytofiltration is to prevent organic pollutants in wastewater antioxidant, immunostimulatory, anti-diabetic therapeutic and surface water from entering the water flow or and inflammatory (Barros et al. 2007; Kim et al. 2007; groundwater by using plants for filtration because they can Sarikurkcu et al. 2008; Synytsya et al. 2009). Moreover, absorb or adsorb pollutants (Cunningham and Berti, 1993). mushrooms can be utilized for the treatment and management of the contaminated environment. It can easily The plant filtration method can also be a blood filtration take up the higher concentration of heavy metals in their using plant roots, seedling roots or cauliflower (using cut plant buds) (Cataldo and Wildung, 1978). Plant filtration bodies even more than maximum residual limit (MRL) minimizes the movement of pollutants in the soil (Reeves, (Kalac and Svoboda 2000) and it may also act as efficient 2003). Rhizosphere filtration can sometimes treat industrial tool for biosorption (Das 2005). The benefit of using mushroom as biosorbents include shorter life span and wastewater and agricultural runoff water by retaining HMs higher accumulation capacity. It has been revealed that within plant roots (Pinilla et al., 2018; Clay and Pichtel, 2019). The advantages of rhizosphere filtration can be in mushrooms from the different genera capable to accumulate situ or ex situ. Plants have ability to remove Pb from heavy metals in their bodies such as Termitomyces, wastewater and sunflower has the greatest capacity of Agaricus, Russula, Boletus, Pleurotus and Armillaria metals removal. It turns out that Indian mustard can effectively (Raj et al. 2011). It was reported that P. pulmonarius capable to decrease the concentration of Mn, Cu, and Ni remove Pb. The use of some metal accumulator aquatic from cement contaminated soil and less decrease was found plant species (living and dead) and artificial wetlands to remove HMs from industrial wastewater has aroused great

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interest (Zhang et al., 2015). Aquatic plants and Phyto-degradation is the use of plants and microorganisms can remove HMs through bio-absorption microorganisms to absorb, metabolize and break down and metabolic bioaccumulation processes. The advantages organic pollutants. This method uses plant roots in of using dried plants biosorbent for removing metals are combination with microorganisms to detoxify soil their higher efficiency, minimized biological sludge, no contaminated with organic compounds (He et al., 2017). nutritional requirements, low costs and higher capability of Also called plant transformation. Some plants can clean soil, metal recycling (Bratby, 2016; Sabia et al., 2017; Pires et sludge, sediment, groundwater and surface water through al., 2017; Wei et al., 2017). enzymatic systems. This method includes degradation of organic compounds, including herbicides, pesticides, 7.5. Phytovolatilization chlorinated solvents and inorganic pollutants (Al-Baldawi et With this technique, plants absorb pollutants from the soil, al., 2015). Table 3 summarizes the use of different plants for convert them into volatile forms and release them into the remediation of HM and pesticides. However, all atmosphere. Plant stabilization can be used for organic phytoremediation techniques are not exclusive and can be pollutants and other heavy metals such as selenium and used simultaneously. mercury ( Bhandari et al., 2018). As already mentioned, it 8. Adaptive mechanisms for bioremediation of heavy transfers pollutants from a medium into the atmosphere and metal and pesticides polluted environments does not remove them permanently. Over time, pollutants from the atmosphere can get back into the ground. So, it's a Different mechanisms are described by different scientists

Table 3: Phytoremediation potential of different plant species Sr No. Plant Species Metal Metal accumulation (mg/kg) References 1 Aeolanthus biformifolius Copper 13,700 (Chaney et al., 2010) 2 Achillea millefolium Mercury 18.275 (Wang et al., 2012) 3 Alyxia rubricaulis Manganese 11,500 (Chaney et al., 2010) 4 Alyssum bertolonii Nickle 10,900 (Li et al., 2003) 5 Alyssum caricum Nickle 12,500 (Li et al., 2003) 6 Alyssum corsicum Nickle 18,100 (Li et al., 2003) 7 Alyssum heldreichii Nickle 11,800 (Pavlova et al., 2010) 8 Alyssum markgrafii Nickle 19,100 (Pavlova et al., 2010) 9 Armoraciala pathifolia Mercury 0.97 (Sas-Nowosielska et al., 2008) 10 Azolla pinnata Cadmium 740 (Rai, 2008) 11 Betula occidentalis Lead 1000 (Koptsik, 2014) 12 Brassicajuncea Gold 10 (Saxena et al., 2019) 13 Brassicanigra Lead 9400 (Koptsik, 2014) 14 Berkheya coddii Nickle 18,000 (Mesjasz-Przybyłowicz et al., 2004) 15 Corrigiola telephiifolia Arsenic 2110 (García-Salgado et al., 2012) 16 Helianthus annuus Lead 5600 (Koptsik, 2014) 17 Haumaniastrum robertii Cobalt 10,200 (Chaney et al., 2010) 18 Macadamia neurophylla Manganese 51,800 (Saxena et al., 2019) 19 Pteris vittata Arsenic 8331 (Kalve et al., 2011) 20 Pteris vittata Mercury 91.975 (Wang et al., 2012) 21 Rorippa globosa Cadmium 4100 (Wei et al., 2008) 22 Thlaspi rotundifolium Lead 8200 (Lasat, 2002) 23 Thlaspi caerulescens Nickle 2740; 16,200 (Koptsik, 2014) 24 Thlaspi caerulenscens Zinc 21,150; 39,600 (Chaney et al., 2010) controversial tool. In the phytosanification of organic for the degradation of heavy metals and pesticides. The substa nces, the plant metabolism contributes to the most common ones are: reduction of pollutants by converting, degrading or 8.1. Adsorption stabilizing volatile pollutants in soil and groundwater (Xun et al., 2018). The adsorption of organophosphate pesticides in the soil and the associated decrease in mobility are important factors that 7.6. Phytodegradation influence their behavior in nature. The degree of adsorption,

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as well as the rate and extent of final degradation, are and their solubility in the aqueous environment of the cells to affected by several factors, including solubility, volatility, increase usually catalyzed by enzymes such as cytochrome charge, polarity, molecular structure and pesticide size P450 and carboxyesterase. The second stage involves a (Uddin, 2017; Parker et al., 2019). By separating the reaction catalyzed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) and pesticide from the enzyme that degrades the pesticide, the glucosyltransferase (GT) that couples the converted soil particle adsorption process can prevent the compound to endogenous molecules (such as amino acids, organophosphate pesticide from degrading. Abiotic sugars, or glutathione). To reduce its phytotoxic response. In hydrolytic degradation improves the adsorption process. In the third stage, the phenomenon occurred of moving contrast, volatilization or leaching after adsorption leads to inactivated xenobiotics from the cytosol into the apoplast cell reduced organophosphate pesticide loss. The various chamber or vacuole (Al-Baldawi et al., 2015). The sensitivity physical and chemical forces involved in the adsorption of of plants to excessively high concentrations of exogenous soil particles include Van der Waals forces, dipole-dipole organisms can limit the effectiveness of plant degradation interactions, hydrogen bonds and ion shifts, but little processes that have phytotoxic effects and can inhibit plant information is available on the adsorption of ionizable growth and development. It can also be limited by the pesticides these phenomena can affect other processes that bioavailability of pollutants (Al-Baldawi et al., 2015). For affect results and therefore determine connectivity (Hou et example, degradation of chlorpyrifos (an organophosphorus al., 2017; Uddin, 2017; Zeng et al., 2017). pesticide) under environmental conditions has been studied. Effect of Chlorpyrifos was recorded 4 days after application 8.2. Photodegradation and the content of its transformation products: The The plant metabolism of xenobiotics from the transformation products of Chlorpyrifos were 3-methyl-4- environment includes the general conversion of these nitrophenol, mites and S-methyl isomers. The concentration compounds into more water-soluble forms and their of the trapped jaw dropped sharply to less than 2 hours, 10% sequestration processes (He et al., 2017). Autotrophic plants of the amount, and became steady within 10 hours. The are limited to converting xenobiotic compounds into harmless extremely low value of the conversion product was 0.01 µg L-

Table 4: Microbes and degradation conditions involved in organic pollutant degradation Sr No Organic Pollutants Microbes Degradation conditions References 1 Polychlorinated Acinetobacter and Aerobic and (Wang, S. et al., 2016) Biphenyl Acidovorax anaerobic 2 Alkane and PAHs Alcanivorax, Marinobacter, - (Catania et al., 2015) Thalassospira, Alteromonas, and Oleibacter 3 Diesel degradation Pseudomonas sp., - (Zhang et al., 2014) Bacillus subtilis 4 N-alkanes and PAHs Pseudomonas sp. WJ6 - (Xia et al., 2014) 5 Crude oil Colwellia, Cycloclasticus - (Wang, J. et al., 2016) 6 Phenolic compounds Microbial fuel cells Bio-electrochemical- (Hedbavna et al., 2016) Systems 7 Crude oil Anabaena oryzae, Mixotrophic (Hamouda et al., 2016) Chlorella kessleri, conditions and its consortium 8 PAHs and Fusibacter, Alkaliphilus, Anaerobic (Folwell et al., 2016) Naphthenic acids Desulfobacterium, Variovorax, biodegradation Thauera, Hydrogenophaga 9 Pyrene Mycobacterium gilvum Immobilized on (Deng et al., 2016) peanut shell powder

compounds . There are three stages in detoxifying 1. The half-life of chlorpyrifos was 13 hours and the rate of heterologous toxins in plant cells: activation, binding, and degradation was mainly 0.053 h-1. The degradation of toxin chel ation/sequestration. In the first conversion step, reactive and the formation of its transformation products are closely polar functional groups are introduced into the lipophilic related to environmental factors such as wind through organic compound. This causes their lipophilicity to decrease photolysis (Mohammadi et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2017;

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Singh et al., 2018; Fiorenza et al., 2019; Ntakadzeni et al., jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic acid (SA), abscisic acid (ABA) 2019). and brassino-steroids etc.), these plant hormones are essential for the growth and development of plants and 8.3. Hydrolysis occasionally act as a defense mechanism. (2) Enzyme Hydrolysis is the most thorough way to break down system including (superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate organophosphorus pesticides. Therefore, this section shows peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase some interesting insights into the mechanism of hydrolysis (GR), dehydro-ascorbate reductase ((DHAR), of organophosphorus pesticides. Surgical pesticides can be monodehydroascorbate reductase (MSHAR), glutathione diverse and often involve splitting of bonds to produce the peroxidase (GPXST) transfer, glutathione) and guaiacol best product (Chen et al., 2018; Masbou et al., 2018). peroxidase (GOPX). 3) non-enzymatic systems (glutathione Similar behavior can be found for other phosphonothioates (GSH), ascorbic acid (ASH), non-protein amino acids, (Steinborn et al., 2017). Malathion biodegradation and alpha-tocopherol, phenolic compounds and alkaloids) that photochemical degradation has been observed to be slow can capture the original ROS (Srivastava et al., 2017; Li et and has been found to be important for parathion. Alkaline al., 2018; Xiang et al., 2018). hydrolysis and photolysis are only secondary methods of 8.5. Enzymatic Degradation or Enzymatic Hydrolysis breaking down parathion. The digestive mechanisms include copper-catalyzed hydrolysis of chloropyrene. In this study, The enzymatic application of pesticide degradation is of great the half-lives of Saliphos and Malathion in the Indus (salt 24 interest. Enzymes, known to hydrolyze many g kg-1, pH 8.16) were 7.84 and 1.65 days, respectively. organophosphorus pesticides, are made from a variety of Pseudomonas putida can use methyl parathion as the only water species. These enzymes are called organic phosphatase, source of C or P. Bacteria produce enzyme the although they are also called paraoxonase, esterase, organophosphorus anhydrase, which hydrolyzes parathion phosphodiesterase, di-isopropyl fluoro-phosphatase, so that methyl to p-nitrophenol, further degrades to hydroquinone they are called parathion hydrolase (Kumar et al., 2018). The and 1,2,4-benzenetriol and then cleaves to acetic acid by natural substrate of organic phosphate acid oxidase is glycerol oxygenase (Kumar et al., 2018; Masbou et al., unknown. However, these enzymes can hydrolyze several 2018; Wang et al., 2019). organo-phospho-acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. Organophosphorus hydrolases isolated and hydrolyzed from Plants have adopted different strategies and complex mixed microbial cultures have also been reported. These mechanisms for their survival under critical conditions enzymes have evolved in response to the metabolism of which are mostly known as biotic or abiotic stresses naturally occurring organic phosphates and halogenated (Anzuay et al., 2017; Nawrot-Chorabik et al., 2018) (table organic compounds (Kumar et al., 2018). Overproduction of 4). Plant stress occurs by the damage of certain living or pseudomonas hydrolase (known as parathion hydrolase) non-living species. Biotic stresses are mostly initiated by hydrolyzes phosphate bonds in organophosphorus pesticide living organisms such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, molecules, resulting in a 100-fold reduction in toxicity. In one beneficial or harmful insects and native or cultivated plants. study, partially purified parathion hydrolase was covalently Abiotic stresses such as minerals (metal and metalloid) immobilized by several rigid supports to maintain high toxicity, excessive watering (flooding /water-logging), activity and was then used to break down various drought (water deficit), extreme temperatures (heat, cold organophosphorus pesticides. The use of hydrolytic enzymes and frost) and salinity (sodicity) negatively affect growth, and related genes to understand the complex interactions yield, development, and seed quality of plants and other between microorganisms and pesticides can significantly crops. Differentiation between the damage caused by living improve the understanding of the biodegradation processes or nonliving agents is a very difficult task even with the help and promote bioremediation (Lv et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017; of accurate diagnosis and close observations. Reactive Asif et al., 2018; Qin et al., 2019). oxygen species are generated in the plants and accumulate in cells under the environmental stresses which results in the 9. Bacterial and fungal degradation oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, chlorophyll, Scientists studied bacterial diversity, especially in nucleic acids, etc. (Banerjee and Ghoshal, 2017; Katarína et contaminated areas, to find native bacteria that can exploit al., 2018; Kuyukina et al., 2018; Chan et al., 2019; and degrade various pollutants. The biotransformation of Chaturvedi and Malik, 2019). organic contaminants in the natural environment has been 8.4. Defense system extensively studied to understand microbial physiology, ecology, and evolution because of their bioremediation Plant cells have developed complex defense systems, potential. Organophosphorus pesticides include including: (1) phytohormones production such as (ethylene, chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos, diazinon, fenamiphos,

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chlorpyrifos, isothiazide, parathion, phorate, malathion, can oxidize iron and sulfide, produce sulfuric acid and parathion, mono-crotophos, profenofos, etc. It has been release related HMs in aqueous solution (Tabak et al., 2005; widely used and its environmental behavior and its bacterial Akcil et al., 2015). This method was used in large degradation processes have been extensively studied (Peiter companies to extract metals from ores. Biodegradation et al., 2017; Rani et al., 2017; Ranjith et al., 2017; Frimmel usually refers to the oxidation of organic pollutants. and Hessler, 2018; Maiti et al., 2018). However, the biodegradation of certain organic complexing agents (such as EDTA and NTA) can have a significant Microorganisms are common in contaminated media. impact on HM mobility, toxicity and bioavailability in the Microorganisms have developed many strategies to avoid underground environment (Tabak et al., 2005). the stress and toxicity associated with various heavy metals Biotransformation (e.g. methylation / reduction, (Ahemad 2014; Fls et al. 2017). Mechanisms for dealkylation / oxidation) can change the chemical form of microorganisms to resist metals include the use of osmotic HM and change the mobility, toxicity and bioavailability of barriers, intracellular and extracellular chelation, active HM. The interaction of microbial cells with HM offers a transport of efflux pumps, enzymatic detoxification and bioremediation strategy for microbes. Biotransformation, reduced cell sensitivity to metal ions (Nies 1999; Bruins et biosorption and bioaccumulation are the three most al. 2000; Ahemad 2014). Microorganisms can mineralize important microbial interaction processes that influence the organic pollutants to produce end products (such as CO and 2 toxicity and transport of HM and play an important role in H O) or produce metabolic intermediates that are the main 2 microbial remediation (Tabak et al., 2005). substances for cell growth (Dixit et al. 2015). Inorganic pollutants (such as HMs) cannot be broken down directly 10. Environmental implications of Bioremediation into harmless compounds. However, microorganisms can Bioremediation and phytoremediation, like other change the chemical form, mobility, toxicity and remediation technologies, has a choice of advantages and bioavailability of HM through growth metabolism and disadvantages. metabolites. The interaction between microbial cells and HMs mainly occurs through biosorption, bioaccumulation, These are the following most positive aspects of bio-assimilation, bio-precipitation, bioleaching, phytoremediation. biodegradation / biosynthesis and biotransformation. Biosorption describes the association of soluble HMs with 10.1. Advantages the cell surface through complexation (e.g. electrostatic, • Phytoremediation is cleanup technology which is driven covalent, extracellular polysaccharides), chelation/ by solar energy (Hassan et al., 2017). coordination, reduction, precipitation, cation/anion • cost-effective, aesthetically pleasing and Environment- exchange (Tabak et al., 2005; Ahemad, 2014; Fls et al., friendly (Gupta et al., 2017). 2017). Bioaccumulation is the retention and concentration • Probability to be accepted by the public (Aziz, 2018). of substances in living organisms. In this process, solutes • Metals absorbed by the plants can be extracted after are transported from the outside of the microbial cell harvesting plant biomass and then recycled; up to (~ through the cell membrane to the cytoplasm, where the 1000 mg kg-1) in aboveground biomass (Gu et al., 2018). metal is isolated (Tabak et al., 2005). The bioassimilation of • Prevent pollutants from entering the groundwater HM involves the active transport of iron carriers in system, pollutants can be released into the environment microbial cells. Under aerobic conditions, iron is mainly in (Holmes et al., 2018). the form of Fe (III) (Tabak et al., 2005). To solve this • Plants can be grown and monitored easily without much problem, microorganisms produce iron carriers, low- effort (Dzionek et al., 2016). molecular chelating agents, which bind to iron and can • It may be used at a larger scale to clean up a diversity of transport it into cells through energy-dependent processes contaminants which is possible with other approaches (John et al., 2001). At the same time, certain metals (such as (de Lorenzo et al., 2016). Pu) can complex with iron carriers, and many of these complexes can be recognized by cellular uptake proteins • Environmental disruption is negligible, and it preserves (John et al., 2001; Tabak et al., 2005). In bioprecipitation, topsoil in in-situ treatment (Azubuike et al., 2016). microbial metabolism is used to convert soluble substances • Plants act as soil stabilizers, which minimize the into insoluble hydroxides, carbonates, phosphates and grasshopper effect and preventing contaminants from sulfides (Tsezos, 2009). Bioleaching refers to the spreading in their surrounding environment (Kumar and dissolution of metal minerals and related metals that are Gunasundari, 2018). released by microbial activity. The best-known strains - • It is much suitable at shallow sites with low levels of Fe/S oxidizing bacteria (e.g. Thiobacillus and iron oxide) contamination (Taiwo et al., 2016).

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• Avoid excavation and heavy traffic (Bwapwa et al., • It is a time-consuming and slow process, which may 2017). take several growing seasons to clean up a site (Cappello • Can deal with various pollutants in the environment et al., 2019). (Nikolopoulou and Kalogerakis, 2018). • Plant exudates may increase the solubility of some • Phytoremediation helps to create habitats for wildlife contaminants, resulting in greater pollutant migration or (Yakop et al., 2019). environmental damage (Ancona et al., 2017). • Sites can be monitored easily with the naked eye • Few plants could engage with a lot of poisonous (Megharaj and Naidu, 2017). material, making them a potential risk to the food chain • In phytoremediation, plants can be monitored visually and toxic to animals feed upon them (Shekhar et al., and effects of the specific pollutant on plant tissue can 2020). be tested over time (Valujeva et al., 2018). • Plants may be harmful to public and livestock, so the site • Useful byproducts are also obtained such as bioenergy must be under controlled or wood pulp (Tripathi et al., 2016; Dhillon and • Efficient phytoremediation is limited for those plants Bañuelos, 2017). having reduced root systems with low biomass yields • Phytoremediation also supports bioremediation because and most probably do not prevent contaminants from plants supply nutrients and provide protection for leaching into aquatic systems (Bouwer, 2017). rhizospheric micro-organisms which promotes • Very often Introduction of non-native species may affect remediation of pollutants. Additionally, Plants grown the whole biodiversity (Shekhar et al., 2020). during phytoremediation stabilize the soil and can be • Sometimes bioavailability and the Toxicity of degrading used for green energy (Franchi et al., 2016). products is unknown (Kumar, 2019). • Adaptable to a wide-ranging organic and inorganic 11. Conclusions pollutants, as well as several metals with limited alternative choices (García-Sánchez et al., 2018). There are many remedial techniques that can be used to treat contaminated sediments. The fixation method cannot 10.2. Disadvantages completely remove heavy metals in the sediment. However, • Phytoremediation is usually slower than other common compared to other methods, they are cheaper, take less time, treatment technologies and depends upon climatic are easy to use, are less harmful to the environment and conditions (Cappello et al., 2019). have lower pollutant emissions. The fixation method has great potential as an in-situ repair technique. Compared to • For better results, spots must be large enough to conventional physicochemical fixation methods (e.g. adding cultivation and utilize agricultural machinery for revisions), bio-fixation techniques (e.g. plant stabilization planting and harvesting (Azubuike et al., 2016). and microbial fixation) have received increasing attention • Plants absorb persistent chemicals or toxic heavy metals due to their low restoration costs and environmental that can threaten wildlife and contaminate the food chain compatibility. The immobilization of microorganisms and (Azubuike et al., 2016). their combination with other methods of sediment recovery • The environmental conditions also determine the have become a research focus in the fields of environmental efficiency of phytosanification, since the survival and science and technology. Although phytoremediation is an growth of plants are impaired by extreme environmental effective means of reducing pollutants in contaminated conditions, toxicity and the general conditions of environments such as water and soil, it is not a permanent contaminated soils (Shekhar et al., 2020). solution to the overall pollution problem. We have to admit • Pollutants collected in fallen leaves can be released back that pollutants, once released into the environment, cannot into the environment during the littering process be completely broken down due to their movement between (Chowdhary et al., 2018). various environmental elements and the food chain. • The formation of vegetation may affect by extreme Therefore, as a primary strategy, we must stop or reduce the toxicity in the environmental (de Lorenzo, 2018). production of pollutants that can accumulate in the • The contaminants should be present within reach of the environment and harm its health. Second, we need to use roots zone and should not bound to an organic portion of environmentally friendly methods and on-site treatments the soil to be accessible for the plants. Typically 10 to 15 such as bioremediation to solve this problem, rather than feet for trees and 3 to 6 feet underground for herbaceous destructive or external repair methods. Phytoremediation plants (Chen et al., 2017). has several advantages over other remediation approached such as plants that can be grown directly in the contaminated soil and it without involving ex-situ and huge

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