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Rhizosphere Microbial Communities and Heavy Metals microorganisms Review Rhizosphere Microbial Communities and Heavy Metals Anna Barra Caracciolo * and Valentina Terenzi Water Research Institute, National Research Council, 00010 Rome, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: The rhizosphere is a microhabitat where there is an intense chemical dialogue between plants and microorganisms. The two coexist and develop synergistic actions, which can promote plants’ functions and productivity, but also their capacity to respond to stress conditions, includ- ing heavy metal (HM) contamination. If HMs are present in soils used for agriculture, there is a risk of metal uptake by edible plants with subsequent bioaccumulation in humans and animals and detrimental consequences for their health. Plant productivity can also be negatively affected. Many bacteria have defensive mechanisms for resisting heavy metals and, through various complex processes, can improve plant response to HM stress. Bacteria-plant synergic interactions in the rhizosphere, as a homeostatic ecosystem response to HM disturbance, are common in soil. However, this is hard to achieve in agroecosystems managed with traditional practices, because concentrating on maximizing crop yield does not make it possible to establish rhizosphere interactions. Improving knowledge of the complex interactions mediated by plant exudates and secondary metabolites can lead to nature-based solutions for plant health in HM contaminated soils. This paper reports the main ecotoxicological effects of HMs and the various compounds (including several secondary metabo- lites) produced by plant-microorganism holobionts for removing, immobilizing and containing Citation: Barra Caracciolo, A.; toxic elements. Terenzi, V. Rhizosphere Microbial Communities and Heavy Metals. Keywords: plants; prokaryotic communities; microbiome; chemical dialogue; exudates; secondary Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1462. metabolites; stress response; holobiont; hologenome; metaorganism https://doi.org/10.3390/ microorganisms9071462 Academic Editors: Maria 1. Introduction Ludovica Saccà and Luisa Agroecosystems provide several ecosystem services [1], such as food and raw materi- Maria Manici als (e.g., wood, biofuels and fibers), which are essential for human life and activity. The surface covered by arable agriculture is about 13% of the global land surface and another Received: 9 June 2021 13% is represented by grassland for grazing [2]. The growth in human population requires Accepted: 6 July 2021 Published: 8 July 2021 an increase in food resources and many types of agriculture have been showing a growing trend over the last decade. For example, tree crops have a global extent of about 10 Mha ∼ Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral and a 20% increase in productivity for many fruit varieties was reported in the decade with regard to jurisdictional claims in 2004–2014 [3]. published maps and institutional affil- Soil is a resource of enormous importance, but a finite and non-renewable one, and iations. several anthropogenic activities are threatening its quality and long-term use, with loss of its key functions. Soil overexploitation by non-sustainable agriculture and over-grazing, contamination by industry and urbanization are the main causes of its deterioration and more than 24% of global land area is estimated to be degraded [2]. Fertile and unpolluted soils are necessary for ensuring healthy crops destined for human and animal use. In par- Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. ticular, soil contamination (e.g., from heavy metals) can seriously hamper soil biodiversity, This article is an open access article fertility and crop productivity [4,5] and make agricultural products toxic. Heavy metals distributed under the terms and (HMs) are among the most common soil contaminants and their presence in concentrations conditions of the Creative Commons higher than is natural poses a risk because of their toxicity, [6–8], bioaccumulation and Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// biomagnification [9]. creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Microorganisms are a key soil component, ensuring the soil quality and fertility 4.0/). necessary for high-rate production of crops [4,10]. Soil microorganisms, above all Bacteria Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9071462 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/microorganisms Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1462 2 of 20 and Archaea, represent the majority of soil biomass and are termed “chemical engineers” [4], because they decompose organic matter and make it possible to recycle nutrients through anaerobic and aerobic reactions, involving up to 90% of soil energy flux. Thanks to their small dimensions and fast reproduction capability, prokaryotic cells adapt promptly to environmental changes. They show homeostatic capabilities versus contaminants and can be considered good biological indicators of soil quality [11–14]. The rhizosphere is a microhabitat, comprising roots and the 1–2 mm soil immediately surrounding them, where there is an intense chemical dialogue between plants and microorganisms [15,16]. In the rhizosphere, plants release root exudates, which promote bacterial population development. The rhizosphere offers a variety of carbon rich micro-habitats, which can be colonized by beneficial bacterial populations using such substrates [3,15]. Microorganisms communicate with plants through chemical messages and develop synergistic actions which influence plant functions and productivity, in both optimal and stress conditions [15–18]. Microorganisms have been found both on and inside plant tissues, but especially at root level [19]. The plant microbiome comprises the rhizosphere, phyllosphere and endosphere [20]. Healthy plants host symbiotic and non-symbiotic rhizo-epiphytic and/or endophytic microorganisms, which do not cause diseases, but support the host nutri- tionally, by stimulating germination and growth, or helping plants to overcome biotic or abiotic stress. Plants can be considered metaorganisms with close relationships with their associated microorganisms [21]. Indeed, according to the holobiont theory, hosts, such as plants and their microbiome, are symbionts [19,22]. Plant life is closely linked to key microbes, which can influence several aspects of plant ecology, such as growth, germination, biotic and abiotic stress resistance and fitness [19,21,22]. This theory suggests which host-microbiome relationships evolve over time, not just during a single host life- time, but also through a coevolutionary process, leading to very complex relationships in microorganism-root systems [23]. However, most complex plant-microorganism interac- tions and chemical dialogues have not so far been understood. Most microorganisms are uncultivable and there are practical difficulties in collecting and separating rhizo-epiphytic and endophytic microorganisms [24]. Developing new technologies and nature-based solutions to prevent deterioration of soil and remediation of contaminated sites, while at the same time maintaining soil functions, is a matter of great interest for science and a challenge for the coming decade. In accordance with the One Health Concept, human, animal and environmental wellness and health are tightly related to each other and it is not possible to take an action concerning one of them without considering the others. This approach is of special importance in guaranteeing food safety and sustainable crop production [25–27]. The complex and synergistic actions established in the rhizosphere between tree roots and natural underground microbiota make it possible to remove, convert or contain toxic substances in soils, including trace elements [28,29]. Heavy metals (HMs) are among the most widespread soil contaminants worldwide and their presence is reported in 60% of polluted land [30]. The presence of heavy metals at concentrations higher than natural ones poses a risk because of their toxicity [6–8], bioaccumulation and biomagnification [9]. These contaminants are a major risk, especially in the most industrialized and populated regions of the earth, endangering human safety and altering ecosystem functions [29,31]. If heavy metals are present in soils used for agricultural practices, there is a risk of metal uptake by edible plants, with a subsequent possible bioaccumulation in human and animals and detrimental consequences for their health [31,32]. A better knowledge of plant–microorganism interactions is therefore urgently needed to develop correct agronomic management and naturally based solutions, such as phy- totechnology for remediation purposes. For this purpose, an ecological approach, taking site-specific biotic and abiotic interactions between plants and microorganisms into consid- eration, is necessary. Microorganisms 2021, 9, 1462 3 of 20 Although, overall, rhizosphere interactions also include fungal mycorrhizae, this review summarizes current knowledge of rhizosphere chemical communication between plant roots and the prokaryotic community associated with them. Particular attention will also be paid to plant and bacteria secondary metabolites. Central to this discussion is the recent progress made in understanding rhizosphere chemical dialogues between plants and different components of the microbial community and how they can improve plant response to stress by HMs, reducing the effects and toxicity of these chemicals. 2. Heavy Metals HMs are generally considered those metals and metalloids with an atomic number
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