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Home , Acerbo Law, Galeazzo Ciano, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi

Chronological Table

1883 July Birth ofMussolini. 18g6 I March Battle of Adowa. IB99 Foundation of Fiat in Turin - most important date in 's industrial history. D'Annunzio's dramatic poem about the foundation of Venice, La Nave. 1909 Marinetti's Futurist Manifesto. 1910 December Nationalist Party founded. 1911 September War declared on Turkey by Giolitti's government. October invaded. 1912 May Occupation ofDodecanese. June Suffrage greatly extended by Giolitti. July Socialist Party Congress at Reggio Emilia. Left extremists carry the day: among them Mussolini becomes prominent. October !tala-Turkish peace at Ouchy. December Mussolini editor of Avanti!, the chief Socialist Party newspaper. 1913 Autumn Election according to new voting system. Increase of Catholic, Radi­ cal and Socialist representation. Six Nationalists elected. 19I4 March Giolitti succeeded by· Salandra as Prime Minister. June 'Red Week' in central Italy - climax of crisis between peasants and land­ owners. July-August Outbreak of First World War. 2 August Italy declares neutrality. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 123

1914 November Mussolini expelled from Socialist Party: founds the Popolo d'Italia newspaper. Fasci di a;:;ione rivolu­ z;ionaria formed by him and other syndicalist interventionists. 1915 April Secret Treaty of with the Entente Powers. May D'Annunzio returns from France to be the orator of the intervention­ ists. Italy enters the war against Austria­ Hungary. 1917 April U.S. enters the war. 24 October­ November Italian defeat at Caporetto. 30 October Orlando becomes Premier. 1918 April Congress of oppressed nationalities and Pact of signed by their representatives. Late October Victory of Vittorio Veneto over Austria-Hungary. 4 November Armistice of Villa Giusti between Italy and Austria-Hungary. 1919 I I January Mussolini and Marinetti break up Bissolati's meeting in , be­ cause Bissolati wishes to be just to the Yugoslavs. 23 March Foundation of Fasci di combattimento at Piazza San Sepolcro, Milan. 24 April Orlando leaves the Peace Conference in Paris. sMay Orlando returns to Paris. 3 June Draft of Peace Treaty with Austria. Nitti succeeds Orlando as Prime Minister. 28 June Treaty of Versailles signed. 10 September Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria signed. 12 September D'Annunzio seizes Fiume. II&.(. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB

1919 November General Election (universal male suffrage and proportional represen· tation introduced beforehand). Big gains for Socialists and POPO­ lati. IgaG June Giolitti succeeds Nitti as Prime Minister. July squadristi bum down Slovene headquarters in . August Italians evacuate Valona in . August~ September Occupation of the factories in north. Italy. September Carta tiel CarntJrO in Fiume. November Local Elections in Italy. 7 November Treaty ofRapallo with Yugoslavia. 21 November Clash at between Socialists and Fascists. December D'Annunzio expelled by Giolitti's government from Fiume. 1921 January Socialist Congress at I.,ivomo. Gramsci breaks away to found Italian Communist Party. 21 April 'Natale di Roma'. May General Election. 35 Fascists elec­ ted. 27 June Giolitti resigns. Bonomi succeeds as Prime Minister. November Fascist Movement becomes Fascist Party. Fascist Militia created to absorb squadri[ti. 19u January ConftdertU;Wne tiel" Corporadoni Sin­ dacali created by . February Pius XI elected Pope. Facta succeeds Bonomi as Prime Minister. 20 September Mussolini in speech at Udine accepCI the Monarchy. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 125

1922 October Socialist Unitary Party formed by moderate Socialists including Matteotti. 24~6 October Fascist Party Congress at Naples. 28 October Mussolini Prime Minister. December Foundation of Fascist Grand Council. 1923 February Nationalists fused with Fascists. Gentile's Educational Law. Acerbo's electoral reform. IoJuly Sturzo resigns leadership of the Popolari. g [ August Corfu bombarded and occupied by Italians. 27 September Italians evacuate Corfu. 1924 January Treaty of Rome with Yugoslavia finally brings Fiume to Italy. April General Election according to Acerbo law. Great Fascist intimida­ tion. go May Matteotti's speech condemning this. IoJune Murder ofMatteotti. I 3 June Aventine Secession. 1925 3January Mussolini's speech assuming full responsibility. Farinacci becomes Secretary of the Fascist Party. Assistance for maternity and dopa­ lavoro introduced. 'Battle of the grain' opened. November Zaniboni's attempt on Mussolini's life. December Ministers made primarily responsible to the rather than to the King. Resignation of Contarini. Clash with Stresemann over South Tirol. u 126 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

1926 April All strikes and lock-outs forbidden. Balilla founded. Fascist calendar adopted. September Bocchini Chief of Police. 31 October Zamboni's attempt on Mussolini's life. November Special Tribunal set up. Treaty with Albania. 1927 April Carta di LavoTo. Treaty with Hungary. September Trial of Rosselli and Parri opens at Savona. 1928 January Catholic Scouts suppressed. Gramsci condemned to twenty years' imprisonment by the Special Tri­ bunal. March New electoral law abolishes normal voting. 1929 February Lateran Agreements signed. March Plebiscitary 'election'. State takes over banks. Serpieri put in charge of land re­ clamation till 1935. June Lateran Agreements ratified. December National Council of Corporations constituted. 1930 November Mussolini subsidises Austrian Heim­ wehr in Austrian elections. Oath of loyalty demanded from all officials. March Fascist Press attacks Catholic Action. June Papal Encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno attacks . September Compromise over Catholic Youth Associations. I.M.I. founded. Starace appointed Fascist Party Secretary. 193~ Littoria founded. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 127

1932 June FascismodefinedinEndclopttlialtaliana. October Decennale. November Last Statute of Fascist Party. 1933 January Founding ofI.R.I. Hitler German Chancellor. 1934 February Civil War in Austria, Socialists suppressed. March Second plebiscitary vote. Under-Secretary at Press and Office. June MussoIini's first meeting with Hitler. July Murder ofDolIfuss. 1935 January Laval visits Rome. April Conference at Stresa. October Italy attacks Abyssinia. 1936 May Victor Emmanuel Emperor of Abys- sinia. Bottai Minister of Education. June Ciano Foreign Minister. July Austro-German Agreement. Outbreak ofSpanish Civil War. November MussoIini's Axis speech in Milan. 1937 Balilla turns into GioventU Italiana del Littorio. March Battle of Guadalajara in Spain. June Ministero della Cultura Popolare founded ( ='Minculpop'). Murder of . September Mussolini visits Germany. 1938 March The Anschluss. May Hitler visits Italy. September Czechoslovak crisis and Munich Conference. November Anti-Semitic legislation introduced into Italy. 1939 February Assembly of Corporations replaces Chamber ofDeputies. Death of Pius XI. Carta della Scuola. 128 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB

1939 March Pius XII elected Pope. April Italy seizes Albania. May Steel Pact. September Hitler attacks Poland. Second World War. Italy declares its non-bel­ ligerency. 1940 June Mussolini declares war on France and Britain. October Mussolini attacks Greece. 1941 April Attack on, and partition of, Yugo­ slavia. June Hitler attacks Russia. December Pearl Harbor brings war with the United States. 194!1 April Mussolini meets Hitler at Klessheim for first time. November Allies land in North Africa. Italians occupy Corsica. 1943 February Last 'changing of the guard'. Ciano Ambassador to . March Strikes at Turin and Milan. April Mussolini again meets Hitler at Klessheim. May Allies conquer Tunisia. loJuly Allies land in Sicily. 19July Hitler and Mussolini meet at Feltre. 2441SJuly Grand Council meeting. 26July Victor Emmanuel dismisses Musso­ lini. The Forty-five Days. aSeptember Italy's Armistice with the Allies. Made public 8 September. 9 September Nco-Fascist Republic declared by Hitler. 12 September Mussolini rescued by the German S.S. 14-15 September Mussolini sees Hitler at Rastenburg. 23 September Mussolini returns to Italy. November Congress o{. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 129

1944 January Execution of Ciano and others. April Third Klessheim meeting. June Allies take Rome. 20 July Mussolini's last meeting with Hitler (Rastenburg) • 16 December Mussolini's last speech at Milan. 1945 28 April Mussolini shot. Bibliography

Very important as original material are: I Documenti Diplomatid Italiani (D.D.I.), now covering much of the period. Documents Diplomatiques Fratlfais (D.D.F.), published since 1964, series u. This series begins with]anuary 1935 and documc:nts Laval's visit to Rome in]anuary 1935. Documents on British Foreign Policy, 191!)-1939 (D.B.F.P.) (H.M.S.O.). Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945 (D.G.F.P.) (H.M.S.O.). Also: B. Mussolini, O/JeTa Omnia, ed. E. and D. Susmel (36 voIs., 1951-63). Ciano's Diary, ed. with an introduction by M. Muggeridge (1947)· Ciano's Diplomatic Pa/JeTs, ed. M. Muggeridge (1948). Ciano's Diary, 1937-8, trans. A. Mayor and with an intro­ duction by M. Muggeridge (1952). Covering the whole topic: Denis Mack SInith, Italy (1959). As an introduction to Fascism in Italy: B. Croce, A HistoryoJltaly, 1871-1915 (1929). C.]. S. Sprigge, TlzeDevelopmentoJ Modem Italy (1943). A. Rossi, The Rise oJItalianFascism (1938). , Contemporary Italy (1946). Christopher Seton-Watson, ltalyfrom Liberalism to Fascism (1967). (This is particularly valuable.) On 1919: R. Albrecht-Carrie, Iu.iy at the Paris Peace Conference (1938). On Fascist government and institutions: H. Finer, Mussolini's Italy (1935). G. Salvemini, Under the Axe of Fascism (1936). S. W. Halperin, Mussolini and (1964). F. Chabod, History ojItalian Fascism (1963)' S.]. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism (1968). BIBLIOGRAPHY 131

On Church and State: D. A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy (1941). Richard Webster, Christian Democracy in Italy, 1860-1960 (1961 ). A. C.Jemolo, Church and State in Itary, 1850-1960 (1960). On foreign policy: M. H. H. McCartney and P. Cremona, Italy's Foreign and Colonial Policy 1914-37 (1938). On the German and Slav minorities: l)ennison Rusinow, Italy's Austrian Heritage 1919-46 (196g)· On relations with Hitler: Elizabeth Wiskemann, The Rome-Berlin Axis, 2nd ed. (1966). On the Ethiopian question: George Baer, The Coming rifthe Italian-Ethiopian War (1g67). (This is not irreproachable). First-rate on the decline and fall of Fascism but also on its earlier history: F. W. Deakin, The Brutal Friendsliip (1962). This book is a mine of first-hand information, as Mr Deakin went through all the available Italian and German official papers and has quoted them at great length. (He also studied all the relevant diaries and memoirs.) When I refer to this book I am mostly referring to the original Italian - or German - statements. Biographies of Mussolini - none very good in English: Sir I vone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue (1964). (Not always accurate.) Laura Fermi, Mussolini (1961). (A perceptive study but 'stronger on Mussolini's personality than on his politics'. ) G. Megaro, Mussolini in the Making (1938). P. Monelli, Mussolini: an Intimate Life (1953). On anti-Fascism: C. Delzell, Mussolini's Enemies (1g61). 132 BIBLIOGRAPHY

On opposition from within: R. Zangrandi, Illungo viaggio attraverso ilfascismo (1962). On Fascism as a general term applied to developments differing from Fascism in Italy but originally put under this heading, in order to damn them, by the Communists: Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1964). E. Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (1965). (This is good typically Germanic theorising, but shows little feeling for the Italian atmosphere.) E. Nolte, Diefaschistischen Bewegungen (1966). (Not trans­ lated and not always accurate.) Journo.l of Contemporary History (1g66); vol. 1, no. I i's devoted to this whole theme. H. Krausnick et al., Anatomy of the S.S. State (1968). D. Germino, The Italian Fascist Party in Power (1959). (Not very good.) K. D. Bracher, Die t!eutsche Diktatur (1g6g). K. von Schuschnigg, 1m Kampf gegen Hitler (1g6g). 'For Spain: Raymond Carr, Spain 1808-1939 (1g66). Hugh Thomas, The (1g61). Important books in Italian, not translated: L. Salvatore1li and G. Mira, Storia d'It41ia nel periodo fascista (1g64). Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il rivoludonario (1g65). - Mussolini - il conquista del potere (1g66). ·-Mussolini-ilfascista (1968). -Storia degli ebreisotto ilfascismo (1g61). A. C. Jemolo, Chiesa e Stato in It41ia negli ultimi een'" anni (1948). (The translation is abridged.) A. Tamara, Vent'anni di Storia, 19f1!r1943 (1954). (A Fascist on the inside and ofsome honesty.) G. Bottai, Vent'anni e un Giorno (1949). , Diario 19!1!l (1932). G. Carocci, La Politica Estera deU'It41ia Fascista (1g69). Roberto Vivarelli, 11 Dopogu.erra in ltalia e I' Avvento del Fascismo I918-I9flfl (1g67). L. VaIiani, La dissoludone dell' AustriIJ-UngMria (1g66). Index

Abyssinia, 63, 78: Wal Wal 52, 56--g; Fascism and, 103- incident (1934), 58; war 108; Heimatschutz, 103; Heim­ against (1935-6), 58, 60-1, wehr,56, 103-7; FrO'lltkiimpjer 64,69,76 Association, clashes with Accademia d' [lalia, 44, 65, 73-4 Socialists (1927), 103;Catho­ Accademia dei Liniei, 73 lie Church and anti-clerical­ Acerbo, Giacomo, 15 ism, 104; ideology of the Action Squads, 12. See also Right, 104; ap­ Squadristi, 10, II proval ofcorporate state, 105; Adriatic, the, Italian claims in, Korneuburg oath (1930), 2-5, 10 105; Heimwehr undermined Albania: pact of (1926), by Nazis, 106; Hirtenberg 51; seized by Italy (1939), affair, 106; Dollfuss sup­ 74,76 presses Socialists, 106; Patrio­ Alexander, King of Yugoslavia, tic Front, 106-7; civil war 50-I (1934), 57-8; murder of Alfieri, Dino (later Italian Dollfuss, 59; Anschluss Ambassador in Berlin), head (1938),68 of ' Mincui pop', 64-5, 88 Avanguardisti, 38 AJpenliindische Heimatwehr, 105 Avanti I, Socialist newspaper, 7 Ambrosio, General Vittorio, 79- Aventine Secession, 16 84,87 Amendola, Giovanni, 16 Balbo, ltalo, II, 12, 14> 25: Ansaldo, shipbuilding firm, Governor of Libya, 46; death subsidises Mussolini, 7, 13 (1940 ),85 Anschluss, the, 68, 103, 108 BaliUa (Fascist Youth organisa­ Anti-Comintern Pact, 74 tion),26,28,29,38,42 Anti-Fascist influences, 47, B!r Bastianini, Giuseppe, 85: go: within movement, 47; Under-Secretary at Foreign Party ofAction, 89 Office,64,7g-81 Anti-Semitism, 57, 68-72, 99- Bauer,Riccardo,46 100, I II-I 2, II7: change in Bethlen, Count Stephen, Prime Mussolini's attitude, 69-70; MinisterofHung.uy,52:~ legislation against Jews, 70, trigues with Mussolini against 71; in eastern Europe, log­ Austrian Socialists, 105 IIO Bianchi, Michele, Secretary of Antonescu, Marshal Ion, 113- Fascist Party, 14> 17. 22: II4 death (1931),46 , 5, 7, 8, .3, g6 Biggini, Carlo Alberto, 86 Austria: Italian relations with, Binchy, D. A., 28, 30 INDEX

Bi!

Cullura, La, literary review, 47 Education, Fascism and, 37- Curzon, Lord, 53 43: school textbooks, 38-40; Czechoslovakia: Italian rela· Carta della Scuola, 42, 47, tions with, 52, 72: and 73; youth organisations, 42; Fascism, log E.N.I.M.S.,42; universities, 43-4· Dahrendorf, Ralf, 10HZ Eichmann, Adolf, 1[2 Dalmatia, Italian claims to, 3- Einaudi, Giulio, 47 5,7--8,49 Einaudi, Luigi, 47, 65 D'Annunzio, Gabriele, 2-6, 9, Electoral Law of 1928,26 12, 43, 50, 95, 120: and Enciclopedia Italiana, 34, 44 claims to Istria and Dal­ Ente Nazionale per l'istruziorre matia, 3; occupation of media e superiore (E.N.I.M.S.), Fiume, 5-6, 9-10, 21-2; 42 President of Ac.ademy of 'Exceptional Decrees' ([926), Italy, 65; death (1938), 65 19 Deakin,F. W.,g,83 De Ambris, Alceste, 8, !U, 22 Deat, Marcel, 114 Facta, Luigi, Italian Premier, De Bono, General Emilio, 14: [3, 14 sentenced to death (1944), 90 Farinacci, Roberto, 83, 85, 86, De Bosis, Lauro, 8g go: Secretary of Fascist de la Rocque, Colonel, 118 Party, 17, 'll. 45; anti~ De Sanctis, Gaetano, 43 Semitism. 70; Minister of De Vecchi, Conte Cesare State ([938), 70 Maria, 14,64 Fasd di azione rivoluzionaria, 7 Diciannovismo, 8 Fasd· ltaliani di combattimentl), Doctrine of Fascism, 34-.n: 8-g: programme of 1919, 8-g Fundamental Ideas, 34-5; Fascism: origins of, 1·18; forma· political and social doctrine, tion of Party, 12; doctrine, 34-6; relationship to religion, 34-47; Decennale (1932), 37 36 Fascist calendar, 45 Dollfuss, Engelbert, 57, 104t Fascist demonstrations, 45 loB, log: suppresses Social· Fascist Grand Council, IS, 23, ists, 106; launches Patriotic 26, 37. 41, 73: functions Front, 106-7; assassinated, defined, 25; meeting of 2{­ 59, 104 July 1943,85-7 Dopolavoro, 22 Fascist Militia, [2, IS, 19, 25, Doriot,Jacques, II{- 5 1,83 Fascist National Council, 73 East Africa: Italy's claims Fascist Special Tribunal, 19, in, 49; Jubaland acquired 20,51 (1924), 53;,Abyasinian War Fascist University Youth (1935-6), 58, 60-1, 64, Gg, (GruPP! Universitari Fascisti) 76 (G.U.F.), 26, 30, 42, 43, 71, Economist, The, 47 89 Eden, Anthony (Lord Avon), Fascisti and FascisTM, meaning 60 ofwords, 8-g 136 INDEX

F,Jeraz;i0n8 Universitaria CaJWlica Giordani, Giulio, II ItaliaruJ (F.U.C.I.), 26 Giovani Fascisti, 42 Federzoni, Luigi, B4 GioVlTltu Italiana riel Littorio FIAT (Fabbrica Italiana AutrJ­ (G.I.L.),42 mobili Torino),motorwcirks, 80 Giovinezza (Fascist song), 43 Figli riella lupa, 38 Giuriati, Giovanni, Secretary, F.I.O.M. (Ferierazione ItaliaruJ of Fascist Party, 37 Operai M,tallurgici) (metal­ Gobetti, Piero, 20 workers' union), 23 Gobineau, Count Joseph, 114 Fiume: Italian claims to, 4-7; Goebbels,josef, 64, 95 occupied by D'Annunzio, Goering, lierr.nann, 95 5--6, 9-10, 21-2; becomes GOmbOs, Arthur, Premier of Italian (1924),50 liungary, 106, 111 Foreign policy, see chap. 4 Gottardi, Luciano, go Forges-Davanzati, Roberto, 39 Gramsci, Antonio, 10: trial and Four-Power Pact (1933), ,57 imprisonment, 20, 53, g8 France: Italian propaganda Gran Consiglio, see Fascist Grand against (1938), 72-3; right­ Council wing thought, 114; cagoulards, Grandi, Count Dino, 11, 12: 114; Popular Front, 118 Ambassador in London, 46; Franco, General Francisco, 61- opposition to Mussolini (July 62,78, 116 1943), 84-7, go Franc;:ois-Poncet, Andre, 73 Graziani, Marshal Rodolfo, 8g Frank, Hans, 70 Great Britain: Italian relations .Frank, Ivo, 52 with, 53-4; Mussolini's re­ Freemasonry, suppression of, 19 sentment of British naval Freikorps, 96, 103, 106 power, 54; Stresa conference Frick, Wilhelm, 95 . (1935),60 Futurist movement, 2, 3, 12, log Greece: .ltalian relations with, 50; Italian campaign in Galbiati, General Bnzo, 86 (1940-41),77 Garibaldi, Anita, 37 Gruppj Universitari Fascisti Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 9, 37 (G.U.F.), 42, 43 Gentile, Giovanni, philosopher Guadalajara, battle of (1937), and Minister of Education, 61-2 15, 38, 43, 94: and religious instruction, 27, 38; law of Hegel, Friedrich, 94 1923, 38, 43; Manifesto of lienlein, Konrad, log the Fascist Intellectuals lIimmler, Heinrich, 81, g6-g7 (192 5); 44- Hirtenberg affair, 57, J06 Ginzburg, Natalia, 71 Hitler, Adolf, 52, 55, 61, 65, 75, Giolitti, Giovanni, 1, 3, 6, 7, 76, 84, 87, log, 118, 120: 15, 16, 23, 26, 31, 32, 120: Mitteleuropa policy, 56; and Prime Minister for last time Mussolini, 56-9: anti-Semi­ (1920-1), 10; collaboration tism, 57, 69, 72, 110, 1 I I; with Mussolini (May 1921), meets Mussolini (1934),. 59, J1; .resignation (June 1921 ). 65; reintroduction of con­ J3; death (1928), 26 scription (1935), 59; remi1i- INnEX 137

tarisation of Rhineland, 58; Lateran Agreements, 27-30,44, and Spanish Civil War, 61; 99: recognition of Catholic and Mussolini's visit to Ger­ Action, 28 many (1937), 66; visit to Laterza, publisher, 44 Italy (1938), 68, 70; dislike Laval, Pierre, agreement with of Victor Emmanuel, 68; Italy (1935), 59 seizure of Prague (1939), 74; Ledesma, 115,116 attacks Poland (1939), 76; Leese, Spencer, 100 in Second World War, 77- Leo XIII, Pope, Rerum NOrJarum 81; meets Mussolini at Feltre Encyclical (I 8g I ), 104 (July 1943), 85; orders kid­ Leva Fascista, 43 napping of Mussolini; 88--g; Levi family, of Turin, 71 and Neo-Fascist Republic, Lewis, Wyndham, log go-2; influence on Hungary, Leyers, General, 88 111-12; influence on Roma­ Libra e moselletto, studentjournal, nia, 112-14; influence on 43 Netherlands and , Libro unico, 38-40 114; and Switzerland, 119 Littoria, foundation of, 32 Horthy, Admiral Nicholas, III, Locarno Agreements, 50, 55 112 Losana, General, 84 Hungary: Italy sends arms to (1927), 52, 105; slight in­ M Division, 83-4, 98 fluence of Fascism, 110-11; MacDonald,]. Ramsay, 60 Magistratura del Lavoro, 24 Hitler's influence, II I - I 2 Manifesto of the Fascist Intel- Industry, Fascism and, 31, 101 lectuals, 44 Institute of Fascist Culture, 71 Mann, Golo, 101 Intellectuals, Fascist regime Marinelli, Giovanni, go and,44,65 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, Istituto di Rieostruzione Industriale 2,7,8, 12,44 (I.R.I.),31 Maritain, jacques, 115 Istituto Mobiliare Italiano Marxism and Marxists, 2, 6, 13, (I.M.I.), 31 100, 105, 107, 108, 120 I talianisation, policy of, 54-5 Matteotti, Giacomo, 25, 54: murder of, 15-17,59,95 jubaland ceded to Italy (1924), Maura, Miguel Garnazo, I IS 53 Maurras, Charles, 114, 118 Keynes, j. M. (Lord Keynes), 'maximalism', 10-11 117 Mazzini, Giuseppe, and Maz­ Korneuburg oath (1930), 105 zinian Republicans, 3, 4> 7, Kun, Bela, II I 121 Ministero della CuttUTa Popolare Labour question, Fascism and, ('Minculpop'), 64-5, 88, 95 21-3: prohibition of strikes, Montale, Eugenio, 47 23; Carta del Lavoro, 23-4, 36, Montecatini chemical firm, 31 41,52,116,117 Moravia, Alberto, 47 Lagardelle, Hubert, 35 Mosley, Sir Oswald, 117 Land reclamation, 31-2, 40 Motta, Giuseppe, 1I8 INDEX

Munich Conference (1938), (June 19), 84; meeting with 72-3 Hitler at Feltre (July 19),85; Miinzenberg, Willi, 2 and meeting of Fascist Grand Mussolini, Benito: tempera­ Council (July 24), 85-7; ment and aims, 6; expelled internment and kidnapping from Socialist Party, 7; by Germans, 87; and Neo­ formed Fasci Italiani di Com­ Fascist Republic, 88-g2; exe­ battimento, 8-g; collaboration cution of Ciano and others with Giolitti (1921), II ; over­ (1944), go; meetings with tures to Catholic Church, Hitler (1944), gl-2; shot 12, 17-18; opportunism, 12, (April 1945),92 Monarchism and Republic­ Mussolini, Edda, 46 anism, 13-14; foreign policy Muti, Ettore, Secretary of (1922), 49; occupation of Fascist Party, 81 Corfu (1923),50; and murder ofMatteotti, 16-17; attempts , Italhn, 2-3: and on his life (1925-26), 19; and Futurist movement, 2 corporative state, 24; creates Nationalist Party, 3, 5, 6, 9, II, crisis over South Tirol (1926), 12, 14: Arditi, 5; fused with 54-5; craving for personal Fascist Party, 15 power, 25; and Lateran Nave, La (d'Annunzio), 2 Agreements (1929), 27-30; Nenni, Pietro, 61 'battle of the grain', 32; Neo-Fascist Republic (1943-5), political and social doctrine, 88-g2: Verona Congress, 34-6; and religion, 36; in­ 88-g; execution of Ciano and ability to delegate, 44-5; and others, 90 Austria, 56-61; and Hitler, Neurath, Baron von, 95 56--9; and anti-Semitism, 57, Nicole, Leon, Il8 68-72; Four Power Pact, 57; Nietzsche, Friedrich, 94 Abyssinian War (1935-36), Nolte, Ernst, 100 58,60-1; Spanish Civil War, Non abbiamo bisogno, Papal 61-2;appoints Ciano Foreign Encyclical (1931), 30 Minister, 63-4; declining health, 63; and Petacci October Protocols (1936),65 family, 63-4; impressed by Olivetti, 35 German strength, 66-7; Orano, Alfredo, 35 rapprochement with Germany, Origins of Fascism, 1-18: 67-8; stirs up anti-French Italian nationalism, 2-3; feeling, 72-3; and Munich claims for Italian expansion, Conference (1938), 72-3; 2-5; First World War, 3-4; and Second World War, 77- d'Annunzio and Fiume, 5-6, 81; confers with Hitler at 9-10; Fasci Italiani di Com­ Klessheim (April 1943), 80- battimmto, 8-9; programme 81, g6, g8; last attempt to of 1919, 8-9, 13; regional restore Fascist purpose, 81-2; origins, 9; affray at Bologna attempt at creation of M. (NovI 1920), II; stand­ Division, 82-4; at last meet· point of Party (1921), Il­ ing of Council of Ministers lS; movement transformed INDEX 139

into Party, 12; Monarchism Popolo d'Italia, Mussolini's news­ and Republicanism, 13-14: paper, 6 coalition Government under Portugal and Fascism, 116-17: Mussolini, 14-15; new elec­ National Labour statute, 117 torallaw,15 Pound, Ezra, 109 Orlando, Vittorio Emmanuele, Preziosi, Giovanni, 70 I talian Premier, 4, 53 Prezzolini, Giuseppe, 7, 65 Ortega y Gasset, Jose, I 15 Primo de Rivera, General, 52, O.V.R.A., 19 Il5,116 Primo de Rivera, Jose Antonio, 115-16: and Mussolini, 116; Papen, Franz von, 95 executed (1936), 116 Papini, Giovanni, 65 Pareschi, Giuseppe, 90 Parri, Ferruccio, 46: trial of Quadragesimo Anno, Encyclical (1927),20,89 of Pius XI, 104- Party of Action (anti-Fascist), Quisling, Vidkun, 114 89 Pavelic, Ante, 42, 77, 114 Pavese, Cesare, 47 Rauschning, Hermann, 98 Pavolini, Alessandro, Party Regime Fascista, Farinacci's Secretary in Neo-Fascist newspaper, 70 Republic, 88 Religious instruction, 27, 38 Peace Conference (19 19), 4-5, Rerum Novarum, Encyclical of 53 • d Leo XIII (1891), 104 Peasant co-operatives an Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 70, leagues, 5, 22 74, 99: visit to Italy (1943), Peguy, Charles, 35, 115 7g-80 Perrone brothers, 7 Riforma Socials, review, <4,7 Petacci, Clara, 63, 64 Rivista di Storia Economi&a, re- Petaeei, Marcello, 64- view,47 Petacci family, 64 Rocco, Alfredo, 23 Petain, Marshal, 78, 114- Rahm, Ernst, 59 Pilsudski,Josef, 109 Romania, 112-14: Fasclat and Pirandello, Luigi, 44- Nazi influence, 113-14.; Iron Pius X, Pope, 3 Guard, 112-14; 'Front of Pius XI, Pope, 15, 28, 46, 71: National Rebirth', 113 expresses approval of Fascist Rosselli, Carlo, 69, 89: trial regime, 16; and Lateran of (1927), 20, 8g; murdered Agreements, 27, 29; Encycli­ in France (1937), 67, 114, cal Non abbiamo bisogno, 30; Rossi, Cesare, 16 Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno, Rossi, Ernesto, 46 104- Rossoni, Edmondo, 22 Poincare, Raymond, 53 Ruffini, Francesco, 43 Pontine marshes drained, 31-2, Russia: Italian relations with, 120 52-3; commercial treaty Popolari (Catholic party), 6, II, (1923),53; in Second World 13,16 War, 78-9 INDBX

Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira. SquaJristi, g6: burning or 116-17 Slovene headquarters in SaJb, Republic or, ,. Nco­ Trieste (1920), 10; rural Faaciat Republic leaders, II, Ill; incorporated Salvatorelli,Luigi, 37,46, 47, 67 as Party Militia, 12j Bolzano Sc:hleicher, General Kurt von, overrun (1921l), 54- See aU. 59,95 Action Squads Schuschnigg, Kurt von, 107-9 Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich. Scorza, carlo, 84. 87: ap­ 77,87 pointed Secretary of Fascist Starace, Achille: Secretary of Party (April 1943), SI-Q; Fascist Party, 37. 68; anti­ report on situation to MUISO­ Semitism,71-Q lini Oune (943), S3; supports Starhcmberg, Prince, 56. 57. Mussolini Ouly (943),86 106-8 Secretaryship of Fascist Party. Steel Pact, Nazi-Fascist (1939). 37,SI-Q 74--6,84 Seipel. Ignaz, lOS Steidle, Richard, 103, 104. Senate, 17, ~6, 99 Stoyadinovic, Milan, 114 Senise, Carmine. Chief of Strcsaconference (1935),60 Police,SI Sturzo, Don Luigi, leader or Serpicri, Arrigo, 31 Popolt:zri, 13, 16, 115 Sforza, Carlo, 50, 51: Foreign Suvich: Under-Secretary at Minister (1920), 5 Foreign Office, 45; Ambas­ Shaw, Bernard, log sador in Washington (1936). Simon, Sir John, 60 94 Socialists and Socialist Party, SWitzerland and Fascism, 117- 5-'1, II: and First World 119: Mussolini's grievances War, 3; and peasant c0- against Swiss authorities, 118; operatives, 5; congress at Italian claims to Tieino, 118; Reggio Emilia (19 12), 7; Right-wing feeling, 118; and and occupation of Milan fac­ , 119 tories (1920), lOj losses in Syndicalists and , 3, 1920 local elections, 10; 7, 1l1-Q, 36,94 'mavirnalism',lo-lI Szalasi, Major Ferenc, imposed Sonnino, Sidney. Italian by Hitler on Hungary, 111- Foreign Minister, 4 1111 Sorel.~,6,2I,22,35 South Tirol, 104. 106: MUISO­ Tamaro, A •• 110, 114, 37, 45, 56. lini creates crisis over (1926), 611 504-5j ItaliaJUsation of, 504j Tellini, General, assassinated Hitler and, 97-8 (192 3),50 Spain: and Fascist influence, T -,, R, anti-Semitic paper, 115-16; Falang" 115-16; 6g Catalan feeling, 115 Textbooks, school, 38-40: libro Spanish Civil War, 61-Q, 76: rmico,38-40 battle ofGuadalajara, 61-Q Ticino, Italian claims to, 118 Spann, ProfCSSOl' Othmar, 104. Tito, Marshal, 78 100 Togliatti, Palmiro, 53 INDEX 141

Tolomei, Senator Ettore, 54. 55, King of Albania (J939), 74; 115 plan to dismiss and arrest Trade unions in Italy (sindacali), Mussolini (july 1943),87 10,21,22 Vidussoni, Alda, Secretary or Treaty of London (1915), 3, 4, Fascist Party, 70 53 Vita 1taliana, anti-Semitic J'Oo Treaty of Rapallo between view, 81 Italy and Yugoslavia (19~:U), Vittorio Veneto, Italian vic:­ 49 n·,50 tory at (1918),4,39 Treaty of Rapallo between Voce, La, 7, 65 Germany and Russia (1922), 49 Treaty of Saint-Germain, 5, Wahre Staat, Der (Spann), 104 103 Wal Wal incident (1934),58 Treves, Claudio, 7 Wilson, President Woodrow, 4- Tringali-Casanova, Antonino, Winter, Ernst Karl, 107 86 Wolff, General Karl, 91, 92 between Ger· World War, Second, 77-81: many, Italy and Japan Italian campaign in Greece, (1940),17 77; part of Dalmatia ac­ Turati, Augusto, Secretary of quired, 77; Tripartite Pact Fascist Party, 23-5, 37: (1940), 77; loss of Italian resignation (1930), 25, 31 Empire, 78; quarrels with Turati, Filippo (Socialist Germany, 78; Italian labour leader), 20 exported to Germany, 78; Italy and U.S.S.R., 78-9; Umberto, King, 6 breakdown of morale, 79; Unione 1taliana tkllA'IXIrO, 8, 22 food shortage, 79; strikes in Universities and Fascism, 43- Turin and Milan, 80; faIl of 44: oath imposed OIl state Pantelleria, 83; formation of officials, 43 M Division, 83-4> g8; in· vasion of Sicily, 84 Vansittart, Sir Robert, 60 Venturi, Professor Lione1lo, 45 Youth: glorification of, 4!Z; Veterans' Association (0",,5 training of, 42 ltaZionale &ombaltenti), 31 Yugoslavia, Italy and, 4-5, 7-8, Victor Emmanuel I, I 50-I, log, 114 Victor Emmanuel II, 140 16, 57-9, 51, 68, 76, 84, 86, 88, 95, g8-g: and murder Zamboni, makes attempt on of Matteotti, 16; position Mussolini'sIiCe (J926), 19 undermined, 25; Emperor Zangrandi, Ruggero,47 of Abyssinia, 60; dislikes Zaniboni, Tito, makes attempt rfJpjJrodument with Nazis, 68; on Mussolini's life (J925), 19 dislike of Hitler, 68; Musso­ Zogu, Albanian chief (later !ini'. intolerance towards, 72; king),51