INDEX

Access areas, sodium hypochlorite potable water/wastewater treatment, facilities design, 517 982–990 Acid-chlorite solution, chlorine dioxide degreasers and solvents, 983 chemistry, 714–717 disinfection by-product precursor Acid chrome violet potassium (ACVK) oxidation, 989–990 method, chlorine dioxide fuel oxygenates, 984–985 analysis, oxychlorine pesticide oxidation, 985–988 by-products, 751–752 petroleum products, 984 Acid ionization constant: taste and odor compound oxidation, chlorine dissolution and hydrolysis, 988–989 70–74 volatile organic carbon oxidation, hypochlorous acid dissociation, 982–985 74–77 regulatory issues, 994–995 Acidity, chlorine, 142–144 system classifi cation, 977 Activation energy, sodium hypochlorite system performance factors, 990–994 degradation, 468–469 titanium dioxide: Activity coeffi cients, hypochlorous acid hydrogen peroxide-ultraviolet dissociation, ionic effects, 78–80 reaction, 981–982 Administrative controls, ultraviolet ultraviolet reaction, 981, 993–994 light systems, 969 Aeration systems, wastewater Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs): chlorination, odor control, chemistry, 977–982 332–333 equipment and generation, Aerochlorination, wastewater 995–997 chlorination, oil and gas Fenton reaction, 980, 992–993 removal, 349 historical background, 976–977 Aftercooler, ozone generation, 811 hydroxyl radical generation, Air-based systems, ozone generation, ultraviolet light, 979–980, 992 800–804 overview, 976 cryogenic air separation, 809 ozone decomposition:COPYRIGHTEDpreparation MATERIAL systems, 809–810 hydrogen peroxide, 979, 990–991 supplemental air, 829 hydroxide initiation, 978–979 Air control devices, gaseous chlorine ultraviolet photolysis, 979, systems, 682–684 991–992 Air pollution, wastewater chlorination, photo-Fenton reaction, 980–981, foul air scrubbing systems, 992–993 333–338

White’s Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, 5th edition, by Black & Veatch Corporation Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1009 1010 INDEX

Air requirement calculations, on-site breakpoint reaction and, sodium hypochlorite 103–109 generation, 551 chlorination and chloramine Air stripping, hydrogen sulfi de formation, 94–103 removal, 147 dichloroamine/trichloroamine, Alachlor, oxidation, 987–988 97–103 Alarm systems, on-site sodium germicidal effi ciency, hypochlorite generation, 158–161 hydrogen formation, monochloramine, 95–97 separation, and safety, organic nitrogen, 117–122 551–553 chlorine chemistry in seawater: Albuminoid nitrogen, defi ned, 118 bromamine formation and Aldehydes, ozone disinfection decay, 127–129 by-products, 795 ionic strength effects, 126–127 Algae and actinomycetes: potable water chloramination, chlorine dioxide control of, 740 N reactions, 251 taste and odor from, 286–288 wastewater chlorination: Alkalinity: chemistry, 328 aqueous chlorine, 142–144 chlorine reactions, 379–382 cyanide wastes, industrial dechlorination, 396–397 wastewater chlorination, foul air scrubbing systems, 355–358 337–338 potable water chloramination and nitrifi ed effl uents, 385–390 nitrifi cation, 258 removal, 349–352 sodium hypochlorite degradation, Ammonia-chlorine process: 475 potable water chloramination, wastewater chlorination, ammonia 250–251 removal, 351–352 Ammonia nitrogen. See Ammonia Alternative release analyses, risk Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria management programs, (AOB), potable water chlorine storage, 46–47 chloramination, Alum, liquid waste processing, 361 nitrifi cation, 257–258 Amaranth method, chlorine dioxide Amperometric titration: analysis, oxychlorine bromine residual compounds, by-products, 751 873 Ambient temperature, ozone gas chlorination/dechlorination sources, 802 process controls: American Water Works Association history, 596–598 (AWWA): maintenance, 672–673 available chlorine formation, online analytical measurements, 89–91 598–599 chlorine demand assessment, chlorine dioxide analysis, 245–247 oxychlorine by-products, chlorine impurities standards, 743 21–22 equivalence point, 744–747

Amines, chlorine-organic nitrogen Standard Methods 4500-ClO2-C, reactions, 119–120 method I, 743–744

Ammonia. See also Chloramines Standard Methods 4500-ClO2-C, (chloramination) method II, 744 INDEX 1011

dissolved ozone in water hydrogen sulfi de, 146–147 measurement, 841–842 iron and manganese, 147–148 gaseous chlorine detection and methane, 148 emergency scrubber, 686–687 nitrite, 148–149 residual compound analysis: free, combined, and available back titration procedure, 202–204 chlorine, 87–91 Baker’s alternative procedure, 208 gas dissolution and hydrolysis, 68–74 chemical mechanisms, 194–195 germicidal signifi cance, 151–161 development of, 176 chloramines, 155–161 dual-indicator-electrode titrator, hypochlorite ion, 154–155 191–193 hypochlorous acid, 153–154 iodine solution monitoring, inactivation mechanisms, 152–153 204–205 hypochlorite solutions, 82–85 low-level techniques, 200 hypochlorous acid dissociation, measurement techniques, 187–208 74–80 nitrite interference, 205–208 ionic strength effects, 77–80 nitrogen trichloride measurement, pH/temperature effects, 74–77 204–205 nitrogenous compounds, 91–122 operating principles, 188 ammonia chlorination and single-indicator-electrode titrator, chloramine formation, 94–103 188–190 dichloroamine/trichloroamine, sulfur dioxide residuals, dechlorination 97–103 control systems, 656–657 monochloramine, 95–97 wastewater disinfection, chlorine breakpoint reaction, 103–116 reaction with, 379–382 breakpoint curve, 105–109 Analytic Technology, Inc. chlorine chemistry and kinetics, 109–115 residual analyzers, chlorination/ decomposition products, 115–116 dechlorination process controls, historical background, 103–105 608–611 organic nitrogen, 116–122 Analyzer-detectors: breakpoint curve, 120–122 chlorination/dechlorination process reaction mechanisms, 118–120 controls, 594–596 in water and wastewater, 92–94 dechlorination process, sulfur dioxide oxidation-reduction reactions: leak detection, 589–591 basic principles, 129–135 residual analyzer maintenance and measurements, 135–141 calibration, 681–682 oxidation states, 85–87 Aquatic life: seawater chemistry, 122–129 dechlorination toxicity, 573–574 bromamine formation and decay, potable water chloramination, 127–129 260–261 bromide effect, 123–126 Aqueous chlorine. See also Liquid ionic strength effects, 126–127 chlorine sodium hypochlorite, 454–455 chlorine demand, 149–151 solubility, 68–74, 1007 chlorine dioxide, 703–704 speciation in concentrated solutions, constituent reactions, 141–149 81–82 alkalinity, 142–144 wastewater treatment chemistry, arsenic, 145 327–329 carbon, 145–146 Aquifer plugging, well restoration, cyanide, 146 304–305 1012 INDEX

Aquifer recharge, 299 Baker’s procedure, residual chlorine Arsenic, aqueous chlorine, 145 analysis, amperometric Asbestos, chlorine electrolysis, titration, 208 diaphragm cells, 10–11 Ballasts, ultraviolet light systems, Aspirating turbine mixers, ozone 924–925 transfer, 821 Ball valves, sodium hypochlorite storage Assimilable organic carbon (AOC): and handling, 508–510 chlorine demand assessment, Batch processing: 246–247 chlorine dioxide, design criteria, 723 ozone oxidation, 780 sodium hypochlorite, 455 regrowth management, 270–271 Bayer MaterialScience Process, Atrazine, oxidation, 987–988 hydrochloric acid electrolysis, Available chlorine solutions: 20 basic properties, 87–91 Beer-Lambert UV monitors, ozone bromine residual measurement, 873 concentrations in gas, 837–838 sodium hypochlorite concentrations, Bell-jar chlorinator, chlorine impurities 455–457 removal, 21 feed system calculations, 456 Bench-scale generation, chlorine wastewater disinfection, 376 dioxide, 724 Benzoic peroxide/dimethylaniline Bacillus anthracis: (BPO/DMA) cure system, chlorine dioxide disinfection, fi berglass-reinforced plastic 737–738 (FRP), sodium hypochlorite: chlorine disinfection, 158 piping, 504 ozone disinfection, 790–792 storage tanks, 480 Bacillus subtilis, ozone disinfection, Biamperometric titration, residual 790–792 chlorine analysis, 192–193 Back amperometric titration Bias in chlorine control, wastewater procedure, residual chlorine, chlorination, 333 202–203 Bicarbonate, ozone decomposition, iodometric method II, 217–218 hydroxyl radicals, 978–979 Bacteria inactivation: Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): chlorination/dechlorination process wastewater reuse, 399–400 controls, oxidation-reduction wastewater treatment: potential, 605–606 biological treatment systems, 382 chlorine dioxide, 706–711 chlorine chemistry, 328–329 bioterrorism applications, odor control, 332–333 737–738 reduction, 339–340 chlorine disinfectants, mechanisms septicity control, 347–348 of, 152–153 viral inactivation, 375 dechlorination process, 576 Biocide, chlorine as, 232, 234–235 potable water chloramination, Biodosimetry data analysis, ultraviolet 255–257 light systems, guidelines for, sulfate-reducing bacteria, 300–303 940–941, 946–947, 952–953 wastewater chlorination, Biofi lm formation, regrowth sludge bulking control, management, 267–268 342–343 Biologically degradable organic Baffl ed basin contactors, ozone carbon (BDOC), ozone transfer, 821–824 oxidation, 780 INDEX 1013

Biological phosphorus removal, wastewater disinfection, nitrifi ed wastewater chlorination and effl uents, 386–390 odor control, 332–333 Breakthrough phenomenon, regrowth Biological slime removal, wastewater management, 268 chlorination, septicity control, Brine systems: 347–348 iodine production, 877 Biological treatment: on-site sodium hypochlorite wastewater chlorination, 338–345 generation: BOD reduction, 339–340 dilution appurtenances, 545 sludge bulking control, 340–345 electrolytic formation, 531–534 trickling fi lters, 338–339 layout and design, 560–565 wastewater disinfection, chlorine metering pumps, 542 reaction with, 382 overview, 530 Biologic fi ltration, ozone, 780–781 saturator tank, 537–539 Bioterrorism, chlorine dioxide Briquette system, calcium hypochlorite, disinfection, 737–738 519–520, 523–524 Bleach liquor, hypochlorite formation Bromamine: and, 453 chemistry of, 851 Bordon, Tomiyasu, and Fukutomi chlorine chemistry in seawater, mechanism, ozone reaction, formation and decay, 770–771 127–129 Bottled water, superchlor-dechlor Bromate: processing of, 573–574 as disinfection by-product, 245 Breakpoint curve: on-site sodium hypochlorite aqueous chlorine, 105–109 generation, 530–531 organic nitrogen-chlorine reactions, ozone treatment, 777 120–122 disinfection by-products, 793–795 Breakpoint reaction: Bromide: bromine chemistry, 851 chlorine chemistry in seawater, chlorination/dechlorination process 123–126 controls, 595–596 Bromimide, chlorine chemistry in chemistry of, 664–670 seawater, 127–129 chlorine chemistry in seawater, Bromine: bromamine formation and chlorine chemistry, 852 decay, 128–129 in seawater, 122–129 cyanide wastes, industrial broamine formation and decay, wastewater chlorination, 127–129 355–358 bromide effect, 123–126 nitrogenous compounds, aqueous ionic strength effects, 126–127 chlorine, 103–116 in cooling water, 854 breakpoint curve, 105–109 facility design, 854–855 chemistry and kinetics, germicidal effi ciency, 869–870 109–115 health and safety aspects, 874–875 decomposition products, occurrence, 849 115–116 on-site generation: historical background, 103–105 advantages and disadvantages, residual formation and, 175–179 857–858 wastewater chlorination, ammonia basic principles, 855–857 removal, 349–352 current U.S. practices, 857 1014 INDEX

Bromine: (cont’d) Buna N rubber (BNR), sodium physical and chemical properties, 848, hypochlorite storage and 887–888 handling, gaskets, seals, and potable water treatment, 851–853 o-rings, 506 production processes, 849–850 Butterfl y valves, chlorine feeders, 449 residual compound measurement, 872–875 Calcium: in swimming pools, 854 on-site sodium hypochlorite wastewater disinfection, 376–377 generation, water softening chemical reactions, 851, 853 systems, 532–535 Bromine chloride: Calcium carbonate, on-site sodium advantages and disadvantages, 865 hypochlorite generation, chemistry in water, 860–861 water softening systems, cost issues, 865 534–535 facilities layout, 861–865 Calcium hypochlorite: automatic controls, 864 applicable standards, 524 construction materials, 865 aqueous chlorine solutions, current practices, 861–862 82–85 evaporators, 864–865 basic properties, 518–522 injector systems, 864 chlorine dissolution and hydrolysis, metering and control equipment, 68–74 863–865 disinfection, 521–522 safety equipment, 865 hazard analysis, 463, 523 solution lines and diffusers, 864 history of, 453, 518–519 storage and handling, 864 manufacturing process, 520–521 system evaluation, 862–863 solubility, 522–523 germicidal effi ciency, 869–870 stability, 523 physical and chemical properties, tablet and briquette systems, 858–859, 888 523–524 preparation, 859–860 wastewater disinfection, 376 1-Bromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethylhydantoin Calculated dose approach, ultraviolet (BCDMH): light systems, dose application and production, 866 calculations, 937 chlorination vs., 867–869 Capital Controls online analyzers: physical and chemical properties, chlorination/dechlorination process 866, 888 controls, 614–619 potable water treatment, 866 dechlorination process control, wastewater disinfection, 377, 662–663 866–867 carbofuran, oxidation, 987–988 Bromochloro-dimethyl hydantoin, Carbon. See also Assimilable organic swimming pool systems, 854 carbon; Granular activated Bromoform, wastewater disinfection carbon by-product, 390–391 aqueous chlorine and, 145–146 Bromo-organic compounds, 871–872 bromine chemistry, 872 Brush fi res, chlorine leaks, 59 wastewater treatment, viral Bulkhead fi ttings, high-density inactivation and adsorption polyethylene storage tanks, of, 373–375 sodium hypochlorite, Carbonate, ozone decomposition, 481–483 hydroxyl radicals, 978–979 INDEX 1015

Carbon dioxide: organic nitrogen and formation chlorine dissolution and hydrolysis, 74 of, 182–184 wastewater chlorination and hydrogen organic nitrogen reactions, 118–120 sulfi de, 335–338 potable water disinfection, 248–263 well restoration, 306 ammonia-chlorine process, 250–251 Carbon tetrachloride: ammonia N reaction chemistry, 251 chlorine impurities and, 21 aquatic life and, 260–261 wastewater disinfection by-product, effi ciency concerns, 255–256 393–394 free chlorine residuals, 253–255 Carboxylic acids, ozone disinfection historical background, 248–250 by-products, 795 kidney dialysis patients, 260 Carelessness, chlorine leaks, 60–61 lead concentrations, 261 Catalytic agents, sodium hypochlorite limitations, 253 degradation, 467–469 nitrifi cation, 256–260 Caustic-and-chlorine scrubber: shock-chlolrination, 260 gaseous chlorine detection and residual compound testing, 185–186 emergency scrubber, 686–687 wastewater chlorination: wastewater chlorination, foul air chemistry, 328–329 scrubbing systems, 334–338 disinfection by-products, 393–394 Central European validation protocols, wastewater disinfection, chlorine ultraviolet light system reaction with, 381–382 guidelines, 947–948 Chlorate ions: Chemical metering pumps, sodium chlorine dioxide disinfection, hypochlorite transfer, 731–734 488–489 regulatory guidelines, 755 Chemical oxygen demand (COD): sodium hypochlorite: biological solids, ozone treatment, 786 degradation, 85, 463–464 wastewater chlorination: processing, 455 biological treatment systems, 381 sodium hypochlorite degradation, 476 viral inactivation, 375 Chlorate systems, chlorine dioxide Chemical Transportation Emergency electrochemistry, 722 Center (CHEMTREC), Chlor-A-VacTM, chlorine contact chlorine emergencies, 64–65 systems design, 408–409 Chemistry of chlorination, process Chlorinated lime: control systems, 663–670 chlorine dissolution and hydrolysis, Chile saltpeter, iodine production, 876 68–74 Chlor-alkali plant, chlorine electrolysis, wastewater treatment, 326–327 process diagram, 15–17 Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) Chloramines (chloramination): pipe, sodium hypochlorite: ammonia chlorination, 94–103 basic properties, 501–502 dichloroamine/trichloroamine, storage tank linings, 478 97–103 valves, 505–506 monochloramine, 95–97 Chlorinate polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) bromine reactions, 852 pipe, sodium hypochlorite: chlorine demand and, 150–151 chemical properties, 460 combined chlorine formation of, failure of, 460 87–91 pressure rating, 499 defi ned, 94–95 thermofusion welding, 499 germicidal effi ciency, 155–161 threaded connections, 501–502 1016 INDEX

Chlorination-dechlorination process: diaphragm cells, 8–11 chlorine contact system design, dose history, 3–4 levels, 405 hydrochloric acid solutions, 20 disinfection by-products, 247–248 membrane cells, 5–8 Chlorination systems. See also Potable mercury cells, 11–15 water treatment; Wastewater hydrochloric acid oxidation, 18–20 treatment impurities: 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5- consequences of, 22 dimethylhydantoin vs., 867–869 historical background, 20–22 chlorine leaks in, 55–57 nitrogen trichloride, 23 historical background, 174–175 silica contamination, 24 iodination vs., 884 salt process, 18 oxidation-reduction, chlorine organic nitrogen reactions, 118–120 compounds, 139–141 ozone treatment, 776–777 ozone by-products control, 779–780 physical and chemical properties, residual compound analysis, 185 24–30 seawater chlorination, bromine in, 874 chemical reactions, 29–30 Chlorine compounds. See also Aqueous compressibility coeffi cient, 25–26 chlorine; Gaseous chlorine; critical properties, 24–25 Liquid chlorine latent heat of vaporization, 27 annual production, 62–63 vapor density, 27 available chlorine content, 90–91 vapor pressure, 27 bromine reactions with, 852 volume-temperature relationship, 26 consumer accidents, 52–62 specifi c heat, 27 dissolution and hydrolysis, 68–74 taste and odor, 289–290 end uses, 62–64 toxic effects, 30–31 gas, 1–2 fi rst aid, 31–32 health and safety requirements, 753 intentional chlorine release, 32–33 leaks, 33–41 intentional release, 32 brush fi res, 59 physiological response, 32 defi nitions, 33–34 transport accidents, 47–52 emergency guidelines for, 64–65 highway transportation, 51–52 fi re and building codes, 34 railroad transportation, 47–51 fl ash-off phenomenon, 34–35 Chlorine demand. See also Biochemical frequency and magnitude, 59–62 oxygen demand (BOD) fusible plug blowout, 40 aqueous chlorine, 149–151 fusible plug corrosion, 39–40 chlorination/dechlorination process PVC header failure, 38–39 controls, 667–670 rate calculations, 35–36 disinfection by-products, 245–247 tanker truck unloading, 36 feedback control systems, 644–647 ton containers: wastewater chlorination: fl exible connection failure, 39 chemistry, 328–329 guillotine pipeline break, 36–38 foul air scrubbing systems, 334–338 liquid, 2 prechlorination and odor control, manufacturing processes, 2–4 331–333 electrolytic cells, 3–17 Chlorine dioxide: cell design and maintenance, 5 advantages and disadvantages, cell development, 4–5 755–756 chlor-alkali plant, 15–17 basic properties, 700 INDEX 1017 biocidal applications, 702–703 germicidal effi ciency, 705–706 chemical properties, 703–704 health and safety issues, 752–754 disinfection applications, 727–738 historical background, 700–701 algae growth control, 740 oxidant selectivity, 705 chlorate, 731–734 oxychlorine by-products analysis, chlorite, 729–731 740–752 combined sewer overfl ow, 735–736 amperometric titration, 743–747 contactor design criteria, 728 colorimetry, 751–752 diffusers and injectors, 728 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine disinfection by-products, 729, 740 titration, 747–748 food processing, 736–737 fl ow injection analysis, 750 iron and manganese oxidation, iodometry, 742 739–740 ion chromatography, 749 medical devices, 736 Lissamine Green B dye, 748 pathogen detection, 737–738 spectrophotometry, 749–750 potable water treatment, 727–728 ozone treatment, 776–777 secondary disinfection, 734 disinfection by-products, 794–795 taste and odor control, 734–735, potable water treatment chemistry, 738–739 704–705 taste and odor formation, 734–735 regulatory issues, 754–755 TTHMs and HAAs, 734 viral/bacterial inactivation, 706–711 ultraviolet exposure, 728–729 wastewater disinfection, 376 wastewater effl uent, 735 Chlorine impurities, 20–22 zebra mussels control, 740 Chlorine pressure-reducing valve encrysted parasites, 711–712 (CPRV), gaseous chlorine European practices, 701–702 system operations, 682–684 generation and equipment, 712–726 Chlorine solution-chlorite solution, acid-chlorite solution, 714–717 chlorine dioxide chemistry, batch-scale generation, 724 717–718 batch tank, 723 Chlorine-sulfi de reaction, wastewater chlorate-based systems, 722 chlorination, prechlorination, chlorine-chlorite solution, 717–718 331–333 commercial methods, 713–714 Chlorine-to-ammonia ratio, oxidation- electrochemical methods, 720–722 reduction, 137–141 feed design criteria, 722–723 Chlorine-to-nitrogen ratio: gaseous chloride-chlorite solution, breakpoint reaction, 103–109 719 chlorine-organic nitrogen reactions, gaseous chloride-solid chlorite, 120–122 720, 726 dichloramine/trichloramine formation, hydrochloric acid, 717 98–103 hypochlorite electrochemistry, 722 monochloramine formation, 96–97 potassium persulfate-chlorite Chlorite ions: solution, 724–725 chlorine dioxide, viral and bacterial purity, 713, 723–724 inactivation, 708–711 sodium hypochlorite-hydrochloric chlorine dioxide by-products, acid-chlorite solution, 725–726 729–731 storage, 723 regulatory guidelines, 755 sulfuric acid-chlorite solution, 725 Chlorobutyl rubber linings, sodium three-chemical systems, 718–719 hypochlorite storage tanks, 479 1018 INDEX

Chloroform, wastewater disinfection Color removal: by-product, 390–391 ozone, 782 4-Chloro-2 nitrophenol, oxidation potable water treatment, 303 of, 988 Combined chlorine solutions: Chloro-oxidation, phenolic wastes, basic properties, 87–91 industrial wastewater breakpoint curve chemistry and chlorination, 359–360 kinetics, 111–115 Chlorophenol red (CPR) method, bromine residual compound chlorine dioxide analysis, measurement, 873 oxychlorine by-products, 751 chlorine demand and, 150–151 Chloropicrin, potable water dechlorination process, 576–577 chloramination, 262 germicidal effi ciency, 155–161 Class A biosolids, ozone treatment, residual chlorine analysis: 786 amperometric techniques, 197–199 Cleaning systems, ultraviolet light DPD method, 208–214 systems, 927–928 iodometric method I, 215–217 Clortec on-site sodium hypochlorite Combined cyanides, industrial generation systems, 565–566 wastewater chlorination, Closed vessel reactors, ultraviolet light 352–358 systems, 921–924 Combined sewer overfl ow (CSO), Clostridium botulinum, ozone chlorine dioxide, 735–736 disinfection, 790–792 Compound loop control: Coagulation: dechlorination control systems, potable water chlorination, 293 654–655 surface water disinfection, 310–311 online chlorination analyzers, Coliform bacteria: 647–653 chlorine dioxide inactivation, Compressibility coeffi cient, chlorine, 709–711 25–26 ozone treatment, 787–792 Compressor systems, ozone regrowth management, 269–270 generation, 810–811 wastewater treatment standard for, Computational fl uid dynamics: 363–368 ozone drinking water treatment, chlorine dose and effl uent quality, 787–789 383–384 ultraviolet light systems, 959–960 Collimated beam analysis, ultraviolet Concave head design, ton containers, light systems, guidelines for, chlorine feed systems, 424–427 938–940, 945–946, 952 Concentrated chlorine solutions: Colorimetric methods: sodium hypochlorite, 455–457 chlorination/dechlorination process speciation, 81–82 controls: Concentration effects, sodium history, 596–598 hypochlorite: online analytical measurements, basic chemistry, 455–457 606–607 degradation, 466–467 chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine Concrete storage tanks, sodium by-products, 751 hypochlorite, 483 vs. titrimetric methods, 180 Consensus indicator organisms: amperometric titration, 193–194 chlorine disinfectants, 236 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) coliform standard, wastewater colorimetric method, 210–211 treatment, 366–368 INDEX 1019

Constituent reactions: Continuous processing, sodium aqueous chlorine, 141–149 hypochlorite, 455 alkalinity, 142–144 Contour plates, sodium hypochlorite arsenic, 145 transfer, 491 carbon, 145–146 Control systems: cyanide, 146 bromine chloride facilities, 863–864 hydrogen sulfi de, 146–147 chlorination/dechlorination: iron and manganese, 147–148 amperometry, 598–599 methane, 148 basic principles and applications, nitrite, 148–149 594–596 wastewater disinfection, 379–382 chemistry/process control Construction materials, bromine combination, 663–670 chloride facilities, 865 colorimetry, 606–607 Contact systems: compound loop control, 647–655 chlorine processing: dechlorination process control, automated process control, 638 653–657 chlorine dioxide, potable water feedback control, 644–647, 654 treatment, 728 fl ow pacing, 641–645, 654 dechlorination process: historical background, 596–598 sulfi te compounds, 582–583 manual control, 638–639 sulfur dioxide, 580–581 membrane cell, 600 design criteria: online chlorination analyzers, chamber sizing, 411–413 607–633 chlorination/dechlorination doses, Analytical Technology, Inc., 405 608–611 construction guidelines, 417 Capital Controls, 614–619, disinfection by-products, 417 662–663 dispersion process, 405–406 dechlorination analysis, 657–663 mixing technologies, 406–411 fi eld comparisons of, 629–633 no-tracer test design, 416 GLI International, 619–620 overview, 404 Hach CL17 analyzer, 611–614 potable water, 414–416 Orion Research, Inc., 620–621 reuse water, 413 process review, 633–637 sampling and reporting, 417 selection criteria, 631–633 wastewater fl ow, 413 Stranco HRR, 657–658 wet weather wastewater Stranco Products, 622–629 disinfection, 416–417 Wallace & Tiernan, 621–622, ozone transfer: 658–662 baffl ed basins, 822–824 operation and maintenance, design criteria, 821–826 670–673 layout, 819 oxidation-reduction potential, pipeline systems, 824–826 602–606 Container failures, chlorine leaks, 61–62 polarography, 599–600 Container-mounted vacuum regulator, potentiometry, 600–602 gas chlorine feed system, process control, 634–653 440–442 record keeping and regulatory Continuously stirred tank reactor issues, 673–676 (CSTR) method, ozone voltametry, 599 disinfection process, 789 zero residual control, 655–657 1020 INDEX

Control systems: (cont’d) Cryogenic air separation, ozone gaseous chlorine system operations, generation, 809 682–684 Cryptosporidium pathogens: sodium hypochlorite facilities design, advanced oxidation processes, 994–995 518 chlorine dioxide inactivation, 711–712 ultraviolet light systems, 965–966 chlorine disinfectants, 235–241 health and safety issues, 967–970 ozone treatment, 787–792 Conversion factors table, 1008 baffl ed basin contactors, 823–824 Cooling water: ultraviolet light systems, potable water bromine chloride chemistry, 861 treatment, 896 bromine treatment, 854 CT criteria. See also Selleck-Collins ozone generation, 829–831 wastewater disinfection model Copper: advanced oxidation processes, 994–995 chlorine corrosion, pipe line leaks, 60 chlorination/dechlorination process cyanide wastes, industrial wastewater controls, 638 chlorination, 357–358 chemistry and, 666–670 sodium hypochlorite impurities and chlorine contact system design, 404 degradation, 472 chlorine dioxide, 728 Copperas, textile wastes, industrial chlorine dioxide: wastewater chlorination, contact system design, 728 360–361 encrysted parasites, 711–712 Corona discharge generators, ozone chlorine disinfectants: generation, 799–800 biocidal properties of chlorine, Corrosion: 234–235 chlorine, aqueous solutions, 30 Interim Enhanced Surface Water chlorine leaks, fusible plug failure, Treatment Rule, 238–239 39–40 mechanisms of, 153, 157–161 ozone, 768 protozoa inactivation, 235 potable water chlorination, regrowth virucidal properties, 235 management and, 271–272 ozone disinfection process, 787–792 sulfur dioxide, dechlorination process, baffl ed basin contactors, 823–824 578–579 potable water chloramination, Cost studies: 255–257 bromine chloride facilities, 865 Surface Water Treatment Rule and, iodine production, 885–886 236–238 ozone generation, 831–832 wastewater treatment, chlorine dose Countercurrent packed tower design, and effl uent quality, 382–384 wastewater chlorination, Cyanate: foul air scrubbing systems, aqueous chlorine, 146 333–338 cyanide wastes, industrial wastewater Countercurrent transfer cells, ozone chlorination, 354–358 disinfection process, 788–789 Cyanide, aqueous chlorine, 146 Critical density, chlorine, 24–25 Cyanides, industrial wastewater Critical temperature, chlorine, chlorination, 352–358 24–25 Cyanogen chloride: Cross-linked polyethylene, high- cyanide wastes, industrial wastewater density polyethylene storage chlorination, 353–358 tanks, sodium hypochlorite, formation of, 146 481–483 potable water chloramination, 262 INDEX 1021

Cyanotoxins, ozone treatment, history, 572–574 785–786 hydrogen peroxide, 583 Cylinders: liquid system operation and chlorine feed systems, 420–424 maintenance, 692–693 gas chlorine storage, operation and process control systems, 653–657 maintenance, 693–694 Capital Control, 662–663 online analyzers, 657–663 Daily microscopic evaluation, Stranco HRR system, 657–658 wastewater chlorination, Wallace & Tiernan, 658–662 sludge bulking control, sulfi te compounds, 581–583 342–345 chemical properties, 581–582 Dark repair mechanism, UV- contactor design, 582–583 inactivated microorganism dose calculations, 583 repair, 902 facility design, 592–593 Data recording guidelines, ultraviolet sulfur dioxide: light systems, 937–938, 945, chemical properties, 577–581 951–952 contactor design, 580–581 collection systems, 965 dose calculations, 581 Davies equation, hypochlorous acid facility design, 586–591 dissociation, ionic effects, trichoramine formation, 102–103 78–80 wastewater disinfection, 396–397 Deacon process, chlorine Decomposer tower, mercury cells, manufacturing: chlorine electrolysis, 14 early history, 3 Decomposition products: hydrochloric acid oxidation, 19 breakpoint reaction, 115–116 Dead-end area surveillance, potable chlorine demand, 151 water treatment and sodium hypochlorite, 459–460 distribution, 275 Degas separation, ozone transfer, Deamination, organic nitrogen sidestream injectors, reactions, 118–120 818–820 Decay coeffi cient, chlorine demand, Degradation mechanisms, sodium 151 hypochlorite, 463–477 Dechlorination: concentration effects, 466–468 activated carbon, 583–585 impurities, 471–475 carbon and, 146 pH effects, 469–470 chlorine contact systems design, rate estimation, 464–466 chlorination/dechlorination recommendations and guidelines, doses, 405 476–477 chlorine speciation, 576–577 settled particulates, 473–474 defi ned, 572 sodium bromate, 475 facility design, 585–593 sodium carbonate, 474 gaseous system sulfur dioxide, suspended solids, 473 586–589 temperature effects, 468–469 sulfi te liquid system design, ultraviolet light effects, 470–471 592–593 Degreasers, advanced oxidation, water sulfur dioxide leak detectors, treatment systems, 983 589–591 Density, chlorine, 27 gas system operation and Desalination, water chlorination, maintenance, 690–692 303–304 1022 INDEX

Design Manual for Municipal bromine residual compounds, 873–874 Wastewater Disinfection, chlorination/dechlorination process ultraviolet light systems controls, history, 596–598 guidelines, 908–909, chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine 950–953 by-products, 741–742, 747–748 nonbiological, mathematical-based dechlorination, 577 modeling, 955–958 residual compound analysis, 176–177 Dessicant dryer, ozone generation, 811 basic techniques, 208–214 Destruction equipment, ozone discharge, breakthrough phenomenon, 213 826–829 colorimetric method, 210–211 off-gas reuse, 828–829 combined ferrous ammonium thermal catalytic destruction, 826–828 sulfate (DPD-FAS) method, thermal destruction, 828 211–214 Detection limits, residual chlorine free chlorine measurement, analysis: 178–179, 212 amperometric techniques, 200 manganese interference, 213–214 comparison of methods, 181 monochloramine/dichloramine, 212 Diaphragm cell, chlorine electrolysis, nitrogen trichloride, 212 8–11 spectrophotometric method, 211 Diaphragm metering pumps, sodium total residual chlorine, 212–213 hypochlorite transfer, 486–493 wastewater disinfection, chlorine Diaphragm valves: reaction with, 381 chlorine feeders, valve systems and, Differential transmitters, gaseous 448–449 chlorine system operations, sodium hypochlorite storage and 683–684 handling, 510–513 Diffusers: Dibromamine: bromine chloride facilities, 864 chlorine chemistry in seawater, chlorine dioxide systems, 728 127–129 chlorine feeder systems, 444–445 germicidal effi ciency, 869–870 Dihaloacetic acids, potable water residual chlorine measurement, chloramination, 262 872–875 Dilution blower systems, on-site Dichloramine: sodium hypochlorite ammonia chlorination, 97–103 generation, 553–556 breakpoint curve, 106–115 Dimensionally stable anodes (DSA), chemistry and kinetics, 109–115 chlorine electrolytic process, 5 combined chlorine formation of, Direct fi ltration systems, wastewater 87–91 chlorination, viral inactivation, dechlorination process, 576–577 372–375 germicidal effi ciency, 155–161 Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products residual chlorine analysis, 186 Rule (DBPR), chlorine amperometric titration, 198 disinfectants, 238–239 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine-ferrous Disinfection by-products (DBPs): ammonium sulfate technique, advanced oxidation processes, 212 precursor oxidation, wastewater disinfection, nitrifi ed 989–990, 995 effl uents, 385–390 bromo-organic compounds, Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) 871–872 titration: chloramine residual analysis, 186 INDEX 1023

chlorination/dechlorination process ozone: controls, overview, 594–598 potable water treatment, 787–789 chlorine contact system design, 417 wastewater treatment, 790–792 chlorine dioxide, 729–736 potable water treatment, 240–248 chlorate, 731–734 application points, 242–243 chlorite, 729–731 biocidal properties, 232, 234 combined sewer overfl ow, 735–736 bromate, 245 organic compounds, 734 building disinfection, 283 preoxidation control, 740 by-products, 243–248, 261–262 regulatory guidelines, 755 chloramination, 248–263 taste and odor formation, 734–735 ammonia-chlorine process, wastewater effl uents, 735 250–251 ozone: ammonia N reaction chemistry, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and 251 ketones, 795 aquatic life and, 260–261 bromate control, 793–795 effi ciency concerns, 255–256 control using, 779–780 free chlorine residuals, 253–255 generation of, 792–795 historical background, 248–250 potable water treatment, 243–248, kidney dialysis patients, 260 261–262 lead concentrations, 261 bromate, 245 limitations, 253 chloramination, 261–262 nitrifi cation, 256–260 chlorination-dechlorination, shock-chlolrination, 260 247–248 chlorination-dechlorination, 247–248 chlorine demand, 245–247 chlorine contact systems design, chlorine dioxide, 729 414–416 haloacetic acids, 244 chlorine demand, 245–247 long-term effects, 232–234 chlorine dioxide, 727–728 total organic halides, 244–245 consensus indicator organism, 236 trihalomethanes, 243–244 Disinfectants/Disinfection trichloramine formation, 103 Byproducts Rule, 239 wastewater treatment, 390–394 gas and liquid chlorine, 243 water quality, 340–341 gaseous and liquid chlorine, 243 Disinfection process: Ground Water Rule, 240 calcium hypochlorite, 521–522 haloacetic acids, 244 chlorine contact systems design: historical background, 241–242 potable water, 414–416 Interim Enhanced Surface Water wastewater, 413 Treatment Rule, 238–239 chlorine dioxide: Long-Term 1 and 2 Enhanced food processing, 736–737 Surface Water Treatment medical devices, 736 Rules, 239–240 pathogen attacks (bioterrorism), protozoa inactivation, 235 737–738 regrowth management and, 271 potable water treatment, 727–728 Safe Drinking Water Act secondary disinfection, 734 requirements, 236 viral and bacterial inactivation, secondary disinfectants, 275–276 706–711 Surface Water Treatment Rule, feed systems, 279–280 236–238 free chlorine chemistry, 279 total organic halides, 244–245 1024 INDEX

Disinfection process: (cont’d) potable water chloramination and trihalomethanes, 243–244 nitrifi cation, 258 virucide applications, 235 wastewater chlorination and storage tanks, 282 biological treatment, 338–339 ultraviolet light systems: Dissolved ozone decay, 772–773 chemical and biological properties, quench chemicals, 836 897–898 residual measurement in water, in Europe, 893–894 839–842 in North America, 895–896 Distribution system, potable water in United Kingdom, 308–309 treatment, 263–279 wastewater treatment: fl ushing, 278 by-product formation, 390–394 monitoring, 273–275 chlorination, basic principles, operation, 272–273 328–329 regrowth management, 266–272 chlorine chemistry, 379–390 bacterial growth, 268 constituent reactions, 379–382 biofi lm formation, 267–268 dose and effl uent quality, 382–384 breakthrough, 268 nitrifi ed effl uent chlorination, coliforms, 269–270 384–390 corrosion and sediment chlorine contact systems design, 413 accumulation, 271–272 coliform standard, 364–368 disinfectant residuals, 271 dechlorination indications, 396–397 environmental factors, 270 history, 363–364 nutrient availability, 270–271 methods and techniques, 357–378 regulatory compliance, 264–265 organism regrowth, 394–395 secondary disinfectant residuals, residual chlorine toxicity, 395–396 275–276 viruses, 368–375 treatment plant performance and water mains, 281 water quality, 279 water treatment plants, 282–283 water age control, 275–276 Dispersion: Dose calculations: chlorine contact systems design, chlorine contact systems 405–406 design, 405 risk management programs, chlorine dechlorination process: storage, 47 sulfi te compounds, 583 ultraviolet light systems guidelines, sulfur dioxide, 581 nonbiological, mathematical- ozone generation, 835 based modeling, 956–958 ultraviolet light systems: Disproportionation reaction: challenge microorganisms, dosing breakpoint curve chemistry and guidelines for, 933–935, kinetics, 110–111 943–944, 951 chlorine demand, 150–151 collimated beam analysis, 938–940 chlorine gas dissolution and dose-monitoring methods and hydrolysis, 70–74 validation test conditions, Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), ozone 936–937, 945–946, 951 removal, 780–782 microorganism inactivation, 902–904 Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations: wastewater disinfection, effl uent dechlorination process, 576 quality and, 382–384 sulfur dioxide, 580 Drinking water. See Potable water hydrogen sulfi de control, 301–303 treatment INDEX 1025

Drinking Water Systems Center, Electrical system modifi cation, ultraviolet light system ultraviolet light systems, guidelines, 948–949 965–966 Drop dilution method, residual chlorine Electrochemistry: analysis, 222–223 bromine production, 849–850 Dry sensors, ultraviolet light systems, chlorine dioxide, 720–722 926–927 ozone concentrations in gas, 838 Dual-indicator-electrode titrator, Electrode design: amperometric titration, amperometric titration, residual residual chlorine analysis, chlorine analysis, 193 191–193 chlorination/dechlorination Duplex water-softening systems, on-site process controls, oxidation- sodium hypochlorite reduction potential, generation, 536–537 603–606 Dyed microspheres, ultraviolet light oxidation-reduction potential systems, 960–961 measurement, 135–141 Electrodeless mercury vapor lamps, E. coli bacteria: ultraviolet light systems, coliform standard, wastewater 914–917 treatment, 365–368 Electrolysis: ozone treatment, 787–792 bromine production, 849–850 Economic issues, wastewater chlorine manufacture: chlorination, septicity control, cell design and maintenance, 5 347–348 cell development, 4–5 Eductors, and chlorine feed systems, chlor-alkali plant, 15–17 442–451 diaphragm cells, 8–11 diffusers, 444–445 history, 3–4 pipe and valve systems, 445–449 hydrochloric acid solutions, 20 scrubbers, 450–451 membrane cells, 5–8 Effi ciency criteria: mercury cells, 11–15 ozone generation, 834–835 on-site sodium hypochlorite ozone transfer, sidestream injectors, generation systems, 531–534 818 cell components, 542–544, potable water chloramination, 563–564 255–256 Electrolyzer, mercury cells, Effl uent standards: chlorine electrolysis, 14 chlorination/dechlorination process Elemental chlorine. See Chlorine; controls: Gaseous chlorine; Liquid chemistry and, 665–670 chlorine history, 596–598 Elevation differences, sodium coliform standard, wastewater hypochlorite facility design, treatment, 365–368 513–514 wastewater chlorination: Encrysted parasites, chlorine dioxide biochemical oxygen demand inactivation, 711–712 reduction, 339–340 Endocrine-disrupting compounds dose and, 382–384 (EDCs), ozone treatment, nitrifi ed effl uents, 384–390 784–785 EFV valves, chlorine storage and leak Engineering controls, ultraviolet prevention, 58 light systems, 969 1026 INDEX

Enteric viruses, wastewater disinfection storage and handling, 864 process, viral inactivation, system evaluation, 862–863 369–375 bromine processing, 854–855 Enteroviruses, wastewater disinfection dechlorination process, 585–593 process, viral inactivation, gaseous system sulfur dioxide, 369–375 586–501 Environmental factors, regrowth sulfi te liquid system design, 592–593 management, 270 sulfur dioxide leak detectors, EPRG-2 values, risk management 589–591 programs, chlorine storage, 47 iodine production, 884–886 Equipment failure, chlorine leaks, 61 potable water installations, ozone Equipment sizing: treatment, 796 on-site sodium hypochlorite wastewater installations, ozone generation layout, 557–558 treatment, 797 ultraviolet light systems, 932 Facility layouts: Equivalence point, amperometric on-site sodium hypochlorite titration, chlorine dioxide generation, design criteria, analysis, oxychlorine 557–565 by-products, 744–747 equipment sizing, 557–558 Ethylene propylene (EPDM), sodium layout, 559–565 hypochlorite storage and storage requirements, 559 handling, 506 system redundancy, 558–559 diaphragm valves, 512 sodium hypochlorite storage and Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), handling, 513–518 advanced oxidation, access and clearances, 517 water treatment systems, control panels, 518 984–985 elevation differences, 513–514 European water treatment systems, tank and pump bases, 515–517 chlorine dioxide, 701–702 Faraday effi ciency plot, on-site sodium Evaporators, bromine chloride hypochlorite generation, facilities, 864–865 soft-water chiller, 540–541 Excimer lamps, ultraviolet light Faraday’s law, chlorine electrolysis, 3–4, systems, 918–920 9–11 Expansion tanks, chlorine feed Fecal coliform concentration, coliform systems, 437–438 standard, wastewater treatment, Explosions, nitrogen trichloride 365–368 as cause of, 23 Feedback controllers: compound loop control, 647–653 Facility design: dechlorination control systems, 654 bromine chloride, 861–865 manual systems, 639–641 automatic controls, 864 online chlorination analyzers, 633–637, construction materials, 865 644–647 current practices, 861–862 Feed-forward control systems: evaporators, 864–865 compound loop control, 647–653 injector systems, 864 dechlorination process, 575 metering and control equipment, fl ow pacing, 641–644 863–864 online chlorination analyzers, 633–637 safety equipment, 865 Feedstock impurities, sodium chlorite, solution lines and diffusers, 864 chlorate generation, 733 INDEX 1027

Feed systems: Fenton reaction: basic principles, 418–420 advanced oxidation processes: 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5- historical background, 976–977 dimethylhydantoin hydrogen peroxide, 980, 992–993 (BCDMH), 867 equipment and generation, 997 chlorination/dechlorination process Ferric chloride, chlorine impurities controls, manual control and, 22 systems, 638–639 Ferric sulfate, textile wastes, industrial chlorine dioxide, design criteria, wastewater chlorination, 722–723 360–361 cylinders, 420–424 Ferrocyanide/ferricyanide, industrial for disinfectants, 279–280 wastewater chlorination, 358 eductors and, 442–451 Ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS): diffusers, 444–445 bromine residual measurement, pipe and valve systems, 445–449 873–874 scrubbers, 450–451 dechlorination, 577 expansion tanks, 437–438 residual chlorine analysis, gaseous chlorine, 438–442 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine gas fi lter, 437–438 (DPD) titration, 176–177, liquid chlorine, 431–436 211–214 vaporizers, 431–436 wastewater disinfection, chlorine pressure-reducing valve, 436–437 reaction with, 381 sodium hypochlorite, 486–499 Ferrous metals, chlorine chemical calculations for, 455–457 reactions, 29–30 contour plates, 491 Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP): design criteria, 458 brine saturator tanks, on-site diaphragm metering pumps, sodium hypochlorite 486–490 generation, 537–539 electric drives, 497 on-site sodium hypochlorite hose and tube life, 498 generation, hydrogen hose pumps, 496–497 dilution blowers, 554–556 hose replacement, 497–498 sodium hypochlorite: liquid dosing systems, 498–499 piping, 504 on-site sodium hypochlorite storage tanks, 478, 480 generation, 556 high-density polyethylene peristaltic pumps, 493–499 storage tanks vs., 480, specialty pumps, 492–493 482–483 stroke length limits, 491 Filamentous bacteria, wastewater transfer pumps, 486 chlorination, sludge bulking tube failure, 496 control, 342–345 tube pumps, 495 Filtration, potable water chlorination, tubular diaphragms, 491–492 294–295 turndown/pressure capabilities, Final volume end point, amperometric 495–496 titration, chlorine dioxide vapor locking problems, analysis, oxychlorine 490–493 by-products, 745–747 storage tanks, 430–431 Fine-bubble diffusers, ozone transfer, tank trucks/cars, 427–430 816–817 ton containers, 424–426 Fire, chlorine leaks, 59–60 1028 INDEX

Fire and building codes: Fouling, ultraviolet light systems, chlorine leaks, 34 931–932 sodium hypochlorite, 461–462 Free available chlorine test using First aid procedures: syringaldazine (FACTS): chlorine exposure, 31–32 free chlorine measurement, 178–179 sulfur dioxide exposure, residual chlorine analysis: dechlorination process, 579 basic techniques, 214–215 Flanged connections, sodium small water supplies, 184–185 hypochlorite piping, 498–499 Free chlorine lined steel piping, 503–504 basic properties, 87–91 Flashlamps, ultraviolet light systems, breakpoint curve chemistry and 917–918 kinetics, 111–115 Flash-off phenomenon, chlorine leaks, bromine residual measurement, 873 34–35 chlorination/dechlorination process Flavor profi le analysis (FPA), chlorine controls, chemistry of, dioxide taste and odor control, 666–670 738–739 chlorine demand and, 150–151 Flexible connections: dechlorination process, 576–577 chlorine feed systems, ton containers, disinfection applications, 279 427 germicidal effi ciency, 155–161 chlorine leaks and failure of: monochloramine formation, 96–97 corrosion, 60 residual compound analysis: ton containers, 39 amperometric techniques, Floc-forming bacteria, wastewater 196–199 chlorination, sludge bulking diethyl-p-phenylenediamine- control, 342–345 ferrous ammonium sulfate Flow injection analysis (FIA), chlorine technique, 212 dioxide analysis, oxychlorine fi eld measurements, 177–179 by-products, 750 iodometric method I, 215–217 Flow pacing: potable water chloramination, compound loop control, 648–653 253–255 dechlorination control systems, 654 short contact times, 201 gaseous chlorine system operations, secondary disinfection, chlorine 682–684 dioxide, taste and odor process control systems, 641–644 formation, 734 ultraviolet light systems, 964–965 speciation in concentrated solution, Fluid mechanics, chlorine contact 81–82 systems dispersion, 405–406 wastewater disinfection, Fluorosilicone (FVMQ), sodium dechlorination, 396–397 hypochlorite storage and Free cyanides, industrial wastewater handling, 507 chlorination, 352–358 Flushing operations, water distribution Free residual chlorine (FRC), systems, 278 wastewater treatment, nitrifi ed Foaming, wastewater chlorination, effl uents, 385–390 sludge bulking control, 345 Free sulfur generation, wastewater Food processing, chlorine dioxide chlorination and hydrogen disinfection, 736–737 sulfi de, 335–338 Foul air scrubbing systems, wastewater Freezing point, sodium hypochlorite, chlorination, 333–338 458–459 INDEX 1029

Fuel oxygenates, advanced oxidation, Gaseous oxygen (GOX), ozone water treatment systems, generation, 802–806 984–985 pressure swing adsorption, 808–809 Functional testing, ultraviolet light vacuum swing adsorption, 806–808 systems, 964 Gaseous sulfur dioxide system, Fusible plug failure, chlorine leaks: dechlorination facility design, blowout, 40 586–591 corrosion, 39–40 Gas fi lter, chlorine feed systems, Fuzzy logic, programmable logic 437–438 controllers, chlorination/ Gas fl ow calculations, ozone processing, dechlorination process 832–834 controls, 637 Gas impulse devices, well restoration, 306 Gaseous chlorine: Gaskets: chemical reactions, 30 chlorine leaks, failure analysis, 61 chlorite solution, 719 sodium hypochlorite storage and cylinder storage units, operation handling, 506–507 and maintenance, 693–694 Gas-phase systems, dechlorination dissolution and hydrolysis, 68–74 facility design, 586–591 feed systems, 438–442 Gas sources, ozone generation, 800–812 health and safety requirements, air-based systems, 800–801 753 concentration monitors, 837–839 historical background, 1–2 enriched and high-purity oxygen hypochlorite solutions and, 85 systems, 801 leaks: quality controls, 801–806 detection systems and emergency selection criteria, 811–812 scrubber, 686–687 Gas-to-water ratio, ozone transfer, equipment failure, 61 sidestream injectors, 817–820 fusible plug corrosion, 39–40 Gastroenteritis, wastewater disinfection fusible plug failure, 39–40 process, viral inactivation, rate calculations, 35–36 368–375 maintenance guidelines, 684–686 Generator-originated chlorite, chlorine on-site sodium hypochlorite dioxide by-products, 729 generation, process Generic Verifi cation Protocol for High overview, 533 Rate, Wet-Weather Flow operation guidelines, 682–684 Disinfection Applications, physical and chemical properties, 25 ultraviolet light systems potable water disinfection, 243 guidelines, 953–954 pressure and density, 1003 Geometric mean, coliform standard, solid chlorite, 720, 726 wastewater treatment, 366–368 solubility in water, 27–28, 68–74 Geosmin: sulfonator operation and advanced oxidation processes, 988–989 maintenance, 690–692 chlorine dioxide, 734–735, 738–739 toxic effects, 30–31 ozone treatment, 777–779 vacuum density, 1004 Germany, water chlorination in, 310 vaporizer feed systems, 431–436 Germicidal effi ciency: viscosity, 1004 bromine compounds, 869–870 wastewater treatment, chemistry, chlorine dioxide, 705–711 328 chlorine residuals, 151–161 1030 INDEX

Germicidal effi ciency: (cont’d) Groundwater under the direct infl uence chloramines, 155–161 (GWUDI): hypochlorite ion, 154–155 chlorine disinfectant requirements, hypochlorous acid, 153–154 237 inactivation mechanisms, 152–153 ultraviolet light system guidelines, dechlorination, process controls, 896, 904–906 653–657 Growth mechanisms, regrowth dechlorination process, 576–577 management, 268 iodine, 882–883 Guillotine break, chlorine leaks, ton oxidation-reduction, chlorine container pipeline, 36–38 residuals, 137–141 wastewater disinfection, chlorine Hach CL17 online analyzer, reaction with, 381–382 chlorination/dechlorination Giardia pathogens: process controls, 611–614 chlorine dioxide inactivation, 711–712 Half-reactions, oxidation-reduction, chlorine disinfectants, 235–241 129–135 ozone treatment, 787–792 oxidation-reduction potential baffl ed basin contactors, 823–824 measurement, 136–141 potable water treatment: Haloacetic acids (HAA5): chloramination, 255–256 chlorine disinfection requirements, ultraviolet light systems, 896–897 239 GLI International AccuChlor2 online as disinfection by-product, 244 analyzer, chlorination/ ozone control, 779–780 dechlorination process controls, potable water chloramination, 262 619–620 water age control, 275–276 Gold ore refi ning, cyanide wastes, Hardness values, on-site sodium industrial wastewater hypochlorite generation, chlorination, 353–358 water softening systems, Granular activated carbon (GAC): 534–535 aqueous chlorine and, 145–146 Hastelloy C steel: chlorine demand assessment, chlorine storage, 57–58 246–247 sodium hypochlorite piping, 506 dechlorination process, 583–585 storage tank linings, 478 ozone fi ltration, 780–781 Hazard analysis: Gravel chlorination, well calcium hypochlorite, 463, 523 disinfection, 284 sodium hypochlorite, 455–457, Grosvenor Miller process, chlorine 462–463 manufacturing, hydrochloric Health issues: acid oxidation, 19 bromine compounds, 874–875 Groundwater: chlorine dioxide processing and chlorine residuals in, breakpoint handling, 752 curve calculations, iodine, 886–887 108–109 ozone treatment, 842–843 disinfection and treatment, iron and ultraviolet light systems, manganese and, 311 966–970 microbes in, 230–231 Heat capacity calculations, on-site Groundwater Rule (GWR): sodium hypochlorite chlorine disinfectants, 240 generation, soft-water microbe removal guidelines, 231 heater, 539–540 INDEX 1031

Heated metal oxide semiconductor chlorine gas dissolution and (HMOS), ozone concentrations hydrolysis, 72–74 in gas, 838–839 chlorine manufacturing: Heat transfer: electrolysis, 20 chlorine feed systems, 419–420 membrane cell electrolysis, 7–8 ozone generation, 800 oxidation process, 18–19 sodium hypochlorite degradation, Hydrogen dilution blowers, on-site 468–469 sodium hypochlorite Henry’s law: generation, 553–556 chlorine gas dissolution and layout and design, 563–564 hydrolysis, 68–74 Hydrogen dilution standpipe, on-site hypochlorous acid dissociation, sodium hypochlorite 74–77 generation, 546–553 ozone solubility, 769 layout and design, 564–565 Herbicides, oxidation of, 986–988 Hydrogen formation, on-site sodium Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), hypochlorite generation, potable water chloramination, separation and safety nitrifi cation, 257–260 concerns, 546–553 Hexachlorobenzene, chlorine Hydrogen peroxide: impurities and, 22 dechlorination process, 583 Hexachloroethane, chlorine dissolved ozone in water impurities and, 22 measurement, 841 Hexose-monophosphate shunt (HMPS), equipment and generation systems, kidney dialysis, potable water 995–997 chloramination, 260 ozone decomposition, 979, 990–991 H. H. Dow process, bromine Fenton reaction, 980, 992–993 production, 850 photo-Fenten reaction, 980–981, High-density polyethylene (HDPE), 992–993 sodium hypochlorite storage titanium dioxide-hydrogen and handling: peroxide, 981–982 piping, 505 ultraviolet photolysis, 979–980, storage tanks, 479, 480–483 991–992 Highway transport accidents, chlorine, wastewater disinfection, 379 51–52 Hydrogen production calculations, Hoechst-Uhde process, hydrochloric on-site sodium hypochlorite acid electrolysis, 20 generation, 551 Hoigne, Staehelin, and Bader Hydrogen sulfi de: mechanism, ozone reaction, aqueous chlorine, 146–147 770–771 ozone treatment, 775–776 Horizontal tube generators, ozone potable water treatment and, generation, 813–815 299–303 Hydraulic effects: wastewater chlorination: potable water chlorination, 272 foul air scrubbing systems, 334–338 sulfur dioxide dechlorination facilities, odor control, 329–338 587–589 prechlorination, 330–333 Hydrocarbons, ozone gas sources, 801 septicity control, 346–348 Hydrochloric acid: Hydrolysis, chlorine, 68–74 bromine chloride chemistry, 860–861 Hydroxide, ozone decomposition, chlorine dioxide chemistry, 717 978–979 1032 INDEX

Hydroxylamine, breakpoint curve cooling water, 854 chemistry and kinetics, dissociation, 851 110–115 ionic strength effects, 126–127 Hydroxyl radicals, advanced oxidation residual measurement, 182, processes: 872–875 chemistry, 977–982 Hypochlorite. See also Calcium equipment and generation, 995–997 hypochlorite; Lithium Fenton reaction, 980, 992–993 hypochlorite; Sodium historical background, 976–977 hypochlorite hydroxyl radical generation, aqueous chlorine solutions, 82–85 ultraviolet light, 979–980, 992 background and history, 452–453 overview, 976 chlorine dioxide electrochemistry, ozone decomposition: 722 hydrogen peroxide, 979, 990–991 germicidal effi ciency, 154–155 hydroxide initiation, 978–979 hypobromite formation, 852–853 ultraviolet photolysis, 979, raw wool processing, wastewater 991–992 chlorination, 361 photo-Fenton reaction, 980–981, wastewater disinfection, 376 992–993 constituent reactions, 379–382 potable water/wastewater Hypochlorous acid (HOCl): treatment, 982–990 bromine reactions with, 852 degreasers and solvents, 983 chlorine chemistry in seawater, disinfection by-product precursor 126–127 oxidation, 989–990 chlorine gas dissolution and fuel oxygenates, 984–985 hydrolysis, 68–74 pesticide oxidation, 985–988 dechlorination process, 574 petroleum products, 984 speciation, 576–577 taste and odor compound oxidation, dissociation, 74–80 988–989 ionic strength effects, 77–80 volatile organic carbon oxidation, pH/temperature effects, 74–77 982–985 germicidal effi ciency, 153–154 regulatory issues, 994–995 oxidation-reduction, 132–135 system classifi cation, 977 speciation in concentrated solution, system performance factors, 990–994 81–82 titanium dioxide: trichoramine formation, 102–103 hydrogen peroxide-ultraviolet wastewater treatment chemistry, reaction, 981–982 328–329 ultraviolet reaction, 981, 993–994 Hypoiodus acid: Hypobromite ion: chemistry, 879–882 chlorine chemistry in seawater, germicidal effi ciency, 882–883 123–126 dissociation, 851 Impurity detection: hypochlorite formation with, 853 chlorine dioxide, 713, 723–724 Hypobromous acid (HOBr): sodium hypochlorite: bromine chloride chemistry, 860–861 chlorate generation, chlorine chlorine reactions, 852 dioxide, 734 in seawater, 123–126 degradation mechanism, bromamine formation and decay, 471–475 127–129 processing systems, 455–457 INDEX 1033

Inactivation mechanisms: Interferences, residual chlorine chlorine disinfectants, 152–153 measurement, 180, 182 ultraviolet light systems guidelines, manganese interference, 213–214 nonbiological, mathematical- nitrite interference, 205–208 based modeling, 956–958 orthotolidine method, 221–222 Incinerator scrubber water, cyanide Interim Enhanced Surface Water waste, industrial wastewater Treatment Rule (IESWTR), chlorination, 358 chlorine disinfectants, Indigo trisulfonate, dissolved ozone 238–239 in water measurement, International Fire Code (IFC), sodium 840–842 hypochlorite, 461–462 Industrial wastewater: Iodine: chlorination, 352–361 applications, 877–878 free and combined cyanides, brine production, 877 352–358 Chile saltpeter production, 876 phenols, 359–360 chlorination comparisons, 884 textile wastes, 360–361 chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine nitrogenous compounds, 92–94 by-products, amperometric Infectious hepatitis, wastewater titration, 745–747 disinfection process, viral facility layout, 884–885 inactivation, 368–375 germicidal effi ciency, 882–883 Information Collection Rule (ICR), health and safety aspects, 886–887 chlorine dioxide analysis, iodination chemistry, 879–882 oxychlorine by-products, limitations of, 883 741–742 normality monitoring, residual Injector systems: compound analysis, 203–204 bromine chloride facilities, 864 occurrence and production, 876 1-bromo-3-chloro-5,5- physical and chemical properties, 875, dimethylhydantoin (BCDMH), 889 867 regulatory issues, 887 chlorination/dechlorination process residual compounds, 886 controls, 594–596 water treatment, 877–878 chlorine dioxide, 728 Iodometry: Inlet/outlet conditions, ultraviolet light chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine system guidelines, 936 by-products, 742 Inorganic compounds: residual chlorine measurement, 179 ozone treatment, 773–777 method I, 215–217 chlorine, chlorine dioxide, method II, 217–218 monochloramine, 776–777 potentiometric techniques, iron and manganese, 773–775 218–219 sulfi des, 775–776 Ion chromatography (IC), chlorine wastewater chlorination, chemistry, dioxide analysis, oxychlorine 328–329 by-products, 741–742, 749 Insulated-gate bipolar transistors Ion exchange mechanisms: (IGBTs), ozone generation, bromine reactions, 852–853 814 iodine chemistry, 879–882 Intensity set point approach, ultraviolet on-site sodium hypochlorite light systems, dose calculations, generation, water softening 936–937 systems, 535–537 1034 INDEX

Ionic strength effects: Lagrangian actinometry, ultraviolet light chlorine chemistry in seawater, systems, 960–961 126–127 Lag time of bacterial kill, wastewater hypochlorite, germicidal effi ciency, treatment, chlorine dose and 154–155 effl uent quality, 384 hypochlorous acid dissociation, 77–80 Lamps, ultraviolet light systems, sodium hypochlorite degradation, 467 910–921 pH levels and, 469–470 elapse time, 964 Iron: electrodeless mercury vapor lamps, aqueous chlorine, 147–148 914–917 chlorine dioxide oxidation, 739–740 excimer lamps, 918–920 chlorite removal and reduction mercury vapor lamps, 910–914 of, 730 metal halide lamps, 917 groundwater disinfection and pulsed lamps, 917–918 treatment, 311 Lamp sleeves, ultraviolet light systems, ozone treatment, 773–775 925–926 potable water chlorination and, Latent heat of vaporization: 290–293 chlorine, 27 sodium hypochlorite impurities and liquid chlorine, 1005 degradation, 472 Lead concentrations, potable water Irrigation systems, wastewater reuse, chloramination, 261 399–400 Leaks: chlorine, 33–41 Javelle water: defi nitions, 33–34 early chlorine manufacturing, 2–3 fi re and building codes, 34 hypochlorite formation and, fl ash-off phenomenon, 34–35 452–453 fusible plug blowout, 40 Joule-Thompson effect, vaporizer fusible plug corrosion, 39–40 chlorine feed systems, 433 PVC header failure, 38–39 rate calculations, 35–36 Kalrez elastomer, sodium hypochlorite tanker truck unloading, 36 storage and handling, ton containers: 506–507 fl exible connection failure, 39 Kel-Chlor process, chlorine guillotine pipeline break, manufacturing, hydrochloric 36–38 acid oxidation, 19–20 dechlorination process, sulfur Ketones, ozone disinfection by- dioxide leak detection, products, 795 589–591 Kidney dialysis patients, potable water Leuco crystal violet (LCV) titration, chloramination, 260 residual chlorine, 177, Klorigen on-site sodium hypochlorite 219–220 generation systems, 566–567 Level instrumentation, sodium Kossuth process, bromine production, hypochlorite storage tanks, 849 483–484 Kubierschky process, bromine Light-emitting diodes (LEDs), production, 850 ultraviolet light systems, 920–921 LaBlanc soda process, early chlorine Light exposure limits, ultraviolet light manufacturing, 3 systems, 967–970 INDEX 1035

Light intensity distribution (LID), ozone generation, 800–806 ultraviolet light systems, quality and storage criteria, 802–806 microorganism inactivation, Liquid system design, sulfi te 903–904 dechlorination process, Lime requirements, calcium hypochlorite 592–593 processing, 521 Liquid wastes, wastewater chlorination, Linear polyethylene, high-density 361 polyethylene storage tanks, Lissamine Green B (LGB) process, sodium hypochlorite, 481 chlorine dioxide analysis, Lined steel, sodium hypochlorite 741–742, 748 storage: Lithium hypochlorite, 525–526 piping, 503–504 Loading and unloading systems, sodium tanks, 479–480 hypochlorite, 484 Liquid bleach. See Sodium hypochlorite Long-term 1 and 2 Enhanced Surface Liquid chlorine. See also Aqueous Water Treatment Rules chlorine (LT1ESWTR/LT2ESWTR): chemical reactions, 29–30 advanced oxidation processes, compressibility coeffi cient, 25 994–995 dechlorination system operation and chlorine dioxide, 754 maintenance, 692–693 encrysted parasites, 711–712 density, 27 chlorine disinfectants, 239–240 feed systems, 431–436 ozone disinfection process, 789 historical background, 2 potable water disinfection: latent heat of vaporization, 1005 chlorine dioxide, 727–728 leaks: ultraviolet light systems, 896–897 consumer accidents, 55–56 ultraviolet light system guidelines, fusible plug corrosion, 39 904–906 fusible plug failure, 39 challenge microorganisms and dose pipeline guillotine break, requirements, 935 ton containers, 36–38 Lower explosive limit (LEL), on-site rate calculations, 35 sodium hypochlorite ton container explosions, 60 generation: nitrogen chloride in, 23 hydrogen formation, separation and physical and chemical properties, 25 safety, 546–553 potable water disinfection, 243 process overview, 534 solubility in water, 28–29 Low-fl ow area surveillance, potable storage operations and maintenance, water treatment and 696–697 distribution, 275 temperature-density relation, 1005 Low-level titrations, residual chlorine toxic effects, 30–31 analysis, amperometric vapor pressure vs. temperature, 1006 techniques, 200 viscosity, 1004 Low-pressure-high-output (LPHO) volume-temperature relationship, 26, lamps, ultraviolet light systems, 1007 910–914 wastewater treatment, history, 327 Low-pressure (LP) mercury vapor Liquid dosing systems, sodium lamps: hypochlorite, 498–499 potable water treatment, 896–897 Liquid oxygen (LOX): ultraviolet light systems, 910–914 health and safety guidelines, 843 wastewater treatment, 895–896 1036 INDEX

Magnesium: residual chlorine analysis, interference on-site sodium hypochlorite reactions, 213–214 generation, water softening Manual control systems: systems, 535–535 chlorination/dechlorination process sodium hypochlorite degradation, 475 controls, 638–639 Maintenance issues: gaseous chlorine system operations, chlorination/dechlorination process 682–684 controls, 670–673 Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), chlorination systems: chlorine disinfectants overview, 678–679 requirements, 239 planning guidelines, 680 Mean cell residence time (MCRT), standard operating procedures, wastewater chlorination, 679–680 sludge bulking control, dechlorination gas systems, 690–692 343–345 dechlorination liquid systems, Mechanical mixing intensity: 692–693 chlorine contact systems design, 406 electrolytic cell design, 5 wastewater chlorination, ammonia gaseous chlorine systems, 682–687 removal, 351 chlorine detection systems and Mechanical system modifi cations, emergency scrubber, 686–687 ultraviolet light systems, 966 operation guidelines, 682–686 Medical applications: operator training and safety, 693 chlorine dioxide disinfection, 736 ozone transfer, sidestream injectors, iodine, 877–878 818–820 Medium-pressure (MP) ultraviolet regulatory requirements, 697–699 lamps: risk management plan, 697–698 potable water treatment, 896 SDWA and state testing and ultraviolet light systems, 910–914 reporting, 698 Membrane cell: wastewater chlorine use and chlorination/dechlorination process facilities reporting, 699 controls, online analytical residual analyzers, calibration and, measurements, 600 681–682 chlorine electrolysis, 5–8 sodium hypochlorite systems, Mercury cells, chlorine electrolysis, 687–690 11–15 storage systems, 693–697 Metal catalysts, sodium hypochlorite gas cylinders, 693–694 impurities and degradation, liquid chemicals, 696–697 471–472 rail cars, 695–696 Metal halide lamps, ultraviolet light ton containers, 694–695 systems, 917 ultraviolet light systems, 961–965 Metal plating, cyanide wastes, industrial Manganese: wastewater chlorination, aqueous chlorine, 147–148 353–358 chlorine dioxide oxidation, Metering equipment: 739–740 bromine chloride facilities, 863–864 groundwater disinfection and hydrogen peroxide, 996–997 treatment, 311 Methane, aqueous chlorine, 148 ozone treatment, 773–775 Methylene blue stability test, wastewater destruction catalyst, 826–828 chlorination, septicity control, potable water chlorination and, 290 346–348 INDEX 1037

2-Methylisoborneol (MIB): Mixing zone standards, wastewater advanced oxidation processes, disinfection by-products, 988–989 392–394 chlorine dioxide, 734–735, 738–739 Modifi ed orthotolidine-arsenite ozone treatment, 777–779 (MOTA), free chlorine Methyl orange (MO) method, residual measurement, 177–178 chlorine, 177, 220–221 Moisture, chlorine impurities and, 22 Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), Molecular chlorine: advanced oxidation, water alkalinity, 142–144 treatment systems, 984–985 chlorine gas dissolution and MicrOclor systems, 568, 570–571 hydrolysis, 72–74 Microorganisms: Molecular weight: chlorine disinfection, mechanisms of, calcium hypochlorite, 520–521 152–153 sodium hypochlorite: nitrite oxidation, 148–149 basic chemistry, 454 oxidation-reduction, chlorine concentrations, 457 compounds, 139–141 Mollusca control, in seawater, 295–299 potable water chloramination, Monel alloy, bromine storage 254–258 containers, 848 nitrifi cation, 257–258 Monitoring procedures: potable water supply, 230–231 chlorination/dechlorination process regrowth management, 266–272 controls, 670–673 ultraviolet light systems: chlorine dioxide, 753–754 dose calculations for inactivation, ozone concentrations, 837–839 902–904, 935, 943–944, 951 potable water chlorination, 273 inactivation mechanisms, 152–153, ultraviolet light systems: 898–900 dose-monitoring approaches, repair mechanisms, 899–901 936–937, 945–946, 951–952 sensitivity, 899, 901 online monitors, 928 validation and dose requirements, Monobromamine (bromamide): 933–935 chlorine chemistry in seawater, wastewater chlorination: 127–129 regrowth problems, 394–395 residual measurement, 872–875 sludge bulking control, 342–345 Monochloramine: Miniamperometric titration, residual ammonia chlorination, 95–97 chlorine measurement, 179 breakpoint curve, 106–115 MIOX on-site sodium hypochlorite chemistry and kinetics, 109–115 generation systems, combined chlorine formation 567, 569 of, 87–91 Mixed liquor total suspended solids dechlorination process, 576–577 (MLSS), wastewater germicidal effi ciency, 155–161 chlorination, sludge bulking residual chlorine analysis: control, 343–345 amperometric techniques, 197–198 Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids diethyl-p-phenylenediamine- (MLVSS), wastewater ferrous ammonium sulfate chlorination, sludge bulking procedure, 213 control, 343–345 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine- Mixing technologies, chlorine contact ferrous ammonium sulfate systems, 406–411 technique, 212 1038 INDEX

Monochloramine: (cont’d) ozone decomposition, hydroxide, wastewater disinfection, formation of, 978–979 380–381 ozone treatment, 776–777 nitrifi ed effl uents, 385–390 Nernst equation, oxidation-reduction, Morris’s best-fi t formula, hypochlorous 132–135 acid dissociation, 75–77 oxidation-reduction potential Most probable number (MPN) measurement, 136–141 procedure: New building systems, disinfection coliform standard, wastewater process, 283 treatment, 363–368 Nickel plating, cyanide wastes, industrial residual chlorine analysis, 186 wastewater chlorination, 357–358 National Pollutant Discharge Nickle alloys, bromine storage Elimination System (NPDES): containers, 848 chlorination/dechlorination process Nitrate: controls compliance, 675–676 breakpoint curve chemistry and coliform standard, wastewater kinetics, 113–115 treatment, 366–368 chlorine demand and formation of, ultraviolet wastewater treatment 150–151 systems, historical background, potable water chloramination and 895–896 nitrifi cation, 258 National Water Research Institute/ wastewater chlorination, ammonia American Water Works removal, 350–352 Association Research Nitric acid, ozone gas sources, 802 Foundation (NWRI/AwwaRF) Nitrifi cation: Ultraviolet Disinfection chlorination/dechlorination process Guidelines for Drinking Water controls, 670–673 and Water Reuse, ultraviolet potable water chloramination, 256–260 light system guidelines, 904, control procedures, 273–274 907–908 wastewater treatment: biodosimetry data analysis, 946–947, disinfection by-products, 392–394 950 effl uent chlorination, 384–390 challenge microorganisms and dose Nitrifi ed effl uents, residual chlorine requirements, 943–944, analysis, 187 949–950 Nitrile, sodium hypochlorite storage and collimated beam analysis, 945–946 handling, gaskets, seals, and dose-monitoring approaches and test o-rings, 506 conditions, 944–945 Nitrite: sampling and data recording, 945 aqueous chlorine, 148–149 validation location and test stand dechlorination process, 574 considerations, 944, 949–950 residual chlorine analysis: water reuse validation guidelines, amperometric techniques, 949–950 205–208 Natural organic matter (NOM): iodometric method I, 216–217 chlorine demand assessment, Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), 243–247 potable water chloramination, chlorine dioxide control, 734, 740 nitrifi cation, 257–258 disinfection by-products formation, Nitrogen cycle, nitrogenous compounds, 243–248 92–94 INDEX 1039

Nitrogen dioxide, ozone gas sources, wastewater chlorination, ammonia 801–802 removal, 350–352 Nitrogenous compounds: Nitrous oxide, cyanide wastes, industrial aqueous chlorine and, 91–122 wastewater chlorination, ammonia chlorination and 355–358 chloramine formation, 94–103 Nitroxyl formation, breakpoint curve dichloroamine/trichloroamine, chemistry and kinetics, 112–115 97–103 N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), monochloramine, 95–97 potable water chloramination, breakpoint reaction, 103–116 262 breakpoint curve, 105–109 Nonbiological, mathematical-based chemistry and kinetics, 109–115 modeling, ultraviolet light decomposition products, 115–116 systems, 955–958 historical background, 103–105 No-tracer test design, chlorine contact organic nitrogen, 116–122 systems, 416 breakpoint curve, 120–122 Nucleic acid absorption spectrum, reaction mechanisms, 118–120 ultraviolet light systems, in water and wastewater, 92–94 microbial inactivation, wastewater disinfection, chlorine 898–900 reactions, 379–382 Nutrient availability, regrowth Nitrogen padding, dechlorination facility management, 270–271 design, 586–589 Nitrogen pentoxide, ozone gas sources, Occupational Safety and Health 801–802 Administration (OSHA): Nitrogen tribromide: chlorine dioxide guidelines, 753–754 chlorine chemistry in seawater, chlorine electrolysis, mercury cells, 127–129 14–15 germicidal effi ciency, 159 Process Safety Management Nitrogen trichloride: regulations, 45–46 ammonia chlorination, 97–103 Occupational safety and health issues: breakpoint curve chemistry and chlorine dioxide guidelines, 753–754 kinetics, 113–115 mercury cells, chlorine electrolysis, combined chlorine formation of, 14–15 87–91 Odor control: cyanide wastes, industrial wastewater advanced oxidation processes, 988–989 chlorination, 355–358 algae and actinomycetes, 286–288 dechlorination process, 573–574 chlorine, 289 speciation, 577 chlorine dioxide, 734–735, 738–739 liquid chlorine, 23 ozone treatment, 778–779 ton container explosions, 60 potable water chloramination, odor generation, 262–263 262–263 potable water chloramination, synthetics, 288–289 N reactions, 251 wastewater chlorination, 329–338 residual chlorine analysis: foul air scrubbing, 333–338 amperometric techniques, 199, prechlorination, 330–333 204–205 water chlorination and, 285–286 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine- Off-gases, ozone transfer: ferrous ammonium sulfate reuse, 828–829 technique, 212 sidestream injectors, 818–820 1040 INDEX

Oil and gas removal, wastewater outside ventilation air induction chlorination, 348–349 rate, 551 Online chlorine analyzers: production calculations, 551 compound loop control, 647–653 room turnover rate calculation, feedback control, 633–637, 644–647 552 process control systems, 607–633 room volume calculations, 551 Analytical Technology, Inc., manufacturers, 565–571 608–611 Clortec generators, 565–566 Capital Controls, 614–619, 662–663 Klorigen system, 566–567 dechlorination analysis, 657–663 MIOX, 567, 569 fi eld comparisons of, 629–631 OSEC system, 567–568, 570 fl ow pacing, 641–644 Process Solutions, Inc., 568, GLI International, 619–620 570–571 Hach CL17 analyzer, 611–614 operation and maintenance history, 597–598 guidelines, 688–690 manual systems, 638–639 rectifi er, 546 Orion Research, Inc., 620–621 salt and brine systems, 530 process review and confi gurations, salt quality and bromate 633–637 formation, 530–531 selection criteria, 631–633 seawater systems, 531 Stranco HRR, 657–658 soft-water chiller, 540–542 Stranco Products, 622–629 soft-water heater, 539–540 Wallace & Tiernan, 621–622, storage tanks, 556 658–662 water softener, 534–535 Online monitors, ultraviolet light Open channel reactors, ultraviolet systems, 928 light systems, 921–924 On-site dilution process, sodium Operating guidelines: hypochlorite degradation, 467 chlorination/dechlorination process On-site generation system: controls, 670–673 bromide processing, 855–858 chlorination systems: sodium hypochlorite: overview, 678–679 brine dilution, 545 planning guidelines, 680 brine metering, 542 standard operating procedures, brine saturator tank, 537–539 679–680 current trends, 529–530 dechlorination gas systems, 690–692 design criteria, 557–565 dechlorination liquid systems, equipment sizing, 557–558 692–693 layout, 559–565 electrolytic cell design, 5 storage requirements, 559 gaseous chlorine systems, 682–687 system redundancy, 558–559 chlorine detection systems and electrolytic cell, 542–545 emergency scrubber, 686–687 electrolytic formation, 531–534 operation guidelines, 682–686 feed equipment, 556 operator training and safety, 693 history, 528–529 regulatory requirements, 697–699 hydrogen dilution blowers, 553–556 risk management plan, 697–698 hydrogen formation, separation, and SDWA and state testing and safety, 546–553 reporting, 698 air requirement calculations, 551 wastewater chlorine use and calculation variables, 552 facilities reporting, 699 INDEX 1041

residual analyzers, calibration and, wastewater disinfection, chlorine 681–682 reaction with, 381 sodium hypochlorite systems, Organic peroxyl radicals, ozone 687–690 reaction, 770–771 storage systems, 693–697 Organo-phosphorus pesticides, gas cylinders, 693–694 oxidation, 987–988 liquid chemicals, 696–697 O-rings, sodium hypochlorite piping: rail cars, 695–696 fl anged connections, 498–499 ton containers, 694–695 materials and properties, 506–507 ultraviolet light systems, 961–965 valves, 508–510 Operator training and safety, guidelines Orion Research, Inc. 1770 online for, 693–694 analyzer, chlorination/ Organic chloramines: dechlorination process controls, dechlorination, 577 620–621 germicidal effi ciency, 159–161 Orthotolidine method: wastewater disinfection, nitrifi ed chloramine formation, breakpoint effl uents, 386–390 reaction, 103 Organic compounds: chlorination/dechlorination process bromo-organic compounds, 871–872 controls, 596–598 ozone treatment, 777–785 oxidation-reduction, residual biological fi ltration, 780–781 chlorine, 137–141 biological solids, wastewater, 786 residual chlorine analysis: chlorination by-products, 779–780 basic procedures, 221–223 color removal, 782 breakpoint reaction and, 175–179 cyanotoxins, 785–786 drop dilution, 222–223 EDC/PPCP treatment, 784–785 historical background, 174–175 micropollutants/microcontaminants, interfering substances, 221–222 783–784 limitations of, 176–177 particulate removal, 781–782 OSEC on-site sodium hypochlorite taste- and odor-causing generation systems, 567–568, compounds, 777–779 570 total organic carbon oxidation, Outside ventilation air induction rate, 780 on-site sodium hypochlorite ultraviolet transmittance increase, generation, 551 782–783 Oxidant selectivity, chlorine Organic matter, aqueous chlorine dioxide, 705 reactions, 141–149 Oxidation: Organic nitrogen: aqueous chlorine, 85–87 aqueous chlorine, 116–122 bromine, 849 breakpoint curve, 120–122 chlorate, chlorine dioxide disinfection, reaction mechanisms, 118–120 731–734 chloramine formation, 182–184 iodine, 875 dechlorination process, 574–575 pesticides, 985–988 defi ned, 117–118 potable water chlorination and, iron germicidal effi ciency, 159–161 and manganese, 292–293 nitrogenous compounds, 93–94 total organic carbon, ozone reaction, wastewater chlorination: 780 chemistry, 328–329 volatile organic compounds, 982–985 nitrifi ed effl uents, 384–390 wastewater reuse, 397–400 1042 INDEX

Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP): disinfection by-products, 792–795 aqueous chlorine: aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and basic principles, 129–135 ketones, 795 measurements, 135–141 bromate control, 793–795 chlorination/dechlorination process dissolved ozone decay, 772–773 controls, 602–606 equipment and generation, 798–832 chemistry of, 668–670 air preparation systems, 809–811 dechlorination control systems, contactors, 821–826 656–657 baffl ed basins, 822–824 documentation and regulatory pipeline designs, 824–826 compliance, 675–676 cooling water systems, 829–831 cyanide wastes, industrial cost studies, 831–832 wastewater chlorination, cryogenic air separation, 809 355–358 destruction equipment, 826–829 oxidation-reduction, chlorine off-gas reuse, 828–829 compounds, measurement thermal catalytic destruction, techniques, 135–141 826–828 wastewater chlorination, odor thermal destruction, 828 control, 332–333 gas quality, 801–806 Oxychlorine by-products, chlorine gas sources, 800–806 dioxide analysis, 740–752 air-based systems, 800–801 amperometric titration, 743–747 enriched and high-purity oxygen colorimetry, 751–752 systems, 801 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine selection criteria, 811–812 titration, 747–748 horizontal tube generators, 813–815 fl ow injection analysis, 750 plate type generators, 812–813 IC method, 749 process schematic, 798–799 iodometry, 742 PSA technology, 808–809 Lissamine Green B dye, 748 supplemental air systems, 829 spectrophotometry, 749–750 theoretical background, 799–800 Oxygen production reaction (oxygen transfer methods, 816–821 gas formation), sodium aspirating turbine mixers, 821 hypochlorite degradation, fi ne-bubble diffusers, 816–817 464, 500 packed columns, 821 Ozone. See also Advanced oxidation sidestream injectors, 817–820 processes (AOPs) spray chambers, 821 analytical methods, 836–842 U-tubes, 821 concentration in gas, 837–839 VSA technology, 806–808 dissolved ozone in residual health and safety issues, 842–843 water, 839–842 history and application, 767 applications, 769 inorganic compound treatment, basic properties, 768–771 773–777 decomposition: chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, 979, 990–991 monochloramine, 776–777 hydroxide initiation, 978–979 iron and manganese, 773–775 disinfection applications: sulfi des, 775–776 potable water treatment, organic compound treatment, 777–785 787–789 biologic fi ltration, 780–781 wastewater treatment, 790–792 biologic solids, wastewater, 786 INDEX 1043

chlorination by-products, Particulate accumulation: 779–780 ozone gas sources, 801 color removal, 782 ozone removal, 781–782 cyanotoxins, 785–786 sodium hypochlorite degradation, EDC/PPCP treatment, 784–785 473–474 micropollutants/microcontaminants, ultraviolet light systems, 929–931 783–784 Pentech mixing system, chlorine particulate removal, 781–782 contact systems design, 406–408 taste- and odor-causing Peracetic acid, wastewater compounds, 777–779 disinfection, 378 total organic carbon oxidation, Perchlorates: 780 sodium hypochlorite degradation, 476 ultraviolet transmittance Perchloron process, calcium increase, 782–783 hypochlorite, 518–519 physical properties, 768 Percussive devices, well restoration, 306 potable water treatment: Performance testing: disinfection, 787–789 advanced oxidation processes, installations, 796 990–994 process calculations, 832–836 ultraviolet light systems, 964 applied dose, 835 Periodide, chemistry, 879–882 gas fl ow, 832–834 Peristaltic pumps, sodium hypochlorite production calculations, 834 metering, 493–499 specifi c energy, 835–836 electric drives, 497 transfer effi ciency, 834–835 failure, 496 transferred dose, 835 hose and tube life, 498 quench chemicals, 836 hose pumps, 496—-497 reaction pathways, 769–771 hose replacement, 497–498 regulatory issues, 843 tube pumps, 495–496 sodium hypochlorite degradation, turndown/pressure capabilities, sodium bromate formation, 495–496 474–475 Personal protective equipment (PPE): solubility, 768–769 sodium hypochlorite handling, ultraviolet photolysis, 979, 462–463 991–992 ultraviolet light systems, 969–970 wastewater treatment: Pesticides, oxidation of, 985–988 disinfection, 790–792 Petroleum products, advanced current research on, 378 oxidation, water treatment viral inactivation, 370–375 systems, 984 installations, 797 Pharmaceutical and personal care Ozone demand, 771–772 products (PPCPs), ozone ozone transfer, sidestream treatment, 784–785 injectors, 818 Phenolic compounds, industrial wastewater chlorination, Packed column systems, ozone 359–360 transfer, 821 Phenylarsine oxide (PAO): Palin tablet method, residual chlorine amperometric titration, residual measurement, diethyl-p- chlorine, 176, 194–197, 201 phenylenediamine (DPD) back amperometric titration titration, 211 procedure, 202–203 1044 INDEX

Phenylarsine oxide (PAO): (cont’d) “Pickle scum” acid neutralization, chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine cyanide wastes, industrial by-products, Standard Methods wastewater chlorination,

4500-ClO2-C amperometric 353–358 methods I and II, 743–744 Piping systems: pH levels: chlorine feeders, valve systems and, breakpoint curve, chlorine residuals, 445–449 107–109 chlorine leaks: chlorination/dechlorination process buried pipe, 54–55 controls, 671–673 container connections, 60 chlorine dioxide: material failure, 61 sulfi te ions, chlorite removal, welding cuts, 60–61 730–731 guillotine break, chlorine ton viral and bacterial inactivation, containers, 36–38 706–711 hydrogen peroxide, 996–997 hypochlorous acid dissociation, 74–77 ozone contactors, 824–826 oxidation-reduction, chlorine sludge conveyance pipelines, septicity compounds, 140–141 control, 346–348 ozone decomposition, hydroxyl sodium hypochlorite, 499–507 radicals, 979 fi ber-reinforced piping, 504 ozone disinfection by-products, 793 gaskets, seals, and o-rings, 506–507 potable water chloramination and hastelloy, 506 nitrifi cation, 258 high-density polyethylene, 505 residual chlorine analysis, free lined steel, 503–504 available chlorine test using polypropylene piping, 506 syringaldazine, 214–215 polyvinylidene fl uoride piping, 505 sodium hypochlorite: thermoplastic piping, 501–503 basic chemistry, 455 titanium, 504–505 degradation mechanisms, 468–470 sulfur dioxide dechlorination facilities, sodium hypochlorite degradation, 475 588–589 trichoramine formation, 101–103 ultraviolet light system guidelines, 936 Photo-Fenten reaction: Planning guidelines, chlorination system ozone, 980–981, 992–993 operation and maintenance, pesticide oxidation, 987–988 680 Photographic processing, cyanide wastes, Plastic piping, chlorine feeders, valve industrial wastewater systems and, 447–449 chlorination, 358 Plate generators, ozone generation, Photolysis: 812–813 chlorine dioxide, 728–729 Polarograpy: chlorate generation, 734 chlorination/dechlorination process ozone, ultraviolet reaction, 979, controls: 991–992 history, 597 sodium hypochlorite degradation, online analytical measurements, 470–471 599–600 Photometric measurement, ozone residual chlorine compounds, concentrations in gas, 837–840 iodometric electrodes, Photoreactivating enzyme (PRE), membrane sensors, 219 UV-inactivated microorganism Polybromide resin system, development repair, 900–902 of, 853 INDEX 1045

Polypropylene (PP), sodium groundwater rule, 240 hypochlorite piping, 506 hydrogen sulfi de control, 299–303 Polytetrafl uoroethylene (PTFE), ozone impurities in, 21–22 corrosion, 768 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Treatment Rule, 238–239 header failure, chlorine leak, 38–39 iron and manganese occurrence ozone corrosion, 768 and oxidation, 290–293 sodium hypochlorite storage and leaks, accidents and fatalities, handling: 53–62 basic properties, 501–503 Long-term 1 Enhanced Surface storage tank linings, 478 Water Treatment Rule, 239 valves, 507–508 Long-term 2 Enhanced Surface Polyvinylidene fl uoride (PVDF), sodium Water Treatment Rule, hypochlorite piping, 505 239–240 Ponding, wastewater chlorination and microbes in water supplies, 230–231 biological treatment, trickling protozoan inactivation, 235 fi lters, 339 quagga mussels, 299 Postdesiccant fi lter, ozone generation, refl ecting pools, 304 811 risk management programs, 41–47 Potable water treatment: Safe Drinking Water Act advanced oxidation processes, 982–990 disinfection requirements, 236 degreasers and solvents, 983 seawater mollusca fouling, 295–296 disinfection by-product precursor Surface Water Treatment Rule, oxidation, 989–990 236–238 fuel oxygenates, 984–985 synthetic taste and odor sources, pesticide oxidation, 985–988 288–289 petroleum products, 984 tastes and odors, 285–289 taste and odor compound oxidation, toxic effects and hazards, 30–33 988–989 in United Kingdom, 306–310 volatile organic carbon oxidation, virucide applications, 235 982–985 volume-temperature relationship, 26 breakpoint curve chemistry and waterborne diseases, 231–234 kinetics, 110–115 well restoration, 304–306 bromine chemistry, 851–853 zebra mussels, 296–298 bromo-organic compounds, 871–872 chlorination/dechlorination process calcium hypochlorite, 518–524 controls, maintenance issues, chlorination: 670–673 algae/actinomycetes tastes and chlorine contact systems design, odors, 286–288 414–416 aquifer recharge, 299 chlorine demand and, 149–151 biocidal effects, 232, 234–235 chlorine dioxide: coagulation aid, 293 chemistry, 704–705 color removal, 303 disinfection, 727–736 consensus indicator organism, 236 overview, 701–703 desalination, 303–304 dechlorination, process control Disinfectants/Disinfection systems, 653–657 By-products Rule, Stage 1, 239 disinfection process: fi ltration aid, 294–295 building disinfection, 283 in Germany, 310 by-products, 261–262 1046 INDEX

Potable water treatment: (cont’d) coliforms, 269–270 chloramination, 248–263 corrosion and sediment ammonia-chlorine process, accumulation, 271–272 250–251 disinfectant residuals, 271 ammonia N reaction chemistry, environmental factors, 270 251 nutrient availability, 270–271 aquatic life and, 260–261 regulatory compliance, 264–265 effi ciency concerns, 255–256 secondary disinfectant residuals, free chlorine residuals, 253–255 275–276 historical background, 248–250 treatment plant performance and kidney dialysis patients, 260 water quality, 279 lead concentrations, 261 water age control, 275–276 limitations, 253 iodine applications, 878–879 nitrifi cation, 256–260 lithium hypochlorite, 525–526 shock-chlolrination, 260 nitrogenous compounds, 92–94 chlorination, 240–248 oxidation-reduction, chlorine application points, 242–243 compounds, 134–135 bromate, 245 ozone, 787–789 by-products (DBPs), 243–248 applications, 795–796 chlorination-dechlorination, installations, 796 247–248 residual chlorine analysis, 185 chlorine demand, 245–247 amperometric determination, 176 gas and liquid chlorine, 243 titration, 187–208 haloacetic acids, 244 breakpoint phenomenon, 175–179 historical background, 241–242 chloramines, 185–186 total organic halides, 244–245 chlorination stations, 185 trihalomethanes, 243–244 colorimetric/titrimetric chlorine dioxide, 727–728 determination, 180 coagulated surface water, 310–311 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine feed systems, 279–280 determination, 176–177, groundwater with iron and 208–214 manganese, 311 colorimetric method, 210–211 in-service water storage inspection, DPD-FAS titrimetric methods, 284–285 211–214 new infrastructure, 279–285 palin tablet method, 211 odor formation, 262–263 spectrophotometric method, 211 softened surface water, 311 drinking water treatment plants, 185 storage tanks, 282 FACTS (syringaldazine) method, water mains, 281 214–215 water treatment plants, 282–283 free chlorine determination, well disinfection, 284 177–179 distribution system, 263–279 historical background, 174–179 fl ushing, 278 interferences, 180–182 monitoring, 273–275 iodometric electrode method, operation, 272–273 218–219 regrowth management, 266–272 iodometric method I, 215–217 bacterial growth, 268 iodometric method II, 217–218 biofi lm formation, 267–268 leuco crystal violet determination, breakthrough, 268 177, 219–220 INDEX 1047

methyl orange method, 177 Power meters, ultraviolet light MO method, 220–221 systems, 964 nitrifi ed effl uents, 187 Prechlorination: organic nitrogen interference, as coagulation aid, 293–295 182–184 wastewater, odor control, 330–333 orthotolidine method, 221–223 Precision limits, amperometric drop dilution, 222–223 techniques, residual primary effl uents, 186 compound analysis, 200 recent developments, 179 Precompressor fi lters, ozone secondary effl uents, 186 generation, 810 small water supplies, 184–185 Predesiccant fi lter, ozone superchlor-dechlor processing, generation, 811 572–573 Predisinfection process, wastewater ultraviolet light systems (See also disinfection, 373–375 specifi c regulatory agency Pressure ratings: guidelines) gaseous chlorine, 1003 in United States, 896–897 sodium hypochlorite piping, 499 validation guidelines, 932–954 Pressure-reducing valve: Potash (potassium hydroxide), chlorine feed systems, 436–437 hypochlorite formation and, ozone generation, 811 452–453 Pressure swing adsorption (PSA), ozone Potassium iodide (KI) solution: generation, 801, 808–809 amperometric titration, residual Pressure-type chlorine feeders, 443–445 chlorine analysis: Primary wastewater effl uents: back amperometric titration residual compound analysis, 186 procedure, 202–203 reuse practices, 397–400 phenylarsine oxide reaction, Process controls. See Control systems 194–195 ultraviolet light systems, 965 available chlorine, 88–91 Process fl ow signal, compound loop chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine control systems, 651–653 by-products, Standard Methods Process Safety Management (PSM)

4500-ClO2-C amperometric regulations (OSHA), chlorine method I, 744 storage, 45–46 ozone concentrations in gas, 839 Process Solutions, Inc. (PSI) on-site Potassium persulfate-chlorite solution, sodium hypochlorite generation chlorine dioxide, 724–725 systems, 568, 570–571 Potentiometry, chlorination/ Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), dechlorination process chlorination/dechlorination controls, online analytical process controls, 594–596 measurements, 600–602 chemistry and, 663–670 Pot-type vaporizer chlorine feed compound loop control, 649–653 systems, 434–435 fuzzy logic approach, 637 Pounds-per-gallon calculations, Protozoa inactivation, chlorine sodium hypochlorite and, 235 processing, 456–457 Pulsar Hypo Pump, sodium Powdered activated carbon (PAC): hypochlorite transfer advanced oxidation processes, taste systems, 492–493 and odor oxidation, 988–989 Pulsed ultraviolet lamps, ultraviolet aqueous chlorine and, 145–146 light systems, 917–918 1048 INDEX

Pumped chlorine solution assembly, Reclamation systems, wastewater reuse, chlorine and eductor feed 398–400 systems, 442–445 Record keeping guidelines, chlorination/ Pumping systems: dechlorination process controls, chlorination/dechlorination process 673–676 controls, maintenance, Rectifi er system: 672–673 on-site sodium hypochlorite sodium hypochlorite: generation, 546 diaphragm metering pumps, layout and design, 563–564 486–490 ozone generation, 814–815 facilities and base layout, 515–517 Redox reactions. See Oxidation- peristaltic pump, 493–499 reduction potential transfer pumps, 486 Reduction equivalent dose (RED), vapor locking problems, ultraviolet light systems, 490–493 guidelines for, 941–943 Purity. See Impurity detection Reduction reaction, chlorite ions, 730 Redundancy requirements, on-site Quagga mussels, control in seawater, sodium hypochlorite generation 299 layout, 558–559 Quench chemicals, ozone Refl ecting pools, chlorination, 304 processing, 836 Refrigerant dryer, ozone generation, 811 Regal SmartValve Series 7000 Radioactive decay, sodium chlorinator, fl ow pacing, 644 hypochlorite degradation, 465 Regrowth management: Radiofrequency-energized electrodeless dechlorination process, 576 lamps, ultraviolet light systems, potable water distribution system, 915–917 266–272 Railroad tank cars: bacterial growth, 268 chlorine feed systems, 428–430 biofi lm formation, 267–268 chlorine leaks, 47–51, 61 breakthrough, 268 operation and maintenance, coliforms, 269–270 695–696 corrosion and sediment Rainfall, regrowth management, 270 accumulation, 271–272 Raw water chlorination: disinfectant residuals, 271 applications, 242–243 environmental factors, 270 septicity control, 346–348 nutrient availability, 270–271 Raw wool processing, industrial wastewater disinfection, 394–395 wastewater chlorination, 361 Regulatory guidelines: Reaction mechanisms: advanced oxidation processes, 994–995 oxidation-reduction, chlorine bromine compounds, 875 compounds, 135 chlorination/dechlorination process ozone, 769–771 controls, 673–676 Reactor classes, ultraviolet light chlorine dioxide, 754–755 systems, 921–924 iodine, 887 Reagents, residual chlorine operation and maintenance titration, amperometric operations, 697–699 apparatus, 196 ozone treatment, 843 Rechlorination, trichoramine sodium hypochlorite processing, formation, 102–103 455–457 INDEX 1049

ultraviolet light systems: chlorine-organic nitrogen reactions, NWRI/AwwaRF Disinfection 119–122 guidelines, 904, 907–908 dechlorination process, 572–573 USEPA Design Manual for sulfi te compounds, 581–583 Municipal Wastewater disinfectant residuals, 275–276 Disinfection, 908–910 dissolved ozone in water, 839–842 USEPA UV Disinfection Guidance iodine, 886 Manual, 904–906 phenolic wastes, industrial wastewater wastewater treatment, 895–896 chlorination, 359–360 water distribution systems, 264–265 potable water chloramination, 253–255 Relative humidity, ozone gas sources, nitrifi cation, 257–258 801–802 regrowth management, 271 Relief/rupture disk installation, on-site secondary disinfectants, 275–276 sodium hypochlorite wastewater chlorination, chemistry, generation, hydrogen 328–329 formation, separation, and wastewater disinfection, toxicity levels, safety, 550–553 395–396 Reliquefaction, sulfur dioxide, water and wastewater treatment: dechlorination process, 577–579 amperometric determination, 176 Rendering process, wastewater titration, 187–208 chlorination, 361 breakpoint phenomenon, 175–179 Repair mechanisms, UV-inactivated chloramines, 185–186 microorganisms, 899–902 chlorination stations, 185 Reporting requirements: colorimetric/titrimetric chlorine contact system design, 417 determination, 180 operation and maintenance diethyl-p-phenylenediamine regulations, 698–699 determination, 176–177, Residence time distribution (RTD), 208–214 ultraviolet light systems, colorimetric method, 210–211 microorganism inactivation, DPD-FAS titrimetric methods, 903–904 211–214 Residual disinfectants: palin tablet method, 211 analyzer maintenance and calibration, spectrophotometric method, 211 681–682 drinking water treatment plants, 185 aqueous chlorine: FACTS (syringaldazine) method, breakpoint reaction, 104–109 214–215 germicidal effi ciency, 151–161 free chlorine determination, chloramines, 155–161 177–179 hypochlorite ion, 154–155 historical background, 174–179 hypochlorous acid, 153–154 interferences, 180–182 inactivation mechanisms, iodometric electrode method, 152–153 218–219 bromines, 872–875 iodometric method I, 215–217 chlorination/dechlorination process iodometric method II, 217–218 controls, 596–598 leuco crystal violet determination, compound loop control, 648–653 177, 219–220 dechlorination, 653–657 methyl orange method, 177 history, 597–598 MO method, 220–221 chlorine dioxide, 754–755 nitrifi ed effl uents, 187 1050 INDEX

Residual disinfectants: (cont’d) Safety audits, ultraviolet light organic nitrogen interference, systems, 968 182–184 Safety requirements: orthotolidine method, 221–223 bromine chloride facilities, 865 drop dilution, 222–223 bromine compounds, 874–875 primary effl uents, 186 chlorine dioxide processing and recent developments, 179 handling, 752 secondary effl uents, 186 iodine, 886–887 small water supplies, 184–185 ozone treatment, 842–843 Return activated sludge (RAS): ultraviolet light systems, ozone treatment, 786 966–970 wastewater chlorination: Safety units, sodium hypochlorite odor control, 332–333 requirements, 461–462 sludge bulking control, 342–345 Salt process: Reuse practices: chlorine manufacturing, 18 chlorination/dechlorination process sodium hypochlorite processing, controls, 638 475 compound loop control, 649–653 on-site sodium hypochlorite chlorine contact systems design, 413 generation, 530 ozone off-gas, 828–829 salt quality, 530–531 ultraviolet light systems, water “Sample-and-hold” control reuse validation guidelines, function, chlorination/ 949–953 dechlorination process wastewater disinfection, 397–400 controls, compound loop Risk management programs (RMPs): control, 649–653 chlorine storage, 41–47 Sampling techniques: OSHA Process Safety Management chlorine contact system regulations, 45–46 design, 417 worst-case and alternative release ultraviolet light systems, analyses, 46–47 guidelines for, 937–938, operation and maintenance 945, 951–952 regulations, 697–699 Scaling: Room turnover calculation, on-site sodium hypochlorite degradation, sodium hypochlorite 475–476 generation, 552 “Scalping” water reclamation, Room volume calculation, on-site wastewater reuse, 400 sodium hypochlorite Schedule 80 thermoplastic pipe: generation, 551 on-site sodium hypochlorite Rubber, sodium hypochlorite storage generation, hydrogen and handling: dilution blowers, diaphragm valves, 510–513 554–556 gaskets, seals, and o-rings, 506–507 sodium hypochlorite, pressure storage tank liners, 479–480 rating, 499–500 Scrubbers, chlorine feed systems, Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): 450–451 chlorine disinfectant requirements, emergency scrubbers, 686–687 236 Seals and sealants, sodium operation and maintenance hypochlorite storage and regulations, 697–699 handling, 506–507 INDEX 1051

Seawater: disinfection process, 375–378 bromine in, 849 wastewater disinfection process, viral chlorination effects, 874 inactivation, 368–375 chlorine chemistry and, 122–129 Shock-chlorination, potable water broamine formation and decay, chloramination, 260 127–129 Short term exposure limit (STEL), bromide effect, 123–126 chlorine dioxide, 703–704 ionic strength effects, 126–127 Sidestream injectors, ozone transfer, chlorine chemistry, 122–129 817–820 bromamine formation and decay, baffl ed basin contactors, 822–824 127–129 Signal simulators, gaseous chlorine bromide effect, 123–126 system operations, 682–684 ionic strength effects, 126–127 Silica, chlorine contamination, 24 desalination, 303–304 Silicon-controlled rectifi ers, ozone mollusca control in, 295–299 generation, 814 on-site sodium hypochlorite Silver, chlorine chemical reactions, 30 generation systems, 531 cyanide wastes, industrial wastewater Secondary disinfection, chlorine dioxide, chlorination, 353–358 734 Silver chloride, formation of, 30 Secondary wastewater effl uents: Single-indicator-electrode titrator, coliform standard, wastewater amperometric titration, treatment, 366–368 residual compound analysis, residual compound analysis, 186 188–190 reuse practices, 397–400 Size parameters: wastewater chlorination: chlorine contact systems design, foul air scrubbing systems, 333–338 411, 413 viral inactivation, 370–375 chlorine feed systems, 418–420 Second-order reaction law, sodium ultraviolet light systems, 932–954 hypochlorite degradation, 467 Sludge bulking control: Sediment accumulation, potable water phenolic wastes, industrial wastewater chlorination, 271–272 chlorination, 359–360 Selleck-Collins wastewater disinfection wastewater chlorination and biological model. See also CT criteria treatment, 340–345 chlorine dose and effl uent quality, Sludge conveyance pipelines, wastewater 382–384 chlorination, septicity control, Sensor instrumentation: 346–348 sodium hypochlorite storage tanks, Sludge volume index (SVI), wastewater 483–484 chlorination, 342–345 ultraviolet light systems, 926–927 Small water supplies, residual chlorine temperature sensors, 928–929 analysis in, 184–185 Septicity control, wastewater Snift gas, chlor-alkali plant, chlorine chlorination, 345–348 electrolysis, 17 Settled particulates, sodium hypochlorite Socket welding, titanium piping, sodium degradation, 473–474 hypochlorite storage and Sewage treatment: handling, 505 chlorination: Sodium bromate, sodium hypochlorite history, 326–327 degradation, 475 odor control, 329–338 Sodium carbonate, sodium hypochlorite chlorine dioxide, 735–736 degradation, 474 1052 INDEX

Sodium chlorate, sodium hypochlorite on-site generation system: and, 463 brine dilution, 545 Sodium chlorite: brine metering, 542 health and safety requirements, brine saturator tank, 537–539 752–753 current trends, 529–530 impurities, chlorate generation, 733 design criteria, 557–565 Sodium cycle ion exchanger, on-site equipment sizing, 557–558 sodium hypochlorite layout, 559–565 generation, water softening storage requirements, 559 systems, 535–537 system redundancy, 558–559 Sodium hydroxide: electrolytic cell, 542–545 chlor-alkali plant, chlorine electrolysis, electrolytic formation, 531–534 17 feed equipment, 556 on-site sodium hypochlorite history, 528–529 generation, process overview, hydrogen dilution blowers, 531–534 553–556 wastewater chlorination, ammonia hydrogen formation, separation, removal, 351–352 and safety, 546–553 Sodium hypochlorite: air requirement calculations, 551 aqueous chlorine solutions, 82–85 calculation variables, 552 chlorine alkalinity, 144 outside ventilation air induction chlorine gas dissolution and rate, 551 hydrolysis, 68–74 production calculations, 551 concentration, 455–457, 466–468 room turnover rate calculation, degradation, 463–477 552 Arrhenius equation, 465 room volume calculations, 551 concentration effects, 466–468 manufacturers, 565–571 impurities, 471–475 Clortec generators, 565–566 pH effects, 469–470 Klorigen system, 566–567 rate estimation, 464–466 MIOX, 567, 569 recommendations and guidelines, OSEC system, 567–568, 570 476–477 Process Solutions, Inc., 568, settled particulates, 473–474 570–571 sodium bromate, 474–475 rectifi er, 546 sodium carbonate, 474 salt and brine systems, 530 suspended solids, 473 salt quality and bromate temperature effects, 468–469 formation, 530–531 ultraviolet light effects, 470–471 seawater systems, 531 facility layouts, 513–518 soft-water chiller, 540–542 access and clearances, 517 soft-water heater, 539–540 control panels, 518 storage tanks, 556 elevation differences, 513–514 water softener, 534–535 tank and pump bases, 515–517 piping systems, 499–507 fi re codes requirements, 461–462 fi ber-reinforced piping, 504 freezing point, 458 gaskets, seals, and o-rings, hazards of, 462–463 506–507 health and safety requirements, 753 hastelloy, 506 history of, 453 high-density polyethylene, 505 manufacturing requirements, 454–456 lined steel, 503–504 INDEX 1053

polypropylene piping, 506 Sodium/mercury amalgam, mercury polyvinylidene fl uoride piping, 505 cells, chlorine electrolysis, thermoplastic piping, 501–503 11–15 titanium, 504–505 Sodium thiosulfate, chlorine dioxide storage tank criteria, 477–485 analysis, oxychlorine fi berglass-reinforced plastic tanks, by-products, Standard Methods

478, 480 4500-ClO2-C amperometric high-density polyethylene, method II, 744 480–483 Softened surface water, disinfection, level instrumentation 311 requirements, 483–484 Soft-water chiller: lined steel tanks, 479–480 on-site sodium hypochlorite titanium, 483 generation, 540–542 top access, 485 layout and design, 561–565 underground storage tanks, 485 sodium hypochlorite operation and structure and properties, 454–455, maintenance guidelines, 689 460–461 Soft-water heater, on-site sodium system design calculation, 458 hypochlorite generation, system operation and maintenance, 539–540 687–690 layout and design, 561–565 transfer and feed equipment, Solid chlorite, solid chlorite, 720, 726 486–499 Solubility: contour plates, 491 aqueous chlorine, 68–74, 1007 diaphragm metering pumps, calcium hypochlorite, 522–523 486–490 chlorine, 27–29 electric drives, 497 corrosive properties, 30 hose and tube life, 498 chlorine gas dissolution and hose pumps, 496–497 hydrolysis, 68–74 hose replacement, 497–498 ozone, 768–768 liquid dosing systems, 498–499 sulfur dioxide, dechlorination peristaltic pumps, 493–499 process, 578–580 specialty pumps, 492–493 Solution lines and diffusers, bromine stroke length limits, 491 chloride facilities, 864 transfer pumps, 486 Solution strength, sodium hypochlorite tube failure, 496 processing, 456–457 tube pumps, 495 Solvay sodium ammonia process, early tubular diaphragms, 491–492 chlorine manufacturing, 3 turndown/pressure capabilities, Solvents, advanced oxidation, water 495–496 treatment systems, 983 vapor locking problems, 490–493 Solvent-welded joints: truck unloading procedures, 484 sodium hypochlorite piping, 499 valve systems, 507–511 thermoplastic piping, sodium ball valves, 508–510 hypochlorite, 502–503 diaphragm valves, 510–513 Sonic chlorine feeders, 443–445 vapor pressure, 458–460 Sparklers, ultraviolet light systems, wastewater disinfection, 376 918 Sodium hypochlorite-hydrochloric Specifi c energy, ozone calculations, acid-chlorite solution, chlorine 835–836 dioxide, 725–726 Specifi c heat, chlorine, 27 1054 INDEX

Spectrophotometric methods: Steel case hardening, cyanide wastes, chlorine dioxide analysis, oxychlorine industrial wastewater by-products, 749–750 chlorination, 353–358 residual chlorine measurement, Steel tanks, sodium hypochlorite diethyl-p-phenylenediamine storage, 479–480 (DPD) titration, 211 Stoichiometry: Spray chambers, ozone transfer, 821 breakpoint curve, 106–109 Springs, microbes in, 230 decomposition products, Stability properties, calcium 115–116 hypochlorite, 523 oxidation-reduction, 133–135 Stabilized neutral orthotolidine Storage tanks. See also Tanker trucks/ (SNORT), residual chlorine tanker cars analysis, 177, 179 bromine chloride facilities, 864 Stable intermediates, oxidation- chlorine feed systems, 418–419, reduction, 134 430–431 Stack gas scrubbing, cyanide wastes, disinfection process, 282 industrial wastewater in-service inspection and, chlorination, 353–358 284–285 Stagnant area surveillance program, on-site sodium hypochlorite potable water treatment and generation, 556 distribution, 275 layout and capacity, 559, 563–565

Standard Methods 4500-ClO2-C, chlorine operation and maintenance, dioxide analysis, oxychlorine 693–697 by-products: sodium hypochlorite: amperometric method I, 743–744 degradation mechanisms, 469 amperometric method II, 744 facilities and base layout, 515–517 Standard operating procedures fi berglass-reinforced plastic tanks, (SOPs), chlorination system 478, 480 operation and maintenance, high-density polyethylene, 480–483 679–680 level instrumentation Standard potentials, half-reactions, requirements, 483–484 oxidation-reduction, chlorine lined steel tanks, 479–480 compounds, 129–135 on-site sodium hypochlorite Standards and certifi cations, calcium generation, 556 hypochlorite, 524–525 selection criteria, 477–485 Starch-iodide forward titration, residual titanium, 483 compound analysis: top access, 485 iodometric method I, 215–217 underground storage tanks, 485 nitrite interference, 205–208 Stranco control system: State testing and reporting requirements, dechlorination process, 657–658 operation and maintenance oxidation-reduction, chlorine regulations, 698–699 compounds, 140–141 Static mixers, chlorine contact systems wastewater chlorination, odor control, design, 406 332–333 Steadifac method, residual chlorine Stranco Products, chlorination/ analysis, diethyl-p- dechlorination process controls phenylenediamine-ferrous HRR system electrodes, 623, 626, ammonium sulfate 628–629 procedure, 213 Strantrol analyzer, 622–626 INDEX 1055

Stroke length limits, sodium Surface water: hypochlorite transfer systems, disinfection, 310–311 491 microbes in, 230 Sulfate conversion, wastewater Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR): chlorination and hydrogen chlorine dioxide, 754 sulfi de, 335–338 chlorine disinfectants, 235–238 Sulfate-reducing bacteria, hydrogen microbe removal guidelines, 231 sulfi de control, 300–303 ozone transfer, baffl ed basin Sulfi de-oxidizing bacteria, hydrogen contactors, 823–824 sulfi de control, 300–303 potable water disinfection, chlorine Sulfi des, ozone treatment, 775–776 dioxide, 725–728 destruction catalyst, 826–828 Suspended solids: Sulfi te compounds: sodium hypochlorite degradation, 473 chlorite removal, 730–731 ultraviolet light systems, 929–931 dechlorination process, 581–583 Swimming pool systems: chemical properties, 581–582 bromine in, 854 contactor design, 582–583 oxidation-reduction, 140–141 dose calculations, 583 Synthetic organic compounds (SOCs): facility design, 592–593 ozone treatment, 767, 781–782, history, 572–574 784–785 Sulfonator operation and maintenance, taste and odor from, 288–289 gaseous chlorine, 690–692 System redundancy, on-site sodium Sulfur dioxide: hypochlorite generation layout, dechlorination process: 558–559 chemical properties, 577–581

contactor design, 580–581 T10 detention time, ozone disinfection dose calculations, 581 process, 787–788 facility design, 586–591 Tablet system, calcium hypochlorite, history, 572–574 518–523 sulfonator operation and maintenance, Tanker trucks/tanker cars. See also 691–692 Storage tanks vapor pressure vs. temperature, 1006 chlorine feed systems, 427–430 Sulfur generation, wastewater chlorine leaks: chlorination and hydrogen packager tank car leak, 57–58 sulfi de, 335–338 unloading process, 36 Sulfuric acid-chlorite solution, chlorine on-site sodium hypochlorite dioxide, 725 generation, brine saturator Sulfurous acid formation, sulfur dioxide tanks, 537–539 dechlorination process, 579–580 sodium hypochlorite, unloading Sunlight. See Ultraviolet (UV) light systems, 484 Superchlorination. See also sulfur dioxide dechlorination Dechlorination facilities, 587–589 disinfection by-products, 247–248 Tank surging, well restoration, 306 history, 572–573 Taste control: trichoramine formation, 102–103 advanced oxidation processes, Superoxide ions, ozone reaction, 988–989 770–771 algae and actinomycetes, 286–288 Surface discharge lamps, ultraviolet light chlorine, 289 systems, 918 chlorine dioxide, 734–735, 738–739 1056 INDEX

Taste control: (cont’d) Thiosulfate titration, residual chlorine ozone treatment, 778–779 analysis, iodometric method I, of synthetics, 288–289 215–217 water chlorination and, 285–286 Threaded connections, sodium Tefl on, sodium hypochlorite storage and hypochlorite piping, 501 handling, 507 Three-body collision reaction, ozone diaphragm valves, 510–513 generation, 799–800 valves, 509–510 Three-chemical systems, chlorine Temperature: dioxide chemistry, 718–719 bromine chloride, 858–859 Titanium, sodium hypochlorite chlorine feed systems, 418–420 storage and handling: chlorine gas dissolution and piping, 499, 504–505 hydrolysis, 69–74 storage tanks, 483 hypochlorous acid dissociation, 74–77 Titanium dioxide, ozone reactions: ozone gas sources, 802 hydrogen peroxide-ultraviolet sodium hypochlorite degradation, reactions, 981–982 464–466, 468–469 ultraviolet light, 981 993–994 ultraviolet light systems: “Title 22 reuse water,” chlorine contact measurements, 964 systems design, 413 sensors, 928–929 Titrimetric methods, residual chlorine Temperature-density relation, liquid measurement, 180 chlorine, 1005 amperometric apparatus, 195–196 Tennant’s bleaching power, hypochlorite diethyl-p-phenylenediamine- discovery and, 453 ferrous ammonium sulfate Terrorist activity, intentional chlorine (DPD-FAS), 211–214 release, 32–33 Ton containers: Tertiary treatment systems: chlorine feed systems, 424–427 wastewater chlorination, viral chlorine leaks: inactivation, 371–175 brush fi res, 59 wastewater reuse, 397–400 consumer accidents and Testing requirements, operation and fatalities, 53–54 maintenance regulations, fl exible connection failure, 39 698–699 nitrogen trichloride explosions, 60 Tetraethyl lead, bromine production, pipeline guillotine break, 850 36–38 Textile wastes, industrial wastewater operation and maintenance, chlorination, 360–361 694–695 Thermal catalytic destruction, ozone Top-access construction, sodium discharge, 826–828 hypochlorite storage Thermal destruction, ozone discharge, tanks, 485 828 Total dissolved solids (TDS) Thermodynamics, oxidation-reduction, concentration, hypochlorous 133–135 acid dissociation, 78–80 Thermofusion welding, sodium Total fan effi ciency, on-site sodium hypochlorite piping, 499 hypochlorite generation, Thermoplastic piping, sodium hydrogen dilution blowers, hypochlorite, 501–503 554–556 pipe supports, 503 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), solvent cement, 502–503 117–118 INDEX 1057

Total organic carbon (TOC): fi ne-bubble diffusers, 816–817 dissolved ozone decay, 772–773 packed columns, 821 ozone chemistry, 767 sidestream injectors, 817–820 disinfection by-products control, spray chambers, 819 779–780 U-tubes, 821 oxidation reactions, 780 sodium hypochlorite, 486–499 taste and odor compounds, 778–779 contour plates, 491 ozone demand, 771–772 diaphragm metering pumps, Total organic halides (TOX), as 486–490 disinfection by-product, electric drives, 497 244–245 hose and tube life, 498 Total residual chlorine: hose pumps, 496–497 amperometric titration, 198 hose replacement, 497–498 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine-ferrous liquid dosing systems, 498–499 ammonium sulfate procedure, peristaltic pumps, 493–499 212–213 specialty pumps, 492–493 Total suspended solids (TSS): stroke length limits, 491 wastewater chlorination, sludge transfer pumps, 486 bulking control, 343–345 tube failure, 496 wastewater disinfection, ultraviolet tube pumps, 495 (UV) light treatment, 378 tubular diaphragms, 491–492 Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs): turndown/pressure capabilities, bromine chemistry, 871–872 495–496 chlorine disinfectants vapor locking problems, 490–493 requirements, 239 Transport accidents, chlorine, 47–52 as disinfection by-product, 243–244 highway transportation, 51–52 ozone control, 779–780 railroad transportation, 47–51 potable water chloramination, free Treatment plant performance chlorine residuals, 254–255 evaluation, water distribution water age control, 275–276 systems, 279 Toxicity: Triadimenol, oxidation of, 988 bromine residuals, 874 Trichloramine. See Nitrogen trichloride chlorine, 30–33 wastewater disinfection, nitrifi ed chlorine dioxide, 753 effl uents, 386–390 dechlorination process, 574–575 Trichloride ion, chlorine gas dissolution iodine residuals, 886 and hydrolysis, 72–74 sulfur dioxide, dechlorination process, Trickling fi lters, wastewater chlorination 579–580 and biological treatment, wastewater chlorine residuals, 395–396 338–339 Toxic substance theory, chlorine Trihalomethanes (THMs). See also Total disinfectants, inactivation trihalomethanes (TTHMs) mechanisms, 152–153 bromine chemistry, 871–872 Trade percent, sodium hypochlorite chlorination/dechlorination process processing, 456–459 controls, 596–598 Transfer equipment: chlorine dioxide, 701–702 ozone generation, 816–821 chlorine dioxide control, 740 aspirating turbine mixers, 821 wastewater disinfection by-product, dose calculations, 835 390–393 effi ciency calculations, 834–835 Tri-iodide, chemistry, 879–882 1058 INDEX

Troubleshooting strategies, ultraviolet operating activities, 963–965 light systems, 965–966 ozone demand, 771–772 True block valves, sodium hypochlorite photo-Fenten reaction, storage and handling, 980–981, 992–993 509–510 photolysis, 979, 991–992 Trunnion structures, chlorine feed potable water treatment, systems, ton containers, 898–899 425–427 reactors, 921–924 Tube-type vaporizer, vaporizer chlorine sensors, 926–927 feed systems, 433–434 sodium hypochlorite degradation, Tubular diaphragm pump, sodium 470–471 hypochlorite transfer systems, system guidelines, 904–910 491–492 temperature sensors/water level Tyndall effect, hydrogen sulfi de removal, probes, 928–929 147 thermoplastic piping, sodium Typhoid fever: hypochlorite, 502–503 potable water chlorination, 231–232 titanium dioxide, 981, 993–994 wastewater disaffection process, titanium dioxide-hydrogen viral inactivation, 368–375 peroxide, 980–981 transmittance, 782–783, 929 Ultraviolet (UV) light systems: troubleshooting strategies, ballasts, 924–925 965–966 basic principles, 893 validation guidelines, 933–954 chemical and biological properties, (See also specifi c agencies) 897–898 biodosimetry data analysis, chlorination/dechlorination process 940–941, 946–948, 950, 952 controls, 665–670 challenge microorganisms chlorine dioxide exposure, and dose requirements, 935, 728–729 943–944, 949, 951 cleaning systems, 927–928 collimated beam analysis, 938–940, dose calculations, 902–904 945–946, 952 equipment overview, 910 computational fl uid dynamics, functional testing, 964 959–960 health and safety issues, 966–970 dose-monitoring and test hydrogen peroxide, 979–980, conditions, 936–937, 991–992 944–945, 951 lamps, 910–921 dosimetry data analysis, electrodeless mercury vapor 940–942 lamps, 914–917 dyed microspheres, 960–961 excimer lamps, 918–920 location and test stand mercury vapor lamps, 910–914 considerations, 935–936, metal halide lamps, 917 949–951 pulsed lamps, 917–918 nonbiological, mathematical- lamp sleeves, 925–926 based modeling, 955–958 maintenance activities, 961–963 potable water, 934–935 microbial inactivation, 898–901 sampling and data recording, microbial repair, 899–902 937–938, 945, 951–952 microbial sensitivity, 899–900 wastewater and water online monitors, 928 reuse, 949 INDEX 1059

wastewater disinfection, 378 UVDIS software program, ultraviolet European systems, 893–894 light systems guidelines, North America, 894–896 nonbiological, mathematical- water quality issues, 929–931 based modeling, 955–958 fouling, 931–932 particle/suspended solids, Vacuum density, gaseous chlorine, 929–931 1004 transmittance, 929 Vacuum regulator: Uncertainty of validation, ultraviolet compound loop control systems, light systems, 940–943 651–653 Underground storage tanks (UST), gas chlorine feed system, 438–442 sodium hypochlorite, 484 sulfur dioxide dechlorination facilities, United Kingdom, potable water 588–589 chlorination in, 306–310 Vacuum swing adsorption (VSA), ozone United States Environmental generation, 801, 806–808 Protection Agency (USEPA): Validation guidelines. See also specifi c Design Manual for Municipal regulatory agencies Wastewater Disinfection, ultraviolet light systems, 933–954 908–910 biodosimetry data analysis, 940–941, Environmental Technology 946–948, 950, 952 Verifi cation (ETV) program, challenge microorganisms and dose ultraviolet light system requirements, 935, 943–944, guidelines, 948–949, 953 949, 951 risk management programs, chlorine collimated beam analysis, 938–940, storage, 41–47 945–946, 952 ultraviolet wastewater treatment computational fl uid dynamics, systems, historical 959–960 background, 895–896 dose-monitoring and test conditions, Urea, ammonia hydrolysis, organic 936–937, 944–945, 951 nitrogen, 119–120 dosimetry data analysis, 940–942 U-tubes, ozone transfer, 821 dyed microspheres, 960–961 UV Disinfection Guidance Manual location and test stand (UVDGM), ultraviolet light considerations, 935–936, systems: 949–951 biodosimetry data analysis, 940–943 nonbiological, mathematical-based challenge microorganisms and dose modeling, 955–958 requirements, 935 potable water, 934–935 collimated beam analysis, 938–940 sampling and data recording, dose-monitoring approaches and 937–938, 945, 951–952 validation test conditions, uniform validation protocols, 954 936–937 wastewater and water reuse, 949 guidelines in, 904–906 Valve systems: potable water treatment, 896–897, chlorine feed systems: 934–935 cylinders, 421–424 sampling and data recording, pipe and valve systems, 445–449 937–938 pressure-reducing valve, 436–437 validation location and test tank cars and trucks, 428–430 stand considerations, ton containers, 424–427 935–936 chlorine leaks, packing failure, 61 1060 INDEX

Valve systems: (cont’d) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), gaseous chlorine system operations, advanced oxidation processes, 683–684 982–985 ozone generation, 811 Volatile suspended solids (VSS), sodium hypochlorite, 507–513 wastewater chlorination, sludge ball valves, 508–510 bulking control, 343–345 diaphragm valves, 510–513 Voltametry: storage tank operation and chlorination/dechlorination process maintenance, 696–697 controls, online analytical Van’t Hoff relationship, chlorine gas measurements, 599 dissolution and hydrolysis, dechlorination process, sulfur dioxide 69–74 leak detection, 589–591 Vapor density: Volume-temperature relationship: chlorine, 27 chlorine, 26 sulfur dioxide, dechlorination process, liquid chlorine, 1007 578–580 Volumetric fl ow calculations, on-site Vaporizers, liquid chlorine feed systems, sodium hypochlorite 431–436 generation, hydrogen dilution Vapor locking, sodium hypochlorite blowers, 553–556 transfer, 486–493 Vapor pressure: Wallace & Tiernan online analyzers: bromine chloride, 858–859 chlorination/dechlorination process chlorine, 27 controls, 621–622 sodium hypochlorite, 458–460 compound loop control systems, sulfur dioxide, dechlorination process, 651–653 577–579 dechlorination process control, Velocity profi le, ultraviolet light system 658–662 guidelines, 936, 946–947 Wastewater treatment: “Vented” ball valves, sodium advanced oxidation processes, 982–990 hypochlorite storage and degreasers and solvents, 983 handling, 510 disinfection by-product precursor Ventilation systems, on-site sodium oxidation, 989–990 hypochlorite generation, fuel oxygenates, 984–985 551–553 pesticide oxidation, 985–988 Viruses: petroleum products, 984 chlorine dioxide disinfection, taste and odor compound oxidation, 737–738 988–989 chlorine inactivation, 235 volatile organic carbon oxidation, wastewater disaffection process and, 982–985 368–375 breakpoint curve chemistry and Viscosity, gas and liquid chlorine, 1004 kinetics, 110–115 Viton (FKM), sodium hypochlorite bromine chemistry, 851, 853 storage and handling, 510 chlorination: ball valves, 508–510 ammonia removal, 349–352 diaphragm valves, 510–513 biological treatment, 338–345 Volatile fatty acids (VFA), wastewater BOD reduction, 339–340 chlorination: sludge bulking control, 340–345 odor control, 332–333 trickling fi lters, 338–339 septicity control, 346–348 chemistry, 327–329 INDEX 1061

history, 326–327 ozone: industrial applications, 352–361 applications, 795–796 free and combined cyanides, biologic solids treatment, 786 352–358 disinfection process, 790–792 phenols, 359–360 installations, 795 textile wastes, 360–361 residual chlorine: odor control, 329–338 amperometric determination, 176 foul air scrubbing, 333–338 back titration procedure, 202–203 prechlorination, 330–333 iodine solution monitoring, oil and grease removal, 348–349 203–204 reporting requirements, facilities nitrogen trichloride, 204–205 maintenance and operations, titration, 187–208 699 breakpoint phenomenon, 175–179 septicity control, 345–348 chloramines, 185–186 chlorination/dechlorination process chlorination stations, 185 controls: colorimetric/titrimetric maintenance issues, 670–673 determination, 180 overview, 594–596 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine chlorine contact systems design, 413 determination, 176–177, chlorine demand and, 149–151 208–214 chlorine dioxide: colorimetric method, 210–211 disinfection, 735–736 DPD-FAS titrimetric methods, regulatory issues, 755 211–214 chlorine leaks, 55–57 palin tablet method, 211 chlorine storage, USEPA risk spectrophotometric method, 211 management programs, 41–47 drinking water treatment plants, 185 dechlorination process, 574–575 FACTS (syringaldazine) method, speciation, 576–577 214–215 sulfur dioxide, 588–589 free chlorine determination, disinfection process: 177–179 by-product formation, 390–394 historical background, 174–179 chlorine chemistry, 379–390 interferences, 180–182 constituent reactions, 379–382 iodometric electrode method, dose and effl uent quality, 382–384 218–219 nitrifi ed effl uent chlorination, iodometric method I, 215–217 384–390 iodometric method II, 217–218 chlorine dioxide, 735–736 leuco crystal violet determination, coliform standard, 364–368 177, 219–220 dechlorination, 576–577 methyl orange method, 177 dechlorination indications, 396–397 MO method, 220–221 history, 363–364 nitrifi ed effl uents, 187 methods and techniques, 357–378 organic nitrogen interference, organism regrowth, 394–395 182–184 residual chlorine toxicity, 395–396 orthotolidine method, 221–223 viruses, 368–375 drop dilution, 222–223 wet weather disinfection, 416–417 primary effl uents, 186 lithium hypochlorite, 525–526 recent developments, 179 nitrogenous compounds, 92–94 secondary effl uents, 186 organic nitrogen formation, 117–118 small water supplies, 184–185 1062 INDEX

Wastewater treatment: (cotn’d) Water treatment plants, disinfection reuse practices, 397–400 process, 282–283 ultraviolet light systems: Weighing devices, chlorine feed systems, in Europe, 893–894 423–424 in North America, 894–896 Weldon process, early chlorine regulatory guidelines for, 949 manufacturing, 3 uniform validation protocols, 954 Wells: Water age control, potable water disinfection process, 284 treatment and distribution, restoration of, 304–306 275–276 Wet-chemistry measurements, ozone Waterborne disease: concentrations in gas, 839 potable water chlorination, 231–234 Wet sensors, ultraviolet light systems, wastewater disaffection process, viral 926–927 inactivation, 368–375 Wet weather disinfection, wastewater Water Champ induction unit, chlorine treatment, 416–417 contact systems design, 409–412 Withdrawal rate, sulfur dioxide, Water hardness properties, wastewater dechlorination process, chlorination, foul air scrubbing 577–579 systems, 334–338 Wood storage tanks, sodium Water immersion, vaporizer chlorine hypochlorite, 483 feed systems, 435–436 Workplace design: Water level probes, ultraviolet light chlorine dioxide monitoring, systems, 928–929 753–754 Water mains, disinfection, 281 sodium hypochlorite storage and Water quality standards: handling, 513–518 chlorine by-products and, 340–341 Worst-case analyses, risk management ultraviolet transmittance, 929 programs, 46–47 Water softening systems: Wunsche electrochemical process, on-site sodium hypochlorite bromine production, 849 generation, 534–535 sodium hypochlorite operation and Zebra mussels: maintenance guidelines, 689 chlorine dioxide control of, 740 Water temperature, regrowth control in seawater, 297–298 management, 270 Zero chlorine residual: Water treatment. See Potable water dechlorination control systems, treatment; Wastewater 655–657 treatment dechlorination process, 572–573