A BRIEF HISTORY OF SONORA (Vers. February 26, 2015) © Richard C. Brusca

NOTE: Being but a brief overview, this essay cannot The origin of the name “Sonora” is do justice to Sonora’s long and colorful history, but it unclear. The first record of the name is probably hopefully provides a condensed introduction to this that of explorer Francisco Vásquez de marvelous state. Readers with a serious interest in Coronado, who passed through the region in Sonora should consult the fine histories and 1540 and called part of the area the Valle de La geographies of the region, many of which are cited in Sonora. Francisco de Ibarra also traveled the References section. The topic of Spanish colonial through the area in 1567 and referred to the history has a rich literature, in particular, and no Valles de la Señora. attempt has been made to include all of those citations in the References (although the most Four major river systems occur in the state targeted and comprehensive treatments are of Sonora, to empty into the Sea of Cortez: the included). All photographs by R.C. Brusca, unless Río Colorado, Río Yaqui, Río Mayo, and otherwise indicated. This is a draft chapter for a planned book on the Sea of Cortez; the most current massive Río Fuerte. Several smaller rivers version of this draft can be downloaded at originate almost entirely within the state, http://rickbrusca.com/http___www.rickbrusca.com_ind including the Río Sonoyta, Río Magdalena-Altar- ex.html/Sea_of_Cortez.html Asunción-Concepción, Río San Miguel, Rio Zanion, and Río Sonora, and these also once (at

least intermittently) emptied into the Gulf of For many reasons, Sonora has historically been California although they no longer do. The rather isolated from the rest of Mexico. It is the headwaters of the San Pedro River also farthest state from Mexico City and long viewed originate in Sonora, but the river flows by the country’s strong central government as a northward, crossing into the U.S. as one the last “frontier region” or, worse, a dry desert remaining undammed rivers in Arizona. The wasteland. Its colonial history is not as deep or Santa Cruz River originates in Arizona, flows rich as that of central-southern Mexico, and its South into Sonora, and then turns North again to archeological past lacks remains of the great re-enter the U.S. at Nogales, eventually running civilizations from the south (Aztecs, Mayas, all the way to the Gila River in central Arizona. Toltecs, etc.). Even today, many Sonorans feel the government of Mexico City largely ignores The eastern part of the state comprises their presence. In fact, until the completion of the western slopes of the Sierra Madre the “Yécora Highway” (Mex Hwy 16) in 1992, Occidental range—part of the great North Sonora was even largely isolated from its American Cordillera. The highest elevations are neighbor state of Chihuahua. For these in the Sierra de los Ajos and Sierra San Luis in reasons, and because of the state’s location on northeastern Sonora. In addition to the Sierra the border with the U.S., cultural and economic Madre range, about 35 high isolated ranges ties often seem stronger between Sonora and (often called Sky Islands) are found west of the Arizona than between Sonora and Mexico City Sierra Madre in the northern half of the state (despite the recent construction of the much- (and another 33 Sky Island ranges occur in despised border fence). southeastern Arizona/southwestern New Mexico). The six highest mountains in the state LAND AND BIOTIC DIVERSITY are Cerro Pico Guacamayas (2625 m), Sierra Los Ajos (2620 m), Sierra San José (2540 m), 2 The State of Sonora encompasses 69,249 mi Sierra La Charola (2520 m), Sierra San Luis 2 (179,355 km ), making it the second largest of (2520 m), and Sierra La Mariquita (2500 m). Mexico’s 31 states (not including the Federal District). Located west of Chihuahua (Mexico’s Sonora encompasses a biological largest state), Sonora shares its northern border transition zone, with tropical ecosystems in the almost exclusively with Arizona, and it is south, subtropical deserts in the north, and topographically, ecologically, and biologically montane transitions in the sierras. The northern diverse. It is the most common gateway state limit of Mexico’s Tropical Deciduous (Dry) Forest for visitors to the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of and Sinaloan Thornscrub lies near the center of California). Its population is about three million. the state, whereas some of the most arid desert regions of North America occur in the northwest, in the Gran Desierto de Altar. This topographic The Pinacate area of northwest Sonora is and climatological mix makes Sonora one of the unique for being home to North America’s most biologically diverse regions of the world. second largest lava flow region (the Snake River An estimated 5,000 species of vascular plants Plain basalt fields of Idaho are slightly larger) are reported from Sonora—20% of Mexico’s and its largest active sand dune field, the latter total flora, in an area of less than 10% of the running northwestward from just north of Puerto country. Peñasco (Sonora) to Yuma (Arizona). The dune field embraces the western slopes of the Sierra In general, precipitation in Sonora Pinacate, and it completely surrounds the decreases from higher to lower elevations, from isolated granitic Sierra del Rosario (probably the south to north, and from east to west. In the westernmost Basin-and-Range mountain in pine-oak forests around Yécora (1550 m; 5085 North America). This 5700 km2 (2200 mi2) dune ft) average annual precipitation exceeds 90 cm field is estimated to have developed during and (35.5 inches), and in the tropical deciduous following the last Glacial Maximum (~20,000 forests near Alamos (440 m; 1444 ft) it is around years ago). The dunes were built almost entirely 65 cm (26 in). However, in the volcanic desert from wind-transported Colorado River deltaic of the Pinacate region in northwestern Sonora, sands piled up over the centuries from prevailing average annual precipitation is less than 25 cm Westerlies. Thus, these dunes are largely the (9 in) per year, and in the extremely arid Gran eroded rocks of the Grand Canyon! East of the Desierto de Altar (near the lowermost Río Pinacates, along Hwy 8 between the town of Colorado) average annual precipitation is just 4- Sonoyta and the entrance to the Pinacate 7.5 cm (1.5-3.0 in) per year. During summer Biosphere Reserve, is a field of ancient, months, temperatures exceeding 38°C (100°F) stabilized dunes. These are much older dunes, are common in the Gran Desierto, and the high perhaps hundreds of thousands of years in age, summer air temperatures here drive up but their origin is unclear. evapotranspiration (i.e., loss of water from plant leaves and soil). Historically, the highest temperature recorded for anywhere in northwestern Mexico was 56.7°C (134°F) in the Sierra Blanca of the Pinacate region (near where the El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve’s visitor center is today). In spring and fall, rain is infrequent at best, although occasional tropical storms do reach Sonora in the fall. Summer temperature extremes are mitigated by rains, called monsoons (or las aguas—the waters), characterized by strong afternoon thunderstorms. Less violent winter storms, called equipatas, are derived from Pacific frontal storms with ultimate origins as far north as Alaska. (The name equipatas comes from the Yaqui language and literally means “gentle winter rains.”) This biannual rainfall pattern is a key reason that the Sonoran Desert has one of the highest biological diversities in the world. Almost all of the summer and fall moisture comes from the Sea of Cortez and adjacent Pacific Ocean that border the Sonoran Desert, thus making this a maritime desert. The traditional start of the monsoons (las aguas) is Pillowed pahoehoe lava, Pinacates

June 24, Saint John the Baptist’s Day, or el Día Topographically and demographically, the de San Juan. Saint John, who baptized Jesus in State of Sonora can be thought of as having two the River Jordan, is celebrated in many ways great regions, with different geological and throughout the Catholic world. cultural histories (see West 1993). The eastern

2 mountain region, called La Serrana (the important food sources, and are still collected highland), comprises the western slopes and and consumed by the Seri People (Comcáac) foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental. It was and others, as well as being enjoyed as originally inhabited by Native American delicacies by modern Sonorans. (indigenous) hunters and gatherers, later by indigenous farmers, and then in the 17th and The hearts, or trunk and leaf bases of 18th centuries by Jesuit missionaries and agaves (what many Mexicans call maguey), Spanish and mestizo miners and ranchers. known as cabezas, were gathered and slow Today it is losing population because its younger roasted by native people to prepare a sweet and generation is moving to the cities, and it has nutritious food called mezcal. Spaniards quickly become major marijuana and heroine-poppy learned to ferment and distill the mezcal to growing areas and is confronting narcotrafficking create the liquors we know today as mescal as drugs move north to the U.S. The Western (and its regional variants, e.g., bacanora) and Lowland, on the other hand, was originally only tequila. By law, tequila is always made from the sparsely populated by indigenous people. In the blue agave, a variety of Agave angustifolia late 18th century, the lowlands were exploited by known as A. angustifolia tequilana (or A. Spanish and Indian/mestizo gold seekers. angustifolia weberiana), and only in certain Today the lowlands are characterized by designated regions of west-central Mexico. recently developed government-sponsored Mescal can be made from many of the 400+ irrigated agriculture (the so-called Distritos de known species of agave (and may also have Riego), with wells that exploit underground water other added ingredients), although it is typically sources, as well as coastal mariculture and made from regional varieties of the very tourism—all of which has given rise to dense widespread Agave angustifolia. In La Serrana farming, industrial centers, and rapid today, certain native agave plants also are used urbanization. to distill mescal de Bacanora, a potent artisanal mescal similar to "white lightning.” [Endnote 1]

Sand dunes of the Gran Desierto de Altar (Photo by Rick Westtcott)

Since prehistoric times, people have relied heavily on the native plants of Sonora, especially the legumes—mesquite, paloverde, ironwood, etc. The most important native grasses for grazing purposes were the gramas Sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) (Bouteloua spp.), 18 species of which have been Of the native mammals, mule deer (in low identified from northeast Sonora alone. The elevations), white-tailed deer (largely restricted gramas turn green and lush after summer rains, to higher elevations), rabbits, and perhaps drying to nutritious hay during the fall dry bighorn sheep were the most commonly season. The fruits of the pitahaya dulce, or consumed meats in prehistoric times. Today, as organ pipe (Stenocereus thurberi), saguaro in centuries past, Yaqui and Mayo Peoples use (Carnegiea gigantea), and cardón (Pachycereus small stuffed heads with antlers of white-tailed pringlei, also called sahueso) cacti were all deer as headdresses for special dancers (“deer

3 dancers”) during certain religious ceremonies, suggesting the prominence and importance of deer in those cultures. Hunted less commonly were pronghorn and javelina. Predators have rarely, if ever, been hunted for meat (e.g. mountain lion, jaguar, ocelot, black bear, coyote, gray wolf, and foxes). In addition to large quantities of fish and shellfish (and some sea lion), the Seri People also used to eat pelicans seasonally. However, sea turtles were their primary source of protein.

An agave roasting pit, the same design used since Pre-Columbian times

An agave plant used for making mescal in Oaxaca (not the blue agave variety) Burro-power drives a stone wheel that grinds roasted

agave cabezas into pulp and liquid for subsequent fermentation

A still used to recover the alcohol from cooked agave

The heart (“cabeza”) of an agave, ready for roasting to make mescal

4

The famous mescal or maguey worm – usually larvae of the cossid moth Comadia redtenbacheri (above), but sometimes a weevil larva (Hypopta agavis) is used, or the larva of a skipper butterfly (Aegiale hesperiaris)

The tequila bar at the Hacienda de los Santos, Álamos, Sonora, offers up ~100 varieties of the liquor. Salud!

La Serrana Seven major rivers drain La Serrana: Río San Miguel, Río Sonora, Río Mayo, Río Moctezuma, Río Matape, and the upper and lower Río Bavispe, both of which drain into the Río Yaqui, historically the largest river in Sonora (not counting the Río Colorado). Each of these is fed by snowmelt, rain, and springs in the Sierra Madre. In times past, these rivers reached the Sea of Cortez, but today they rarely flow to the ocean due to damming and irrigation diversion. The river valleys of La Serrana were prehistoric sites of agriculture and permanent settlement. Leg rattles (ténaborim) used by Yaqui and Mayo dancers are made from cocoons of the saturniid moth During Spanish colonial times these valleys Rothschildia cincta continued to provide most of the food for

Sonora. The rugged hills and mountain ranges of La Serrana held silver, gold, and copper where great mineralization activity had taken place along fault-block lines. The presence of these ores has attracted miners since the 17th century.

The Western Lowlands Geologically, Sonora is underlain by the ancient and massive North American craton, and its dominant rocks were formed 1.2-1.7 billion years ago. Many of the mountain ranges west of the Sierra Madre Occidental and its Sky Islands

Larva (caterpillar) of the saturniid moth Rothschildia have been eroded down nearly to their roots, cincta (Photo by E. Pfeiler) forming isolated rock masses called inselbergs,

separated by wide bajadas (flood plains) and

basins. Rich deposits of gold dust and nuggets, eroded from the former mountains, have left placers (nuggets and flakes washed downslope through erosional and sedimentary action). The

5 northern part of western Sonora includes the In southern Sonora this includes the Yaqui and Altar Desert, part of the Lower Colorado River Mayo languages (collectively known as Cáhita). Valley region of the Sonoran Desert and one of In the eastern and central parts of Sonora it included the Ópata and Pima Bajo languages. In the northwest, it was Pima Alto and the closely related O'odham (previously known as Pápago) dialects. The origin of the isolated Seri tongue, on the other hand, largely remains a mystery, although some evidence suggests a relationship with languages from the Baja California peninsula. The now vanished “Guaymas people” (Guaímas) evidently were the southernmost band of Seris. The Apaches, especially the Chiricahua Apache, ranged (and raided) in the northeastern corner of Sonora; they spoke an Athapascan tongue typical of northwestern America, indicating their relatively recent arrival from the north. La Serrana, the rugged western slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental; photo taken east of Álamos (Rancho Even before the Spanish began to settle Santa Barbara) northwestern Mexico, aboriginal populations had the driest areas in North America. However, the dwindled, presumably due to introduced rivers draining La Serrana, over millennia, European diseases. During the 16th Century, deposited copious amounts of groundwater in disastrous scourges of smallpox, typhus, aquifers below the desert surface in the Western measles, and other diseases swept through Lowlands. These aquifers have sustained rapid central Mexico soon after the Spanish Conquest growth of population and agriculture in coastal and probably reached all the way to Sonora. It Sonora since the 1950s. However, there is now is known that by 1592 smallpox had, at least, little water reaching these aquifers, the rivers reached southern Sonora, causing death and have been dammed for decades, and the famine among the Yaquis and Mayos. During aquifers are being pumped at a much faster rate the Jesuit missionization, epidemics are thought than they are being recharged. to have killed half of the Mayo population.

ABORIGINAL CULTURES Farming Cultures

Sonora was first populated by indigenous The Río Sonora Culture. Most of the Indians of hunter-gatherers such as the Seri (Comcáac), La Serrana were farmers, utilizing agricultural Yaqui, and Mayo Peoples. But in the 16th the techniques similar to those used in Spanish conquest and the spread of diseases Mesoamerica. Taken together, this farming decimated these Native American populations. culture of eastern Sonora is sometimes called the "Río Sonora Culture." Among these peoples The major indigenous groups of Sonora were the Ópata and Pima Bajo, who practiced that are still with us today are the Kwapa or both dryfield (rain dependent) and small-scale Cucupás (in the Colorado River Basin south of irrigation farming. Spanish explorers (and the border), O’odhams (in northern Sonora), the recent archeological work) document the Comcáac or Seris (in coastal central Sonora), complex pueblos and farming of the Ópata, the Yaquis and Mayos (closely related Cahitan which included cultivation of maize, beans and People of the Yaqui and Mayo River Valleys), squash. The Ópata region of northeastern and the little-known Guarijíos of southeastern Sonora, with an estimated 10,000 to 100,000 Sonora. The Tarahumaras inhabit the high inhabitants, may have been the most densely country of the Sierra Madre, or the “spine of the populated area of northwestern Mexico when Sierras,” but live primarily in Chihuahua. the Spanish arrived. The Ópata probably had strong trade routes to the Casas Grandes Aside from the Comcáac (Seris) and (Paquimé) people in what is now northwestern Kwapa (Cucapás), most extant aboriginal Chihuahua. However, by the time the Jesuits cultures in Sonora belong to the Uto-Aztecan and miners arrived in La Serrana, populations language group, which is widespread in Mexico. had dwindled. In the south, the Yaqui and Mayo

6 tribes used mainly natural floodplain farming with the Hohokam Culture to the north and may along the Yaqui and Mayo rivers, as did many have been a forerunner of Piman Culture. O’odham and Kwapa peoples until very recent Evidence of Trincheran visitation is also times. common along the Gulf of California coast of northern Sonora, and inland to the Caborca and The Pima Bajo and Pima Alto Cultures. The Santa Ana areas. terms "Bajo" (lower) and "Alto" (upper), probably introduced by the Jesuits, are geographical, not Hunting-Gathering Cultures linguistic categories, and the people in both regions largely spoke the same basic language. When the Spaniards arrived, two widely Pima Bajo extended from the middle Río Sonora separated hunter-gatherer groups lived in parts (around Ures) east to the middle of the Río of Sonora: the Seri People along the central Gulf Yaqui, and then into and over the Sierra Madre coast (including the Guaímas people), and as far as La Junta in western Chihuahua. The several Apache-related tribes of present-day Pima Alto lived in the more arid northwestern Chihuahua, New Mexico and Arizona. In Sonora and southern Arizona, especially along contrast to the Native American farming the Gila and Salt Rivers. cultures, these two groups strongly resisted both Jesuit and secular attempts to “civilize,” or The Desert Pima (later called Papago, acculturate them. The Seris were a collectively and now Tohono O'odham) inhabited the arid small group of fewer than 5,000, living in distinct Sonoran Desert in northwestern Sonora and bands along the coast between Guaymas and southern Arizona, with the most arid region Cabo Lobos (Puerto Libertad), inland nearly to inhabited by the Hia C-ed O’odham (the “Sand modern-day Hermosillo, and on Tiburón and Papago”). Several other related tribes lived San Esteban Islands. They spoke a distinctive farther to the east and south, including the Soba language, and might have originally migrated Pima (in the lower Magdalena and Altar River across the Gulf from the Baja California Valleys), Himiris (upper Magdalena), and peninsula where several Yuman-related Sobaipuri (San Pedro, Santa Cruz and middle languages were (and continue to be, e.g., Gila Rivers). After the Spanish conquest, all of Cucapá, Kiliwa, Kumiai) spoken. Seris were these peoples (including any remaining Arizona primarily fishers, especially for sea turtles, and Hohokam) were considered residents of the shellfish gatherers, who occasionally foraged Pimería Alta. The O'odham were hunter- inland where they used more than 100 different gatherers who farmed scattered fields during plant species for food and medicines. The Seris summer rains, although near present-day have probably inhabited coastal Sonora in the Sonoyta (Sonora) they used limited canal region of Isla Tiburón for at least 2,000 years. agriculture. The Riverine Pima of Arizona had Today, there are fewer than 1,500 Seris, and permanent villages and canal irrigation. they are one of the last functioning aboriginal hunter/fisher-gatherer societies remaining in Of all the prehispanic cultures, one of the North America. The Apaches were latecomers, most interesting was that associated with probably not arriving from their gradual migration curious sites called trincheras—terraced hillside from Canada into Arizona, New Mexico and habitations constructed on mountain slopes Chihuahua until the last decades of the 1500s. overlooking arable land along streams. One of the largest of these sites (and the namesake) is Cerro de Trincheras, located at the railroad village of Trincheras, near the town Santa Ana, Sonora. Trincheras sites are abundant in the Magdalena, Concepción, and Cocóspera River Basins, in the Altar Valley, and from the San Miguel and Santa Cruz River Valleys as far north as Sells, on the modern Tohono O'odham reservation in Arizona, and near Redrock (between Tucson and Phoenix). The trincheras are generally interpreted as having been both agricultural and defensive sites, possibly places of refuge when villages and fields were attacked by enemies. The Trincheras Culture had ties The border fence at Naco, Arizona

7 King Charles III. The Jesuits were replaced by THE MISSIONARY PERIOD (1614-1767) Franciscan missionaries, who arrived in the

Spaniards settled in Sonora (and northwestern Pimería region in 1768. They quickly set out to Mexico in general) much later than in Central repair or replace the Jesuit churches, often constructing new ones on or near sites of the and Southern Mexico, due to the inclemency of th the terrain and conflict with the native peoples of original Jesuit churches. Before the mid-19 the region. Also, the missionary system of century, the Franciscans (of Spanish origin) colonialism was distinctive from the rest of were themselves banished from the northern Mexico. Spanish settlement of Sonora did not missions, this time by the Republic of Mexico, occur for nearly a century after Francisco and the buildings were left to fend for Vázquez de Coronado made one of the first themselves. The surviving Kino mission sites explorations through the area searching for the include three in Arizona and nine in Sonora. fabled Seven Cities of Cíbola. Early in the 17th One of the Sonoran churches, Caborca, is now Century, the Jesuit Order began to establish a museum, and five are still in use—San missions in the northwest of Mexico. By the Ignacio, Magdalena, Tubutama, Oquitoa, and 1640s Spanish lay settlers, mainly miners from Pitiquito. The “mother mission” for all of Pimería central Mexico, had crossed the Sierra Madre Alta, Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, founded by Occidental into Sonora. Both forms of Kino in 1687, no longer has a standing church, and today there is only a ranch at the site. settlement were originally restricted to La Serrana, along the river valleys. Padre Eusebio Francisco Kino arrived in Mexico from Spain in 1681. He tried to missionize Baja California, without success, and then moved on to Sonora. His northernmost settlement was San Xavier del Bac, near Tucson (Arizona). [ENDNOTE 2] He established a mission program there in 1692 and had plans for a church, but it was not built until the 1750s. This first church was a simple adobe structure. The church we call San Xavier today was built by the Franciscans and dedicated in 1797. San Xavier church represents the finest example of baroque style architecture (with strong Moorish influence) in the borderlands region, and it The border fence at Lukeville (AZ)-Sonoyta (SON)

maintains an almost complete, late-eighteenth Some of the most beautiful and interesting century construct. To find an equally elaborate Spanish-era missions are in the Sonoran Desert. baroque church, one must travel to San Antonio Those mission sites with still visible remains (Texas) or Santa Fe (New Mexico), and even north of the border are San Xavier del Bac, San there what you will find are details, not an entire José de Tumacácori, Los Santos Ángeles de church. Walking through the front door of the Guevavi (now an adobe ruin), and the visita of San Xavier church is like stepping through a Calabazas. San Xavier del Bac is still an active time machine into the late-18th century. parish, serving the descendants of the original Pimans (O’odham) for whom it was founded. Today, one can view the skeletal remains The others are under the care of the U.S. of Padre Kino at the handsome domed crypt in National Park Service. All of these missions the town of Magdalena de Kino, Sonora, near (though not all of the churches) were founded by the church of Santa María Magdalena. Although the Jesuit Father Eusebio Francisco Kino. there is evidence that Kino himself might have Photographs of some of the churches of Sonora established a chapel near this site (perhaps in (and Baja California) founded during the colonial the 1690s), the existing church dates to 1832 era are provided below. and has been reworked several times.

The Jesuits dominated mission activity in Aside from his missionary work, Kino’s Sonora for more than 150 years, from their initial other great contributions stemmed from his entry (via Sinaloa) among the Mayo and Yaqui exploratory and cartography skills. He re- People (1614-1617) until the order was expulsed discovered that Baja California was indeed a from the Spanish colonies in 1767 by edict of peninsula, and not an island (Francisco Ulloa

8 had discovered this in 1539, Melchior Díaz proved it again in 1540, and Juan de Oñate again in 1604, but their writings went largely unnoticed). His maps of northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States (the Pimería Alta region) were the most accurate made to that date, and they can still be used with good precision, although there had been several earlier maps showing Baja California as a peninsula (e.g., the French Guillaume de l’Isle’s L’Amerique Septentrionale, Paris, 1700; the Italian di Arnoldi map, America). Church at the site of Kino’s mission in San Ignacio (San Ignacio de Cabórica), north of Magdalena, Sonora. Situated on the bank of the Río Magdalena, 9 miles north of the city of Magdalena.

The Jesuit mission of San Francisco Xavier, west of Loreto, high in the Sierra La Giganta (Baja California Sur). Founded in 1699, in an area then inhabited by Guaycura Indians, it was the first mission in Baja California to have glass windows. Construction was completed in 1758 under the direction of Padre Miguel Statue of Padre Kino in the city of Magdalena de Kino, del Barco.

Sonora. In the plaza with statue is a memorial to Kino’s remains and a 19th century church. Built around 1833, the present church does not stand on the site of the original Jesuit church.

The grave of Padre Enrique Ruhen, the only priest ever An original mission olive tree, 300 year-old, still living at to be in (brief) residence at Misión Marcelo de Sonoyta, San Francisco Xavier mission in the Sierra La Giganta, Baja California Sur. Kino’s westernmost mission, in Sonora. None of the original mission structures remain at the site—only Ruhen’s grave.

9

The spartan Jesuit mission at Mulegé, Baja California Sur, built in 1707

Mission Nuestra Señora de Loreto, the first mission built in the Californias; founded by Padre Juan María de Salvatierrra in 1697 and completed in 1752 (Loreto, Baja California Sur)

All that remains of the Jesuit mission at Santa Rosalía, Baja California Sur

The Franciscan-built church in La Paz (Baja California Sur). Hernán Cortés first landed at this site in 1535 (naming it Santa Cruz). Father Kino tried to establish a colony here in 1683, naming it Nuestra Señora de la Paz, but failed. In 1720, Jesuit Padre Jaime Bravo founded the first successful mission here, and in 1861 Bishop J. F. Escalante y Moreno began construction of the church that stands today.

Kino’s expeditions to the Lower Colorado River and the Sierra Pinacate relied on the springs at Quitobaquito (now part of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument), as well as other, smaller springs and tinajas that his Indian guides The old mission church at El Triunfo, about an hour led him to. He made four expeditions into the south of La Paz (Baja California Sur) was built by the Pinacates: October 1698, March and April 1701, Franciscans in the 1800s. Established as a gold and and November 1706. [Endnote 3] silver mining town, El Triunfo drew miners from all over the U.S. and Mexico. Once the largest city in B.C.S., it was home to over 10,000 miners in its heyday. Now a remnant of the past, the town’s 115 ft-high smokestack was designed by Gustav Eiffel (of Eiffel Tower fame). Today the town has fewer than 500 inhabitants.

10 Franciscans (or by the Dominicans, in northern Baja California). The Jesuit enterprise of Sonora was one of the most successful endeavors of the order in the New World, on par with that of Paraguay, which was established at about the same time (recall the book "The Mission," and the movie of the same name filmed at Iguazu Falls where the countries of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay meet).

Memorial housing Padre Kino bones, in the zócalo of Magdalena de Kino, Sonora

Although Padre Kino founded the town of Caborca in 1688, the mission itself was founded by Francisco Javier Saeta, in 1694. The original Jesuit church was built on the banks of the Asunción River (today known as the Río Concepción), east of the present town center, Bust of Padre Kino in the although the church standing there today was built by zócalo of Magdalena de Kino, Sonora Franciscans (1803-1809). This Franciscan church is

gradually being destroyed by erosion, especially during flood events along the river. In 1857 the church was the scene of violent fighting when the people of Caborca were driven into the church by American filibusters led by Henry A. Crabb. Crabb and his men were eventually smoked out of their adobe house-fort opposite the church, and promptly executed. The standing church in the city today (pictured above) was built by the Franciscans in 1790.

Probably the most enduring cultural changes that the missions made on native life were in agriculture, through the introduction of Old World crops (especially wheat), farm tools The skeletal remains of Eusebio Kino, in the zócalo of and techniques, and domesticated animals. Magdalena de Kino, Sonora During the planting and harvest periods, all men

By the end of the 17th Century, the in the mission settlement were required to work Jesuits had founded 38 primary missions and 59 the church lands 3 days/week, and their own visitas in Sonora. According to Spanish law, a plots 3 days/week—Sundays and feast days mission was to be dissolved 10 years after its were reserved for compulsory church founding, based on the supposition that by then attendance. It was the introduction by the the natives should be sufficiently versed in Jesuits of wheat that led to the invention of Christianity that they could be left on their own. northwestern Mexico’s famous flour tortillas. In However, the Jesuits had a habit of developing Sonora to this day, thin flour tortillas (and beans ranching and farming missions that were so and chilies) are the norm of rural diets; economically successful that they tended to elsewhere in Mexico, native maize (corn) is the forego the 10-year rule. When they were finally dietary staple. The later-arriving Franciscans expelled from the New World in 1767 (by royal were a more devotional-based sect and, not edict), at the promulgation of jealous lay officials surprisingly, brought with them to Sonora the who coveted the land and cheap native labor, growing influence of Our Lady of Guadalupe. most of their missions were taken over by the [Endnote 4]

11 While Kino and his colleagues missionized the Pimería Alta, other Jesuits, and eventually Franciscans, worked in the foothills of the Sierra Madre—La Serrana. A drive down the Río Sonora Valley today, from Cananea to Urés, takes one through a half-dozen charming colonial villages, each with its own Jesuit or Franciscan church (see images following, from north to south). This was the land of the Ópata People, and most of the names of these towns were derived from the Ópata language (e.g., Arizpe, Banámichi, Baviácora).

Although the period of initial Spanish conquest of Mexico (sometimes referred to in central Mexico as “The Rape of Mexico”) and the destruction and devastation brought by Hernan Cortés was not felt in Sonora initially, a trip to the old Playa de Cortés Hotel near Guaymas will provide a vivid glimpse of those events. In the bar of this seaside resort are four large, exquisite, and disturbing, bas-relief panels that depict Cortés’s subjugation of the Aztec people. [Endnote 5] The Jesuit church at Arizpe, founded in 1646 by Jerónimo de la Canal. Once the capital of northern New Spain, it was from Arizpe (Horcasitas) that Juan Bautista de Anza’s expedition to Alta California was launched (in 1775), eventually leading to the his establishment of the city of San Francisco. De Anza’s remains are believed to lie in the church at Arizpe.

The Jesuit church at Huépac, founded 1639-1644, Iglesia San Lorenzo de Huépac. An original copy of the Mexican Act of Independence from 1810 is said to be protected inside Huépac’s City Hall.

Although the town of Aconchi, Sonora, was founded by the Jesuits in 1639, the modern church dates from the 1700s, was built by the Franciscans, and features a legendary Black Christ.

The beautiful church at Banámichi, on the zócalo. Although the mission (and town) was founded by Jesuits in 1639, the present church—Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Loreto—dates from Franciscan times

12

SPANISH SETTLEMENT: MINES AND RANCHES

Spanish settlers began colonizing Sonora about the same time the Jesuits were founding missions. By the end of the 17th Century, ranching and silver mining had become firmly established in Sonora, eventually rivaling (but not eclipsing) the silver towns of Taxco and Zacatecas in central Mexico. The silver deposits were mostly superficial (to 150-200m depth), but below them lay copper, and after the silver ore had been mined American companies moved in during the 1800s to begin mining copper ore. The town and mission at Baviácora, Sonora, were founded by the Jesuit Bartolomé Castaños in 1639. The Some of the original copper mines are still original church stands to the left of the newer church, producing, and Sonora is the top-ranking state in built by Franciscans in the 18th century—Iglesia Nuestra Mexico for mineral extraction. Señora de la Concepción de Banácora. One of the most productive mining centers of Mexico was the area around Álamos in southeastern Sonora, where silver was mined for more than 200 years. In 1776, nearly two- thirds of the silver produced in northwestern Mexico came from the Álamos mines. Today Álamos is one of the most charming, largely restored colonial towns in northern Mexico.

The beautiful Jesuit mission at Ures, along the Río Sonora, built between 1636 and 1644.

Sketch of Eusebio Kino, by Frances O’Brien. Several interpretations of what Kino might have looked like have been prepared, including a bust in the zócalo in Magdalena de Kino

Portrait of Hernán Cortés

13 to the miners in return for silver, which was used to purchase church furnishings and luxury items such as cloth and tobacco.

THE INDIAN WARS

During the 18th and 19th centuries, Indian raids on mines, missions and ranches were frequently made by Apaches, Jocomes, Janos, and Sumas from the north, and Seris from the west. The Apaches began raiding in the 1680s and continued for 200 years, until the last of the bands, led by renowned chief Geronimo, was finally defeated by combined Mexican and U.S. troops in the 1880s. Even the Yaqui, who were powerfully missionized throughout most of their history, rose up against the Spanish briefly (1740-1742). The nomadic Apaches probably attacked simply because it was an easy way to acquire food, horses and slaves. Apaches became excellent horsemen, raiding the Spanish settlements for their mounts and, it is said, always choosing the best animals for riding.

It has been said that destruction by these tribes (mainly Apaches) became so rampant in the mid-18th century that Spanish officials A portion of Kino’s famous 1701 map of the Pimería Alta Region, showing Baja California as a peninsula rather issued regulations that all houses in Sonora than an island (based on his 9 expeditions between 1698 were to be constructed of adobe walls with flat and 1706). roofs covered with sod or dirt to avoid destruction during Indian attacks. Their weapons were bow and arrow, and occasionally the lance. Eventually, the Spaniards built a series of presidios, or forts, at strategic places. In addition to protecting the local population against Indian depredations, another important activity of the sierra presidios was escorting mule trains carrying goods from Parral over the Sierra Madre into Sonora, and returning with silver bullion. The last of the northern presidios was established at Tucson in 1775, from which arose the present city of Tucson, originally on the banks of the Santa Cruz River. General small-scale warfare with the Apaches continued in Sonora and Chihuahua for most of the 19th Shrine to the Virgin of Guadalupe, just south of century. In the mountains of Sonora (the Sierra Hermosillo, Sonora Madre Occidental), isolated occurrences of

With the mines came merchants, and the Apache resistance actually continued until the Sierra Madre Occidental foothills town of 1920s.

Hidalgo de Parral (in southern Chihuahua) came The failure of the Spanish, and later the to be the merchant center for the region, being Mexican military to make peace with the strategically positioned between the mining Apaches may have been due, in part, from areas of Sonora and central Mexico. Most of the differences of sociopolitical thought between silver ore was packed out to Parral where it was Europeans and Indians. European ideas of assayed and then shipped to Durango or Mexico hierarchy and subordination did not exist among City. The Jesuits of the missions supplied food

14 the Apaches, each band having temporary invaded parts of northern Mexico from Baja leaders who were not necessarily recognized by California and Sonora, to Nuevo Leon. A force the other bands. Thus, a truce made with one eventually captured Mexico City, ending the war group likely did not apply to members of other in a victory for the U.S. The Treaty of bands. Farther east, the states of Texas, Guadalupe Hidalgo (Tratado de Guadalupe Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas Hidalgo) was signed on February 2, 1848, confronted Comanche raids. Comanche were spelling out the terms of the victory and forcing High Plains bison hunters of Shoshone stock the cession of Mexico’s territory of Alta that are said to have been the best riders among California and a large area comprising New all the nomadic tribes of western North America. Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Some historians have suggested that the Wyoming and Colorado, in exchange for $15 position of the present U.S.-Mexico border may million. Mexicans living in those areas had the have been largely determined by the presence choice of relocating to within Mexico’s new of nomadic Indian bands that stopped and boundaries or receiving American citizenship forced back Spanish settlement in southern with full rights (over 90% chose to become U.S. Arizona and Texas. citizens). The treaty was signed in Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo, now a neighborhood of Mexico City. In addition, the U.S. assumed a $3.25 million debt owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico accepted the loss of Texas and thereafter the Rio Grande was recognized as the border between the two countries. The war was controversial in the U.S., with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. The Whig Party opposed Manifest Destiny and rejected this Mexican expansion strongly. The financial cost and loss of American lives was high.

The colonial town of Álamos, Sonora THE SONORAN GOLD RUSH

In the last half of the 1700s, long before the California gold rush, Spanish Sonorans (and some Indians, mainly Yaqui and Mayo) began panning gold from placer deposits in the Sierra Madre. As the mainly pre-Cambrian rock slowly weathered down, gold in the form of nuggets and flakes eroded from quartz veins and washed down across the alluvial fans of the mountain bajadas to form placer deposits. Most placers in southwestern U.S./northwestern Mexico were formed (trapped) between a layer of caliche (hardened calcium carbonate deposits) and the underlying bedrock. Nuggets could be obtained by "dry placering" -- tossing the broken earth,

The main zócalo and church at Álamos, Sonora sand and gravel into the air and permitting wind to remove all but the heavier gold nuggets. "Wet placering" with running water recovered even THE U.S. INVASION OF MEXICO the finer gold dust. The most productive areas

The short but significant Mexican–American War were in the Altar Desert of northwestern Sonora, lasted from spring, 1846 to fall, 1847. It followed and there the first authentic gold rush in North in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of America took place from 1775 to 1825. Unlike Texas, which was part of Mexico’s territory. lode or ore mining, working placer deposits Once the war began, American forces quickly could be a one-person operation, or at most a occupied New Mexico and California, and then small group association. It required simple tools

15 and nuggets of pure gold needed no further eventually won a post-Revolution presidential refinement. Deposits were small, however, so election with overwhelming support, and his placer camps were ephemeral, at best lasting presidency oversaw massive education reform, only a few years. Gradually the gold miners the rise and flourishing of Mexican muralism, pushed farther and farther north, into Arizona land reform, and new labor laws. Plutarco Elías and eventually west to California. When news of Calles (who founded the PRI political party, the discovery of large gold deposits in the which ruled Mexico for nearly 70 years) also foothills of California’s Sierra Nevada Mountains came from Sonora (Guaymas). [Endnote 6] reached Mexico in 1848, some 5,000 fortune hunters from Sonora migrated to the new gold “NEW SONORA” fields. Among the many marks they left is the namesake town of Sonora, in California's Mother For most of its early years, Sonora was Lode country. dominated culturally and economically by its eastern hills and mountainous La Serrana THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE region. During the last half of the 20th Century, MEXICAN REVOLUTION however, the arid Western Lowlands region experienced rapid economic growth, especially So remote was Sonora from the rest of Mexico in irrigated agriculture along the river tracks and and the United States (and the world, really), floodplains. This shift left the older mountainous and so caught up in the gold rush and other region somewhat of a cultural backwater, immediate affairs, that Mexico’s War of characterized by quaint colonial era villages, like Independence (early 1800s) was little more than Álamos, Ures, Sahuaripa, Ariveche, Arizpe, background noise in the northwest of the Tecoripa, Suaqui Grande, Banámichi, country. Sinoquipe, and Bacanora. Thus, the present- day state of Sonora reveals its dual Sonora also played no important role geographical personality—eastern, colonial, “Old during the first part of the Mexican Revolution, Sonora,” and the modern western "New the so-called Maderista Period (1910-1913). Sonora." First to develop there were the towns However, after the killing of the great of Guaymas (around 1820), the main seaport of revolutionary leader Francisco Madero, in 1913, the state, and Hermosillo, which became Nogales was strategically targeted by those Sonora's capital in 1879. The first wagon road opposed to President Victoriano Huerta. On between Hermosillo and Tucson was March 13, 1913, Álvaro Obregón began his established by 1860. The first rail line to military career with the taking of this border Hermosillo opened in 1880, between Guaymas town. The advantage that Nogales provided and Hermosillo, and to Nogales in 1882, which was access to weapons, communications, and connected to southern Arizona. Grains went foreign sources of financing for the revolution. from Guaymas (by boat) and Hermosillo Thus, Nogales came to be the place where the (overland) to the U.S., and machinery for the revolutionary government was formed by Sonoran mines was shipped to Guaymas from Venustiano Carranza after Madero´s murder, San Francisco. and it remained a principal base of the revolution between 1914 and 1929. Guaymas is one of the best natural harbors in all of Mexico. During the 19th The famous revolutionary, Francisco century, large Mexican, U.S., and English “Pancho” Villa, often entered Sonora from his mercantile firms were established there, and a main hangouts in the Sierra Madre of Durango regularly scheduled steamship line to San and Chihuahua, and many of his most important Francisco and much of the Pacific Rim meetings took place in Nogales. The battle that developed. ended Villa’s dominance during the revolution took place at Agua Prieta, Sonora (in 1916), Hermosillo, in 1700, was no more than a when Obregón’s army defeated him. Like so small settlement (called Pitic) housing a few many Mexicans of fame, Pancho Villa’s legacy is Spaniards and Pima Bajo Indians. It came to controversial; he is both revered as a hero of the serve as a presidio against the rebellious Seri Revolution and remembered as a notorious Indians, but eventually grew to become the city border bandit and killer! The statue of Villa in of Hermosillo (named in honor of a Mexican downtown Tucson was a gift to Arizona by the hero of the War of Independence). Mexican government in 1981. Obregón

16 Yucatán and Oaxaca. Many escaped government persecution by fleeing to Arizona, where some families still live on the Pasqua- Yaqui and other reservations in Tucson.

The first farmlands to be developed through the Distrito de Riego were along the Río Yaqui and Río Mayo in southern Sonora. Then came the Río Colorado and, finally, in the mid- 20th Century, the Río Sonora and Río Magdalena-Asunción-Concepción. All were developed through government economic planning processes with no apparent regard whatsoever to water or land conservation Part of the fishing fleet (sardines and shrimp) at the new dock, outer Guaymas Harbor, Sonora issues. For the past half-century, the coastal plains of Sonora and Sinaloa have been

After the final subjugation of the nomadic Mexico’s most important agricultural (and more Indians in the 1880s, U.S. companies began to recently, shrimp farming) lands. Major land invest heavily in Mexico's mining industry. crops include wheat, corn, rice, soy, sugar cane Foreigners and their Mexican partners reopened and vegetables, much of which finds its way to many of the abandoned silver, gold and copper Arizona and California. mines (called antiguas), using modern In 1926, Mexico passed the National techniques to exploit the deeper, poorer lode Water Law, which committed the federal ores. Important copper mining towns such as government to develop large-scale irrigation Cananea, Nacozari de García, La Colorada, as projects throughout the country. To administer well as Minas Piietas grew up along the the law, the government formed the Comisión southern end of the great Arizona copper belt. Nacionál de Irrigación, the main duties of which For a while, Cananea, with 20,000 inhabitants, were to undertake construction of large-scale was the largest city in the state. The revival of dams and canals, and to colonize the newly Sonoran mining was short-lived; it was arrested formed irrigation districts. In 1946, the Comisión by the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in was replaced by the Secretaría de Recursos 1910. Today, only the rich copper mines of Hidráulicos, which had cabinet-level status and Cananea and Nacozari still remain highly thus increased access to federal funds. This productive, although new mines have recently initiated a period of rapid dam construction and opened west of the federal highway (near expansion of irrigated lands. Along the larger Querobabi). rivers, annual summer floods were controlled by the construction of large dams and reservoirs in Agriculture in the Western Lowlands the 1940s and 1950s.

Irrigated commercial farming on the coastal river By the 1960s, the first signs of increasing floodplains and deltas of Sonora and Sinaloa soil salinity were appearing in the Yaqui and began slowly in the 1890s, but it came to be the Mayo deltas. Excessive application of water to most significant factor in the “modernization” of the land was viewed as the cause, so deep Northwestern Mexico in the 1950s. The fertility drainage ditches were built to carry excess of floodplain and deltaic soils was well known to irrigation runoff to the Sea of Cortez. Extraction both indigenous peoples and Spanish settlers. of water from aquifers in the Río Sonora delta (the "Costa de Hermosillo” District) has far Throughout much of the latter 19th exceeded natural replenishment, leading to a century and early 20th century, coastal farming rapid fall in the water table. settlements in the Río Yaqui region were ravaged by fighting between rebellious Yaqui Growth in the population of the Hermosillo and the Mexican military. Eventually, the area (over 700,000 residents today) has government declared a campaign of exacerbated this water problem. Intrusion of salt extermination on the Yaqui, including taking water from the Sea of Cortez into the aquifers, many of them as indentured servants to work caused by the falling water table, made much of plantations in the far-away states of Nayarit, the groundwater along the coast too saline for

17 agricultural use. In response to these problems, fishery by dollar value. Industrial (“high seas”) the government, in 1989, limited the number of shrimpers use one of the most destructive permitted wells to 498, which halved the annual fishing methods known—dragging large trawls amount of ground water pumped, from 800 across the sea floor, ripping up the top few million to 400 million cubic meters per year. It inches of the sea bed, capturing (and killing) was hoped that this would shift agriculture away virtually every animal the nets encounter. from water-intensive crops like wheat and Limited data suggest that the entire benthic cotton, toward crops requiring less irrigation. ecosystem of the shallow Gulf has been However, over-exploitation of fossil water is now dramatically altered because of this continual taking place in the Caborca area, where disturbance, year after year, since the 1920s. hundreds of wells supply water for wheat, The principal change appears to be greatly cotton, olive groves and vineyards. [Endnote 7] reduced species diversity, loss of rare species, Hermosillo faces serious water shortages and is and hypoxia (severe oxygen depletion) due to in the process of completing an extensive, the rain of decomposing by-catch dumped off expensive, and highly controversial aqueduct the shrimp boats day after day. However, no project to bring water from the Río Yaqui to the thorough scientific study of this long-term city (over strong objections from the Yaqui disturbance has been undertaken. The sardine community). catch (comprising mainly Sardinops sagax and Opisthonema libertate, and the recently Fishing reestablished northern anchovy Engraulis mordax) is six times the shrimp catch by About the same time that government- tonnage, but of relatively less value. Sonora sponsored irrigation districts were being accounts for 60% of Mexico's sardine take. established in western Sonora, commercial Most of it is processed for poultry feed and fishing was evolving along the Sea of Cortez fishmeal fertilizer. It is likely that every coast. The first Mexican shrimp boats were commercial species in the Sea of Cortez is operating out of Guaymas in the 1920s. In the unsustainably fished today. 1930s the Japanese, with permission of the Mexican government, began exploiting shrimp stocks off Guaymas. John Steinbeck and Ed Ricketts observed the Japanese operations during their 1940 Sea of Cortez expedition, describing the destructive fishing methods in their classic book, The Sea of Cortez. A Leisurely Journey of Travel and Research. The Mexican government eventually banned the Japanese fleets from the Gulf, but their success led to the establishment of the three major fishing centers of Sonora: Guaymas, Puerto Peñasco, and Yavaros.

Due to its high productivity and subtropical Shrimp boat, working out of Puerto Peñasco, 2013 location, the Gulf of California teems with many ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION IN species of finfish, crustaceans, and molluscs. SONORA Over 6000 species of animals have been reported from this sea, and many still remain undescribed. The numerous marsh- and Sonora has over 7,000 sq mi (>18,130 sq km) of mangrove-bordered lagoons and estuaries that protected wildlife areas. Federally-protected line the Gulf coast of Sonora and Sinaloa serve natural areas in Mexico are of six types: as nurseries for juveniles of many important biosphere reserves, national parks, areas for the shellfish and finfish. The majority of the fisheries protection of flora and fauna, protected natural catch today is shrimp, squid and sardines. resource areas, natural monuments, and Nearly three-fourths of the shrimp catch is shrines. Sonora has about 10 federally exported to the U.S., and today the shrimp protected areas, around 20 state-protected sites, harvest (including farmed shrimp) from the Sea and a number of private natural reserves. of Cortez makes up about 60% of Mexico's total Among these is the El Pinacate and Gran

18 Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve (both a Mexican and a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and also one of Mexico’s designated “13 natural marvels”), located between Puerto Peñasco and the U.S. border in the Altar Desert. The reserve comprises rich Sonoran Desert habitat, massive dune fields, and hundreds of dormant volcanic craters. Bordering the western edge of the Pinacate reserve is the 3,609 sq mi (9,348 sq km) Alto Golfo de California y Delta de Río Colorado Biosphere Reserve, at the head of the Gulf of California. This, and the Pinacate reserve, were created in 1993. The Sierra de Ajos-Bavispe Natural Resource Area is in the central interior of Sonora. The 156 sq mi (405 sq km) Reserve for the Protection of Flora and Fauna, Sierra de Alamos-Rio Cuchujaqui is in the far southern foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Sonora. In addition to these, and others, all of the islands of the Sea of Cortez comprise the Protected Natural Resources of the Flora and Fauna of the Islands of the Gulf of California. Additionally, the entirety of Bahía Adaír, between the towns of Puerto Peñasco and El Golfo de Santa Clara, is a Ramsar Designated Wetland. Also, the Seri coast is a designated Ramsar Wetland. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, known as the Ramsar Convention, is an international treaty that defines actions and areas of cooperation for conservation of sustainable wetlands.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My deepest appreciation to friends and colleagues who read and commented on early drafts of this essay, including: Clare Aslan, Michelle María Early Capistrán, Dan Lynch, Larry Marshall, Cathy Moser Marlett, Ed Pfeiler, Alberto Suarez, and especially ace editors Lloyd T. Findley and Linda M. Brewer. Thanks to John Palting and Wendy Moore for help with agave “worm” identifications.

19

ENDNOTES (and other secret ingredients) to concoct a tasty powder that one sprinkles on a citrus slice to Endnote 1. According to one popular myth, the accompany a glass of mescal. Locals insist the Aztecs discovered the beverage pulque (later insect larva enhances the flavor and enjoyment distilled into mescal/tequila by the Spaniards) of the drink, and perhaps even gives the drinker when a bolt of lightning struck an agave field. temporary special powers of love and intellect. The bolt instantaneously cooked the heart of one of the plants, and caused it to quickly Endnote 2. San Xavier del Bac, about 12 miles ferment. The Aztecs noticed the aromatic nectar south of Tucson, is the best known and most exuding from the cooked plant, and deemed it to elaborate colonial mission church in the Pimería be a miraculous gift from the gods (which they Alta. Padre Kino first visited this site in 1692, named pulque). Subsequently, during colonial and that year he established a mission program times, it was distilled into vino mezcal (“mezcal for the Piman (O’odham) People that lived in the wine”), the most popular version of which came area. His plans for a church, however, never to be tequila. (In Mexico, it is usually spelled came to fruition. In the 1750s, a simple adobe mezcal; in the U.S. it is usually spelled mescal.) hall church was constructed by Jesuits. In 1767 There are today around 30 tequila distilleries in the Jesuits were expelled from the Spanish Mexico, producing hundreds of brands/varieties colonies and replaced (a year later) by of tequila in six categories (fixed by federal law): Franciscans, and it was they who built the (1) 100% agave tequilas are required by law to church that stands today. The old adobe church be made from 100% fermented juices from the was dismantled and moved, piece by piece, to blue agave, with no additives, not even sugar. the east side of the new one, where it was (2) Mixto tequilas must be at least 51% recycle into the convento wing that still stands. fermented juices from the blue agave, but The new church was dedicated in 1797. The additives may be used, such as fermented cane eastern bell tower was never finished, perhaps sugar juices (ethanol). (3) Blanco tequila is because the builders ran out of money. The tequila in its youngest and purest form, just as famous cat and mouse that occupy the front produced by the distillation process, without the church facade have been there since the church effects of any barrel aging. Blancos can be was built, but no one today knows what they 100% agave, or mixto. (4) Gold (joven abocado) represent (although there are no shortages of tequilas are usually mixtos, unaged blanco interpretations). Today the church functions tequila to which additive colors (usually caramel) under the auspices of the Franciscans (the and flavors are mixed after the distillation Order of Friars Minor), and it continues to serve process. (5) Reposado tequilas are, literally, the local O’odham community (although "rested." By law, a reposado must be aged in everyone is welcome at the services). wood for at least 60 days, but most are actually It is often said that all Jesuit churches in the aged closer to a year. They are aged in large Pimería Alta were built with the entrance facing wooden tanks, or sometimes in small oak south. While this is true for San Xavier church, it barrels. (6) Añejo tequilas are "aged" or "old." is not the case for all, many of which face west, By law, añejos must be aged for at least 12 south-by-southeast, or west-by-northwest. months in government-sealed barrels that are no larger than 600 liters. Often, the barrels used Endnote 3. On Kino’s first Pinacate expedition, are old 190-liter whisky barrels from Kentucky. he saw the mountains of Baja California and The longer the aging process (in wood), the judged that there could be no seaway separating darker the tequila becomes. them from the mainland. On his second and third expeditions, he saw the head of the Gulf of Many mescal makers put a “worm” in the bottle, California, the actual land connection between said to enhance the flavor (also said to be a Baja and the mainland, confirming the marketing ploy). The “worm” is actually an peninsular nature of the former; on these trips insect larva, typically either of a cossid moth he also reached the Sea of Cortez, on the coast (Comadia redtenbacheri), a skipper butterfly of Sonora. On his fourth expedition, he took (Aegiale hesperiaris), or a weevil (Hypopta “official witnesses” to the top of Sierra Pinacate, agavis). All are found associated with living to prove to them the peninsular nature of Baja agaves, but only the weevil causes any real California. Kino was 61 years of age on this damage to the plants. In Oaxaca, these dried fourth expedition to the Pinacates. and ground-up larvae are often added to chile

20 Endnote 4. The Virgin of Guadalupe has been devotional treatise but a complex celebration of known by many names (the Dark Virgin, the criollismo that used the vision of the Virgin of Virgin of Tepeyac, La Criolla, etc.), and the hold Guadalupe as proof of special divine favor that devotion to Our Lady of Guadalupe has on toward the criollos – the Virgin Mary had the Mexican people is legendary and profound. revealed herself to the criollos, even if through In fact, she has come to be venerated the agency of a lowly Náhuatl Indian. The throughout Latin America and is sometimes devotion soon spread throughout New Spain. It referred to as the Empress of the Americas. reached Europe through the efforts of Pedro de This devotion is based on the story of the Virgin Gálvez, a former visitador in New Spain and a Mary’s appearance to the newly converted Aztec member of the Council of the Indies, who in (Náhuatl) Indian, Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, in 1662 subsidized publication of Mateo de la 1531, in the village of Tepeyac, near Mexico Cruz’s version of the apparition story. City. The apparition occurred early in the conquest of Mexico, just ten years after the The first political use of the Virgin of Guadalupe Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán fell to the as a national symbol was during the Mexican conquistador Cortés. Not only did the Virgin War of Independence (1810), when the Virgin appear, but also she left her beautiful image on appeared on the banners of the military general Juan Diego’s cloak, in which he carried Miguel Hidalgo, while his troops proclaimed long “miraculous roses” (unknown in the New World life to her and death to the Spaniards. Thus, the at that time) from Tepeyac Hill to Bishop long-standing rivalry between the Virgin of Zumárraga, with a request from the Virgin that a Guadalupe (La Criolla) and the Virgin of new church be built on the hilltop site. The cloak Remedios (La Conquistadora) became clearly is now on display at the Basilica of Our Lady of marked along nationalistic and political lines. It Guadalupe in Mexico City. Zumárraga was a is not surprising, therefore, that, after compassionate man who built the first hospital, independence was attained, the Virgin of library and university in the Americas. He was Guadalupe emerged as the preeminent national also the “protector of the Indians,” entrusted by religious symbol of Mexico. As the famous Emperor Charles V to enforce his decree of writer-philosopher Octavio Paz once observed, 1530 that Indians could not be made slaves. “The Mexican people, after more than two Shortly thereafter, an adobe structure was built centuries of experiments and defeats, have faith atop Tepeyac Hill in honor of the Blessed only in the Virgin of Guadalupe and the National Mother, Our Lade of Guadalupe. It was Lottery.” The narration of the Virgin of dedicated on December 26, 1531, the feast of Guadalupe is sometimes called the “fifth St. Stephen the Martyr. This was 76 years gospel.” It has been one of the most important before the first permanent English colony was evangelizers in the history of the Americas. established in the New World (Jamestown, Two hundred years after Juan Diego’s vision, in 1607) the 18th Century, the road to fame for aspiring

The first published account of the apparition composers in Italy had come to be the writing of came more than 100 years later, in 1648, by the operas. For their Latin American, New World Oratorian priest, Miguel Sánchez. Sánchez’s counterparts, however, the most prestigious account was responsible for the popularization genre was Maitines (or Matins), a Roman and spread of the devotion among the criollos of Catholic service traditionally performed in the Mexico City – that is, among those people of early hours of the morning. The Matins provided European stock who had been born in the New a range of opportunities to display compositional World. Though the only difference between skill, as it juxtaposed a wide variety of textures criollos and Spaniards from Europe (from the and style, commonly paralleling that of an Old Iberian Peninsula) was their place of birth, the World opera but with monophonic Psalms in criollos saw themselves as marginalized. chant, intoned Lecciones that could preach or Disdained by the Spaniards of New Spain (the weave a story, and sets of Responsorios that Spanish colonies of the New World), excluded elegantly combined voices with instruments. In from the topmost positions of local government, 1742, the Italian composer Ignacio de Jerusalem and suppressed by what they regarded as was recruited to Mexico City to help strengthen second-class citizenship, they reacted by the music resources of New Spain’s growing developing a strong sense of group and regional empire. In 1750 he was appointed to the top identity. Thus, Sanchez’s book was not only a post of Chapel Master at the Cathedral. In

21 1764, in Mexico City, he presented his Malinche, who betrayed her own people. Her masterpiece, “matins for the Virgin of legacy lives on today, in the word “malinchista,” Guadalupe.” Jerusalem’s matins have rarely which refers to a person disloyal to their country. been recorded, but several versions of this Another panel depicts Cortés mourning his stunning composition do exist; my favorite is losses after the great battle of La Noche Triste “Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe, 1764,” by (The Night of Sorrows) where he lost many Chanticleer (Teldec 3984-21829-2). soldiers in a trap set by Aztec warriors. There is also a series of nine smaller panels by Wiken The name “Guadalupe” may derive from the above the bar called “The Court of Cortez,” and Aztec word tlecuatlecupe, which means “one these illustrate the sacrifices, impalings, and who crushes the head of the serpent.” When destruction of Aztec icons by the Spanish pronounced correctly, the name sounds like soldiers. All this work is beautiful, and “Guadalupe,” and this is how the Spaniards disturbing. The juxtaposition of these carvings interpreted it. There is, in Spain, a town (with a in the bar of a happy seaside resort is somewhat prominent Marian shrine) by the name of jarring, and most visitors seem to prefer drinking Guadalupe, in the province of Cáceres. The their margaritas to studying the details in feast day of Our Lady of Guadalupe is Wiken’s exquisite art. Photos of Wiken’s four December 12. The feast day for Juan Diego, panels follow. who was declared a saint in 2002 by Pope John Paul II, is December 9. And, the Virgin of Guadalupe in Spain is also dark skinned!

Endnote 5. The artist Dick Wiken was born and died in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (1913-1985). He was a self-taught sculptor, designer, and craftsman. Wiken attended the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee for two years, studying journalism, English and history, but did not receive a degree. During World War II, he served in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1943-1946). Although self-taught, Wiken eventually became an Instructor of Sculpture at the Art Institute in Milwaukee (1934-1937), and then at the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee (1938-1943). His works in wood, stone and metal decorate many buildings and homes in the Milwaukee area and beyond. Among his most unusual and interesting work is a set of wood carved panels at the Playa de Cortés Hotel, near Guaymas (Sonora). The panels depict the “Rape of Mexico” during the Spanish Conquest. The hotel was built in 1934 by a railroad baron, to facilitate the arrival of the passenger train to Guaymas. Wiken’s four, commissioned, bas relief wood sculptures, which are displayed in the hotel’s bar, are each about 4 ft X 6 ft, and they are crafted in deep rich mahogany. The scenes are of conquistadors and naked Aztec women, and lust and violence mingle as Spanish armor meets bare skin. Wiken carved these in 1946/47, with the intent of depicting the story of the Spanish conqueror Hernán Cortés overthrowing the Aztec Empire. Wiken titled the works, “The Rewards of Conquest—Wenching, Gambling, Drinking and Indolence.” One of the panels shows Cortés and his mistress, La

22 discovered, and “on the right hand of the Indies.” Many Europeans already believed that “the Indies” of Marco Polo lay not far beyond the lands of the New World. Cortés first received news of the Pacific Ocean in 1522, less than a year after the fall of Tenochtitlán (the ancient capital of the Aztec Empire), and 12 years after Las sergas was published. The report came from one of Cortés’ captains, Gonzalo de Sandoval, who had been sent to explore the western sea of México. De Sandoval reported seeing an island rich in pearls and gold, and populated by women who killed their male offspring—no doubt a story inspired by Ordóñez de Montalvo’s classic novel. In 1532, Cortés

sent Captain Diego Hurtado to seek out the Island of California. But what Hurtado found were primitive people (and no Amazons) living in a parched desert with no gold and little water. None-the-less, Cortés officially named the land California, reasoning it must be the place described in Ordóñez de Montalvo’s novel. In 1535, Cortés embarked on his own expedition to colonize California, placing 320 people in Bahía de la Santa Cruz (now known as the Bay of La Paz). Cortés claimed it for Spain, and as navigators pushed northward, the name California came to include Spanish claims from

the tip of the peninsula to Puget Sound. But the Shortly after the expeditions of Christopher colonists could not survive in La Paz, for lack of Columbus, and for much of the time that Baja food and water, and probably because the locals California was thought to be an island, its were unfriendly. María Early Capistrán (2014) mystery was also shrouded in legends of gold, notes, had they discovered that sea turtles were pearls, griffins, and beautiful Amazon women. a rich source of food, they might have fared far Most of the mystique about the “island” of better; but records suggest that, for whatever California came from a famous chivalric novel reason, they did not take advantage of that titled, Las sergas de Esplandián (The Sagas of abundant seafood. Esplandián), by the Spanish writer Garcí Ordóñez de Montalvo. This romantic novel had Endnote 6. Pancho Villa was named by his become beloved in medieval Spain, inspiring the parents, Doroteo Arango Arambula. He fled ambitions of sailors, soldiers, and adventurers. from his home (in Durango) to the sierras at the The novel was greatly admired by Hernán age of sixteen, after shooting the master of the Cortés and, in fact, the writings of Cortés also hacienda in the foot for trying to rape his leaned toward the fantastic, as was the younger sister (or so the legend goes). It was tendency of the times. In Ordóñez de then that he changed his name to Francisco Montalvo’s story, the noble knight Esplandián “Pancho” Villa, and took up a life of crime and survives the siege of Constantinople by a pagan rebellion. The reason Pancho Villa was killed group of Amazons from the “Island of California,” seems to be shrouded in mystery. The riding griffins and led by Queen Calafia. The Revolution was over and he was “in retirement” women of California were black skinned, valiant, in the Sierras, breeding fighting cocks and with wondrous bodies, great strength, and running his estate at Canutillo, Durango. It is ardent hearts. Their weapons were made of said that, when the assassins murdered him in pure gold, the only metal that existed in 1923 (in Parral, Chihuahua), he had more than California. The Island was said to be in the New 8000 rifles, a half-million cartridges, and a large World, west of the land that Columbus had supply of bombs and hand grenades at his hacienda. He was, as he liked to say, “hated by

23 thousands and loved by millions.” President Obregón may have feared that Villa had more revolutionary ideas in him, and ordered his murder. Today, a statue of Villa also stands in the plaza of Canutillo—the state’s most famous native son. And the Francisco Villa Museum in Parral (Chihuahua) interprets his unique and colorful history and, every year in July, reenacts his assassination. To say the man was complicated is an understatement. After invading the U.S., and sacking and burning the town of Columbus, New Mexico, General Peshing himself went after Villa in Mexico, spending nearly a year perusing him to no avail. It is said that, during the revolution, Villa once ordered the killing of 90 women by firing squad in Camargo (Chihuahua), for consorting with the enemy. He was fearless of death, leading his cavalry charges himself. He married 26 times, and was a compulsive womanizer.

Endnote 7. The vineyards provide table grapes and also supply several wineries in northwest Mexico, including the Domeq winery, which produces good brandies and wines, including the famous "Padre Kino Vino Tinto"—at about $5/liter, an agreeable red table wine (Mexico’s version of “Three-Buck Chuck.” As of 2014, over 2000 acres of vineyards were under cultivation just north of Hermosillo.

24 SELECTED REFERENCES

Ahlborn, R. E. 1974. The Sculpted Saints of a Borderland Mission: Los Bultos de San Xavier del Bac. Southwestern Mission Research Center, Tucson, AZ. Altschul, J. H. and A. G. Rankin (eds.). 2008. Fragile Patterns, the Archaeology of the Western Papaguería. SRI Press, Tucson, AZ. Anderson, D. G. and J. C. Gillam. 2000. Paleoindian colonization of the Americas: implications from an examination of physiography, demography, and artifact distribution. American Antiquity 65: 43-66. Aschmann, H. 1959. The Central Desert of Baja California: Demography and Ecology. Ibero-America 42. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA. Aschmann, H. (ed.). 1966. The natural and human history of Baja California–from manuscripts by Jesuit missionaries in the Decade 1752–1762. Dawson’s Book Shop, Los Angeles, California. Bahre, C. J. and L. Bourillón. 2002. Human impact in the Midriff Islands. Pp. 383–406 in T. Case, M. Cody, and E. Ezcurra (eds.), A New Island Biogeography of the Sea of Cortés. Oxford University Press, New York. Bahre, C. J., L. Bourillón, and J. Torre. 2000. The Seri and commercial totoaba fishing (1930–1965). Journal of the Southwest 42:559–575. Baird, J. A. 1962. The Churches of Mexico: 1530-1810. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Baldonado, L., OFM. 1959. The dedication of Caborca. The Kiva 24(4): inside back cover. Bancroft, H. H. 1884. History of California, Vol. 1. A. L. Bancroft and Co., San Francisco. Bancroft, H. H. 1884-1889. History of the North Mexican States and Texas. 2 vols. A. L. Bancroft, San Francisco, CA. Bancroft, H. H. 1889. History of Arizona and New Mexico, 1530-1888. Vol. 12 of, The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. The History Company, San Francisco, CA. Bannon, J. F., S.J. 1955. The Mission Frontier in Sonora, 1620-1687. U. S. Catholic Historical Society, New York. Barth, P. J., OFM. [1945]1950. Franciscan Education and the Social Order in Spanish North America, 1501-1821. DePaul University, Chicago, IL. Bartlett, J. R. 1854. Personal Narrative of Explorations & Incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua. 2 vols. George Routledge & Co., London. Basurto, X. 2005. How Locally Designed Access and Use Controls Can Prevent the Tragedy of the Commons in a Mexican Small-Scale Fishing Community. Society & Natural Resources, 18(7): 643-659. Basurto, X. 2007. Commercial diving and the callo de hacha fishery in Seri Territory. Journal of the Southwest 48 (2):189–209. Basurto, X. 2008. Biological and Ecological Mechanisms Supporting Marine Self- Governance: the Seri Callo de Hacha Fishery in México. Ecology & Society 13(2): 1-17. Basurto, X., A. Cinti, L. Bourillón, M. Rojo, J. torre and A. Hudson Weaver. 2012. The emergence of access controls in small-scale fishing commons: a comparative analysis of individual licenses and common property-rights in two Mexican communities. Human Ecology 37(2). Basurto, X. and E. Coleman. 2010. Institutional and ecological interplay for successful self-governance of community- based fisheries. Ecological Economics, 69(5). Bayham, F. E. 1985. Proceedings of the 1983 Hohokam Symposium, Part 1. Arizona Archaeological Society, Phoenix Chapter. Beals, R. L. 1932. The Comparative Ethnology of Northern Mexico Before 1750. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Bergman, C. 2002. Red Delta. Fighting for Life at the End of the Colorado River. Defenders of Wildlife and Fulcrum Press, Golden, CO. Bertsch, H. and C. Moser Marlett. 2011. The Seris, the sun and slugs: cultural and natural history of Berthellina ilisima and other opisthobranchia in the central Sea of Cortez. Thalassas 27(2): 9-21. Bolton, H. E. 1917. The mission as a frontier institution in the Spanish American colonies. American Historical Review 23: 42-61. Bolton, H. E. 1930[1966]. Anza’s California Expeditions. 5 vols. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Bolton, H. E. [1932]1963. Padre on Horseback. Loyola University Press, Chicago, IL. [Reprint with introduction by John Francis Bannon, J.J.] Bolton, H. E. [1936, 1960]1984. Rim of Christendom: A Biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Pacific Coast Pioneer. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. [Reprint with introduction by John L. Kessel] Bolton, H.E. (translator and editor). 1948. Kino’s Historical Memoir of Pimería Alta. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Bowen, T. 2000. Unknown Island. Seri Indians, Europeans, and San Esteban Island in the Gulf of California. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Bowen, T. (ed.). 2002. Backcountry Pilot: Flying Adventures with Ike Russell. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ.

25 Bowen, T. 2004. Archaeology, biology and conservation on islands in the Gulf of California. Environmental Conservation 31: 199-206. Bowen, T. 2009. The record of Native People on Gulf of California Islands. Arizona State Museum Archaeological Series No. 201, 101 pp. Brand, D. D. 1935. The distribution of pottery types in Northwest Mexico. American Anthropologist 37: 287-305. Braniff, B. and R. S. Felger (eds). 1976. Sonora, Antropología del Desierto. Colección Cientifia Diversa 27. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Mexico City. 592 pp. (Reprinted 1994, Centro INAH Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico.) Brown, D. E. and C. A. Lopez Gonzalez. 2001. Borderland Jaguars | Tigres de la Frontera. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. Browne, J. R. 1869. Adventures in the Apache Country: A Tour Through Arizona and Sonora, with Notes on the Silver Regions of Nevada. Harper & Bros., New York. Broyles, B. and M. P. Berman 2006. Sunshot. Peril and Wonder in the Gran Desierto. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Broyles, B. and D. E. Boyer. 2011. Field Man. Life as a Desert Archaeologist. Julian D. Hayden. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Broyles, B., G. H. Hartmann, T. E. Sheridan, G. P. Nabhan and M. C. Thurtle. 2012. Last Water on the Devil’s Highway. A Cultural and Natural History of Tinaja Altas. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Brusca, R. C. 2007a. Father Eusebio Kino, the Baja California Peninsula, and the Sea of Cortez. Sonorensis, Winter 2007:6–13. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, AZ. Brusca, R. C. 2007b. Harvesting the Sea of Cortez: from Kino’s era to modern times. Sonorensis, Winter 2007:42–47. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, AZ. Brusca, R. C. and G. C. Bryner. 2004. A case study of two Mexican biosphere reserves: The Upper Gulf of California/Colorado River Delta and Pinacate/Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserves. Pp. 21–52 in N. E. Harrison and G. C. Bryner (eds.), Science and Politics in the International Environment. Rowman and Littlefield, New York. Burkhalter, D. 1998. La Vida Norteña: Photographs of Sonora, México. The Southwest Center Series, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona Burckhalter, D. 1999. Among Turtle Hunters and Basket Makers. Adventures with the Seri Indians. Treasure Chest Books, Tucson, AZ. Burckhalter, D. 2013. Baja California Missions. University of Arizona Presss, Tucson, AZ. Burquez, A., A. Martínez-Yrízar and P. S. Martin. 1992. From the high Sierra Madre to the coast: Changes in vegetation along Highway 16, Maycoba-Hermosillo. Pp. 239-252 in, K. F. Clark, J. Roldán-Quintana, and R. H. Smith (eds.), Geology and Mineral Resources of Northern Sierra Madre, Mexico. El Paso Geological Survey, El Paso, Texas. Burrus, E. J. 1965. Kino and the Cartography of Northwestern New Spain. Arizona Pioneers’ Historical Society, Tucson, AZ. Burrus, E. J. 1971. Kino and Manje: Explorers of Sonora and Arizona. Rome: Jesuit Historical Institute. Cariño, M. 2000. Historia de las Relaciones Hombre: Naturaleza en Baja California Sur 1500–1940. 2nd ed. UABCS, La Páz, México. Cariño, M. 1998. El porvenir de la Baja California está en sus mares. Vida y legado de Don Gastón J. Vives, primer maricultor de América. H. Congreso del Estado de Baja California Sur, La Paz. Cariño, M. and M. Monteforte. 1999. El primer emporio perlero sustentable del mundo. UABCS-SEP, México. Cartron, J.-L. E., G. Ceballos, and R. S. Felger (eds.). 2005. Biodiversity, Ecosystems, and Conservation in Northern Mexico. Oxford University Press, New York. Carvajal, M. A., E. Ezcurra, and A. Robles. 2004. The Gulf of California: natural resource concerns and the pursuit of a vision. Pp. 105–123 in L. K. Glover and S. A. Earle (eds.), Defying Ocean’s End: An Agenda for Action. Island Press, Washington, D. C. xxiv + 283 pp. Carvajal, M. A., A. Robles and E. Ezcurra. 2010. Ecological conservation in the Gulf of California. Pp. 219-250 in, R. Brusca (ed.), The Gulf of California. Biodiversity and Conservation. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Cavallero Carranco, J. 1966 [1668] The Pearl Hunters in the Gulf of California 1668. Transcribed, translated and annotated by W. Michael Mathes. Baja California Travel Series 4, Dawson’s Book Shop, Los Angeles. Chapman, C. E. 1921. A History of California: the Spanish Period. Macmillan, New York. Cinti, A., W. Shaw, R. Cudney-Bueno and M. Rojo. 2010. The unintended consequences of formal fisheries policies: Social disparities and resource overuse in a major fishing community in the Gulf of California, México. Marine Policy 34(2): 328-339. Cinti, A., W. Shaw, W. and J. Torre. 2010. Insights from the users to improve fisheries performance: Fishers' knowledge and attitudes on fisheries policies in Bahía de Kino, Gulf of California, México. Marine Policy 34(6): 1322–1334. Clavigero, F. J. 1937 [1789] The History of [Lower] California. Translated by Sara E. Lake and edited by A. A. Gray. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. Crosby, H. W. 1981. Last of the Californios. Copley Books, La Jolla, CA.

26 Davis, E. and E. Y. Dawson. 1945. The savage Seris of Sonora—1. Scientific Monthly 60(3): 193-202; II. Scientific Monthly 60(4): 261-268. De Francia, G. 1930 [1596] Memorial of Gonzalo de Francia. Pp. 218-220, in H. R. Wagner, Pearl Fishing Enterprises in the Gulf of California. Hispanic American Historical Review 10(2): 188-220. Del Barco, Miguel. 1768. Correcciones y adiciones a la historia o noticia de la California en su primera edición de Madrid, año de 1757. (edited by M. León-Portilla under the title Historia Natural y Crónica de la antigua California; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 1988; México, D.F.) Del Barco, Miguel. 1980 [ca. 1770-1780] The Natural History of Baja California. Translated by Froylán Tiscareno. Baja California Travel Series 43. Dawson’s Book Shop, Los Angeles. Dobie, J. F. 1985. Apache Gold and Yaqui Silver. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas. Donohue, J. A., SJ. 1969. After Kino: Jesuit Missions in Northwestern New Spain 1711-1767. Jesuit Historical Institute, Rome, Italy. Dozier, C. L. 1963. Mexico’s transformed northwest: The Yaqui, Mayo and Fuerte examples. Geographical Reviews 53:548–571. Duell, P. 1919. Mission Architecture as Exemplified in San Xavier del Bac. Arizona Archeological and Historical Society, Tucson, AZ. Duell, P. 1921. The Arizona-Sonora chain of missions. The Architect and Engineer 66 (July, September, December). Eckhart, G. B. and J. S. Griffith. 1975. Temples in the Wilderness: The Spanish Churches of Northern Sonora. Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, AZ. Englehardt, Z. OFM. 18999. The Franciscans in Arizona. Holy Childhood Indian School, Harbor Springs, Michigan. Ezcurra, E. 2003. Conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in Baja California. Pp. 279–296 in J. G. Nelson, J.C. Day, and L. Sportza (eds.). Protected Areas and the Regional Planning Imperative in North America. University of Calgary Press and Michigan State University Press, Calgary, Alberta. Ezcurra, E. 2007. Hornaday, Lumholtz, and the grandeur of nature. In “Science on Desert and Lava: A Pinacate Centennial, Part I,” Special Issue of Journal of the Southwest 49(2): 135–140. Ezcurra E., O. Aburto-Oropeza, L. Rosenzweig. 2009. Los riñones del mundo: ¿por qué debemos proteger los manglares de México? Investigacion Ambiental 1(2): 202-206. Ezcurra, E., L. Bourillón, A. Cantú, M. E. Martínez, and A. Robles. 2002. Ecological Conservation. Pp. 417–444 in T. Case, M. Cody, and E. Ezcurra (eds.). A New Island Biogeography of the Sea of Cortés. Oxford University Press, New York. Felger, R. S., M. B. Johnson and M. F. Wilson. 2001. The Trees of Sonora, Mexico. Oxford University Press, New York. Felger, R. S. and E. Joyal. 1999. The Palms (Areaceae) of Sonora, Mexico. Aliso 18(1):1-18. Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser. 1970. Seri use of Agave. Kiva 35: 159-167. Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser. 1973. Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in the Gulf of California: discovery of its nutritional value by the Seri Indians. Science 181:355–356. Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser. 1974. Columnar cacti in Seri culture. Kiva 39: 257-275. Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser. 1985. People of the Desert and Sea: Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians. University of Arizona Press. Tucson. 438 pp. (reprinted 1991). Felger, R. S. and M. B. Moser. 1987. Sea turtles in Seri Indian culture. Environment Southwest, Autumn, pp. 18–21. Felger, R. S., M. B. Moser, and E. W. Moser. 1980. Seagrasses in Seri Indian Culture. Pp. 260–276 in R. C. Phillips and C. P. McRoy (eds.), Handbook of Seagrass Biology, and Ecosystem Perspective. Garland STPM Press, New York. Fontana, B. L. 1961. Biography of a desert church: the story of Mission San Xavier del Bac. The Smoke Signal 3: 1- 24. Fontana, B. L. et al. 1962. Papago Indian Pottery. Monographs of The American Ethnological Society, No. 37. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA. Fontana, B. L. 1981. Of Earth and Little Rain: The Papago Indians. Northland Press, Flagstaff, AZ. Fontana, B. L. 1981. Pilgrimage to Magdalena. The American West 18(5): 40-45. Fontana, B. L. 1983. Pima and Papago: Introduction. Pp. 125-136 in, A. Ortiz (ed.), Vol. 10 Handbook of North American Indians. Fontana, B. L. 1987. Santa Ana de Cuiquiburitac: Pimería Alta’s northernmost mission. Journal of the Southwest 29: 133-159. Fontana, B. L. 1994. Entrada. The Legacy of Spain and Mexico in the United States. Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Tucson (AZ), and The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque (NM). 286 pp. Fontana, H. M. and B. L. Fontana. 2000. Trails to Tiburón, the 1894 and 1895 Field Diaries of W. J. McGee. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Forbes, R. H. 1952. Crabb’s filibustering expedition into Sonora, 1857. Arizona Silhouettes, Tucson, AZ.

27 Foster, M. S., D. R. Mitchell, G. Huckleberry and D. L. Dettman. 2008. Observations on the archaeology, paleoenvironment, and geomorphology of the Puerto Peñasco area of northern Sonora, Mexico. Kiva 73(3): 263-290. Foster, M. S., R. Riosmena-Rodríguez, D. L. Steller, and W. J. Woelkerling. 1997. Living rhodolith beds in the Gulf of California and their implications for paleoenvironmental interpretation; Pliocene carbonates and related facies flanking the Gulf of California, Baja California, Mexico. Special Paper–Geological Society of America 318:127–139. Fradkin, P.L. 1984. A river no more: The Colorado River and the West. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Fujita, H. and G. Poyatos de Paz. 1998. Settlement patterns on Espíritu Santo Island, Baja California Sur. Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly 34(4): 67-105. Gardea, A. A., L. T. Findley, J. A. Orozco-Avitia, N. Bañuelos, M. Esqueda and T. H. Huxman. 2012. Bacanora and sotol: so far, so close. Estudios Sociales 20, Segundo Número Especial: 149-168. Gehlbach, F. R. 1993. Mountain Islands and Desert Seas: A Natural History of the U.S.-Mexican Borderlands. 2nd Ed. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. Gehrels, G. E. and J. E. Spencer (eds). 1990. Geologic Excursions Through the Sonoran Desert Region, Arizona and Sonora. Field-Trip Guidebook for the 86th Annual Meeting of The Geological Society of America. Arizona Geological Survey, Special Paper 7. Gentry, H. S. 1942. Rio Mayo Plants. Carnegie Insittuion of Washington, Publ. No. 527. Washington, D.C. Gentry, H. S. 1963. The Warihio Indians of Sonora-Chihuahua: An Ethnographic Survey. Anthropological Papers, No. 63, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 186: 61-144, pls. 28-38. U.S. Printing Office, Washington,D.C. Gentry, H. S. 1982. Agaves of Continental North America. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Gerald, R. E. 1968. Spanish Presidios of the Late Eighteenth Century in Northern New Spain. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, NM. Gifford, E. W. 1946. Archaeology in the Punta Peñasco region, Sonora. American Antiquity 4: 215-221. Glenn, E. P., F. Zamora-Arroyo, P. L. Nagler, M. Briggs, W. Shaw, and K. Flessa. 2001. Ecology and conservation biology of the Colorado River delta, Mexico. Journal of Arid Environments 49:5–15. Goss, R. C. 1975. The churches of San Xavier, Arizona, and Caborca, Sonora, A comparative analysis. The Kiva 40(3): 165-2179. Greenberg, J. B. and C. Vélez-Ibáñez. 1993. Community dynamics in a time of crisis: An ethnographic overview of the upper Gulf. In T. R. McGuire and J. B. Greenberg (eds.), Maritime Community and Biosphere Reserve: Crisis and Response in the Upper Gulf of California. Occasional Paper No. 2, Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology. University of Arizona, Tucson. 169 pp. Griffith, J. 2011. A Border Runs Through It. Rio Nuevo Publishers, Tucson, AZ. Harrison, L. S. 1986. Tumacácori Museum. Pp. 425-439 in, Architecture in the Parks, National Historic Landmark Theme Study. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. Hartmann, W. K. 1989. Desert Heart. Chronicles of the Sonoran Desert. Fisher Books, Tucson. Hartmann, W. K. 2014. Searching for Golden Empires. Epic Cultural Collisions in Sixteenth-Century America. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Hayden, J. D. 1956. Notes on the archaeology of the central coast of Sonora, Mexico. Kiva 21: 19-22. Hayden, J. D. 1972. Hohokam petroglyphs of the Sierra Pinacate, Sonora and the Hohokam shell expeditions. Kiva 37(2): 74-83. Hayden, J. D. and J. W. Dykinga. 1998. The Sierra Pinacate. Southwest Center Series, University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1978a. The Outer Shores. Part 1. Ed Ricketts and John Steinbeck Explore the Pacific Coast. Mad River Press, Eureka, CA. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1978b. The Outer Shores. Part 2. Breaking Through. Mad River Press, Eureka, CA. Henderson, D. A., 1972. Men and Whales at Scammon’s Lagoon. Dawson’s Book Shop, Los Angeles. 313 pp. Hernandez, L. 1926. Datos Históricos Sobre los Filibusteros de 1857 en Caborca, Sonora, México. Mexico City. Hilton, J. W. 1947. Sonora Sketchbook. Macmillan, New York. Hinton, T. B. 1955. A survey of archaeological sites in the Altar Valley, Sonora. The Kiva 21(1/2): 1-12. Hodgson, W.C. 2000. Food Plants of the Sonoran Desert. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Hornaday, W. T. 1908. Campfires on Desert and Lava. [reprinted in 1985] University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Ives, R. L. 1950. Puerto Peñasco, Sonora. Journal of Geography 49:349–361. Ives, R. L. 1989. Land of Lava, Ash, and Sand. The Pinacate Region of Northwestern Mexico. Compiled by J. W. Byrkit, Edited by K. J. Dahood. The Arizona Historical Society, Tucson, AZ. Johnson, A. E. 1963-1964. The Trincheras Culture of northern Sonora. American Antiquity 29(2): 74-186. Johnson, J. B. 1950. The Opata: An Inland Tribe of Sonora. University of New Mexico Publications, Anthropology No. 6. Johnson, Jr., R. 2005. The Quiet Mountains: A Ten-Year Search for the Last Wild Trout of Mexico’s Sierra Madre Occidental. The Southwest Center Series, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

28 Jones, G. and P. Ward. 1998. Privatizing the commons: reforming the ejido and urban development in Mexico. International Journal Urban and Regional Research 22:76. Jordán, F. 1951. El otro México: Biografía de Baja California. Biografías Gandesa, México, D.F.

Karns, H. J. 1954. Luz de Tierra Incognita. Arizona Silhouettes, Tucson. [Karns’ English tranlation of Juan Mateo Manje’s diary by the same name.] Kessell, J. L. 1970. Mission of Sorrows: Jesuit Guevavi and the Pimas, 1691-1767. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Kessell, J. L. 1976. Friars, Soldiers, and Reformers: Hispanic Arizona and the Sonoran Mission Frontier, 1767-1856. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Kessell, J. L. 1980. The Missions of New Mexico Since 1776. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Kino, F. E. 1954. Kino Reports to Headquarters: Correspondence of Eusebio Francisco Kino, S. J. from New Spain to Rome. English translation and notes by Ernest J. Burrus, S. J. Jesuit Historical Institute, Rome. Kino, F. E. 1919, 1948. Kino’s Historical Memoir of Pimería Alta. Translated and edited by H. E. Bolton, 2 vols. Arthur H. Clark, Cleveland, OH. Reprinted as 2 vols. in one by University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Kino, E. F. 1971. Kino’s Biography of Francisco Javier Saeta., S. J. Translated and edited by Charles W. Polzer, with the original Spanish text edited by Ernest J. Burrus. Jesuit Historical Institute, Rome. Kira, G. S. 1999. The Unforgettable Sea of Cortez. Baja California’s Golden Age 1947-1977; the Life and Writings of Ray Cannon. Apples and Oranges, Valley Center, CA. Kroeber, Al. L. 1931. The Seri. Southwest Museum Papers 6: 1-60. Krutch, J.W. 1961. The Forgotten Peninsula: A Naturalist in Baja California. W. Sloane Associates, San Francisco (Reprinted 1986, with a Foreword by Ann Zwinger, University of Arizona Press, Tucson). Krutch, J. W. and E. Porter. 1957. Baja California and the Geography of Hope. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco. Lange, Y. and R. E. Ahlborn. 2004. Mission San Xavier del Bac. A Guide to Its Iconography. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Laylander, D. and J. D. Moore (eds.) 2006. The Prehistory of Baja California. University Press of Florida, Gainesville. León de la Luz, J. L., R. Coria-Benet, and J. Cansino. 1995. XI Reserva de la Bíosfera El Vizcaíno, Baja California Sur. Serie Listados Florísticos de México, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México. 29 pp. León-Portilla, M. 1989. Loreto, Capital de las Californias. Las cartas fundacionales de Juan María de Salvatierra. Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Centro Cultural Tijuana, FONATUR, México, D.F. León-Portilla, M. 1989. Cartografía y Cronicas de la Antigua California. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, DF. Leopold, A. 1966. A Sand County Almanac with Other Essays on Conservation from Round River. Oxford University Press, New York. Lockwood, F. C. 1934. Story of the Spanish Missions of the Middle Southwest. Fine Arts Press, Santa Ana, CA. Lockwood, F. C. 1934. With Padre Kino on the trail. University of Arizona Bulletin 5 (No. 2); Social Science Bulletin No. 5. University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Longinos Martínez, José. 1792. Diario (notes and observations of the Royal Botanical Expedition to Antigua and Alta California, published in Spanish as Diario de las expediciones a las Californias de José Longinos; Serie Textos Clásicos, Editorial Doce Calles, 1994; Madrid; and printed in English as Journal of José Longinos Martínez: Notes and observations of the naturalist of the botanical expedition in Old and New California and the south coast 1791–1792; John Howell Books, 1961; San Francisco. Lumholtz, C. 1912. New Trails in Mexico: An Account of One Year’s Exploration in North-Western Sonora, Mexico and South-Western Arizona, 1909-1910. T. Fisher Unwin, London (reprinted 1971, Rio Grande Press Glorieta, NM; reprinted 1990, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ). Marlett, C. M. 2000. A Desemboque childhood. Journal of the Southwest 42: 411-426. Marlett, S. A. 2008. The form and use of names in Seri. International Journal of American Linguistics 74: 47-82. Marmaduke, W. S. and R. J. Martynec (eds.). 1993. Shelltown and the Hind Site. A Study of Two Hohokam Craftsman Communities in Southwestern Arizona. Northland Research Inc., Flagstaff, AZ. Martínez, Maximino. 1947. Baja California: reseña histórica del territorio y su flora. Ediciones Botas, México, D.F. Mathes, W. M. 1968. Vizcaíno and Spanish expansion into the Pacific Ocean. California Historical Society, San Francisco, CA. Mathes, W.M. (ed). 1969. First from the Gulf to the Pacific: The diary of the Kino-Atondo Peninsular Expedition. Baja California Travel Series No. 16. Dawson’s Book Shop, Los Angeles, CA. Martin, P. L., D. Yetman, M. Fishbein, P. Jenkins, T. R. Van Devender and R. K. Wilson. 1998. Gentry’s Rio Mayo Plants: The Tropical Deciduous Forest and Environs of Northwest Mexico. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Martínez, Maximino. 1947. Baja California: reseña histórica del territorio y su flora. Ediciones Botas, México, D.F.

29 Marshall, L. G. and C. Blake. 2009. Land of Black Volcanoes and White Sands. The Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve. Environmental Education Exchange, Tucson, AZ. 130 pp. [available from the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, AZ] May, L. A. 2007. Pinacate Recon. Pp. 259-303 in, B. Broyles (ed.), Science on Desert and Lava: A Pinacate Cenennial, Part I. Journal of the Southwest 49(2). McCarty, K., OFM. 1981. A Spanish Frontier in the Enlightened Age, Franciscan Beginnings in Sonora and Arizona, 1767-1770. Academy of American Franciscan History, Washington, D. C. McGuire, R. H. and A. V. Howard. 1987. The structure and organization of Hohokam shell exchange. Kiva 52(2): 113- 146. McGuire, R. H. and M. Elisa Villalpando. 1989. Prehistory and the making of history in Sonora. Pp. 157-177 in, D. H. Thomas (ed.), Archaeology of the Spanish Borderlands. Vol. 1. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. McGuire, R. H. and M. B. Schiffer (eds.). 1982. Hohokam and Patayan: Prehistory of Southwestern Arizona. Academic Press, New York. McGuire, T. and J. Greenberg (eds.). 1993. Maritime Community and Biosphere Reserve: Crisis and Response in the Upper Gulf of California. University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Mitchell, D. R. and M. S. Foster 2000. Shell middens along the Sea of Cortez, Puerto Peñasco, Sonora, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 27: 27-41. Mitchell, D. R. and M. S. Foster. 2011. Salt, seashells, and shiny stones: prehistoric Hohokam resource exploitation in the Papaguería and northern Gulf of California. Journal Arizona Archaeology 1(2): 176-184. Mitchell, D. R. and M. S. Shackley. 1995. Classic Period Hohokam obsidian studies in southern Arizona. Journal of Field Archaeology 22: 291-304. Moorhead, M. L. 1975. The Presidio, Bastion of the Spanish Borderlands. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK. Moser, E. W. 1963. Seri bands. The Kiva 28:14–27. Moser, H. G., E. H. Ahlstorm, D. Kramer, and E. G. Stevens. 1974. Distribution and abundance of fish eggs and larvae in the Gulf of California. CalCOFI Report 17:112–128. Moser, M. R. 1970. Seri: from conception through infancy. Kiva 35: 201-210. Moser Marlett, C.M. 2014. Shells on a Desert Shore. Mollusks in the Seri World. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Moser, M. B. and S. A. Marlett (compilers). 2005. Comcáac quih yaza quih hant ihíip hac; Diccionario seri-español- inglés. Editorial UniSon, Hermosillo & Plaza y Váldés Editores, México, D.F. Munro Palacio, G. 1994. Historia de la región de Puerto Peñasco. CEDO News (Puerto Peñasco, Sonora) 6:20–25. Nabhan, G. P. 2000. Cultural dispersal of plants and reptiles to the Midriff Islands of the Sea of Cortés: integrating indigenous human dispersal agents into island biogeography. Journal of the Southwest 42: 545-558. Nentwig, J., SJ. 1980. Rudo Ensayo: A Description of Sonora and Arizona in 1764. Translated by Albert F. Pradeau and Robert R. Rasmussen. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Ortiz, A. (ed.) 1983. Southwest. Vol. 10 of Handbook of North American Indians, W. C. Sturtevant (gen. ed.). Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Pickens, B. and G. A. Grant. 1993. The Missions of Northern Sonora. A 1935 Field Documentation. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Pitt, J., D. Luecke, M. Cohen, E. Glenn, and C. Valdés-Casillas. 2000. Two nations, one river: managing ecosystem conservation in the Colorado River Delta. Natural Resources Journal 40:819–864. Pfefferkorn, I. SJ. 1949. Sonora: A Description of the Province. Translated by Theodore E. Treutlein. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Polzer, Jr., C. W. 1982. Kino Guide II, A Life of Eusebio Francisco Kino, S.J., Arizona’s First Pioneer, and A Guide to His Missions and Monuments. Southwestern Mission Research Center, Tucson, AZ. Polzer, Jr., C. W. 1998. Kino. A Legacy. His Life, His Works, His Missions, His Monuments. Jesuit Fathers of Southern Arizona, Tucson, AZ. Poole, S. P. 1977. Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol, 1531-1797. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Ricard, R. 1966. The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico. Translated by Lesley B. Simpson. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Robichaux, R. H. and D. A. Yetman (eds.). 2000. The Tropical Deciduous Forest of Alamos: Biodiversity of a Threatened Ecosystem in Mexico. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. Robles, A., and M. A. Carvajal. 2001. The sea and fishing. Pp. 293–300 in P. Robles-Gil, E. Ezcurra, and E. Mellink (eds.), The Gulf of California. A World Apart. Agrupación Sierra Madre, México, D.F. Robles Gil, P. 1996a. Mexican Diversity of Cultures. 2nd ed. CEMEX, Mexico, D.F. [text by Víctor Manuel Toledo; foreword by José Sarukhán]. Robles Gil, P. 1996b. Mexican Diversity of Fauna. 2nd ed. CEMEX, Mexico, D.F. [text by Gerardo Ceballos and Fulvio Eccardi; foreword by Russell A. Mittermeier]. Robles Gil, P. 1996c. Mexican Diversity of Flora. 2nd ed. CEMEX, Mexico, D.F. [text by Rodolfo Dirzo; foreword by Peter Raven].

30 Robles Gil, P., E. Ezcurra, and E. Mellink (eds.). 2001. The Gulf of California. A World Apart. Agrupación Sierra Madre. Mexico, D.F. Robinson, W. J. 1963. Excavations at San Xavier del Bac, 1958. The Kiva 29(2): 35-57. Robinson, W. J. 1976. Mission Guevavi: excavations in the Convent. The Kiva 42(2): 135-175. Roca, P. M. 1967. Paths of the Padres through Sonora: an Illustrated History and Guide to its Spanish Churches. Arizona Pioneer’s Historical Society, Tucson, AZ. Roca, P. M. 1979. Spanish Jesuit Churches in Mexico’s Tarahumara. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Rodger, K. A. (ed.). 2006. Breaking Through: Essays, Journals, and Travelogues of Edward F. Ricketts. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. San Miguel, E. 2011. Mission San Xavier. A Story of Saints and Angels, Art and Artists. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum Press, Tucson, AZ. Shackley, M. S. 1988. Sources of archaeological obsidian in the Southwest: an archaeological, petrological, and geochemical study. American Antiquity 53: 752-772. Shackley, M. S. 1995. Sources of archaeological obsidian in the greater American Southwest: an update and quantitative analysis. American Antiquity 60: 531-551. Shackley, M. S. and D. B. Tucker. 2001. Limited prehistoric procurement of Sand Tank obsidian, southwestern Arizona. Kiva 66: 345-374. Sauer, C. and D. Brand. 1931. Prehistoric settlements of Sonora, with special reference to Cerros de Trincheras. University of California Publications in Geography 5 (No. 3): 67-148. Sheridan, T. E. 1988. Where the Dove Calls: The Political Ecology of a Peasant Corporate Community in Northwestern Mexico. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Sheridan, T. E. (ed.) 1999. Empire of Sand: The Seri Indians and the Struggle for Spanish Sonora, 1645 – 1803. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. Slaughter, M. C., D. B. Tucker and A. Lascaux (eds.). 2000. Trade Corridors and Ethnic Boundaries: An Archaeological Survey of 12,089 Acres Along the Growler and San Cristobal Washes on the Barry M. Goldwater Range in Southwestern Arizona. Cultural Resource Report No. 98-181, SWCA Environmental Consultants, Tucson, AZ. Spicer, E. H. 1962. Cycles of Conquest. The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United Staes on Indians of the Southwest. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Spicer, E. H. 1980. The Yaquis: A Cultural History. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Steinbeck, J. 1951. The Log from the Sea of Cortez. Viking Press, New York. Steinbeck, J. and E. F. Ricketts. 1941. The Sea of Cortez. A Leisurely Journal of Travel and Research. Viking Press, New York. Stone, C. L. 1986. Deceptive Desolation: Prehistory of the Sonoran Desert in West Central Arizona. Arizona State Office of the Bureau of Land Management, Phoenix, AZ. Sykes, G. 1937. The Colorado Delta. Carnegie Institution of Washington, American Geographical Society of New York, Baltimore. 193 pp. Sykes, L. 1968. Seismological evidence for transform faults, sea-floor spreading and continental drift. Pp. 120–150 in R. A. Phinney (ed.), History of the Earth’s Crust, A NASA Symposium. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Treutlein, T. E. (translator and editor). 1965. Missionary in Sonora: The Travel Reports of Joseph Och, J. J., 1755- 1767. California Historical Society, San Francisco CA. Vernon, E. W. 2002. Las Misiones Antiguas. The Spanish Missions of Baja California, 1683-1855. Viejo Press, Santa Barbara, CA. Wagner, H. R. 1929. Spanish Voyages to the Northwest Coast of America in the Sixteenth Century. California Historical Society, San Franscisco. Wagner, H. R. 1930. Pearl fishing enterprises in the Gulf of California. Hispanic American Historical Review 10(2): 188-220. Wagner, H. W. 1924. The voyage of Francisco de Ulloa. California Historical Society Quarterly 3(4): 307-383. West, R. C. 1993. Sonora. Its Geographical Personality. University of Texas Press, Austin. Whiffen, M. 1970. Review of Paths of the Padres Through Sonora: An Illustrated History and Guide to Its Spanish Churches, by Paul M. Roca. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 29(No. 2): 201-202. Whitmore, R. C., R. C. Brusca, J. L. León de la Luz, P. González-Zamorano, R. Mendoza-Salgado, E. S. Amador- Silva, G. Holguin, F. Galván-Magaña, P. A. Hastings, J.-L. E. Cartron, R. S. Felger, J. A. Seminoff, and C. C. McIvor. 2005. The ecological importance of mangroves in Baja California Sur: Conservation implications for an endangered ecosystem. Pp. 298–333 in J.-L. E. Cartron, G. Ceballos, and R. S. Felger (eds.), Biodiversity, Ecosystems and Conservation in Northern Mexico. Oxford University Press, New York. Williams, J. S. 1986. San Augustín del Tucson: A Vanished Mission Community of the Pimería Alta. The Smoke Signal 47: 112-128. Williams, J. S. 1986. The Presidio of Santa Cruz de Terenate: A forgotten fortress of southern Arizona. The Smoke Signal 48: 129-148. Williams, J. S. 1988. Fortress Tucson: architecture and the art of war (1775-1856). The Smoke Signal 50: 168-187.

31 Woodward, A. 1936. A shell bracelet manufactory. American Antiquity 2: 117-125. Woodward, A., S. DeLong, L. B. Miller, G. A. Grant, and B. Pickens. 1993. The Missions of Northern Sonora. A 1935 Field Documentation. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Yensen, N. P. 2001. Halófitas del Golfo de California y Sus Usos (Halophytes of the Gulf of California and their Uses). Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora. Yetman, D. 1996. Sonora. An Intimate Geography. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Yetman, D. 2002. Guarijíos of the Sierra Madre: the Hidden People of Northwestern Mexico. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. Yetman, D. 2007. The Great Cacti. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. Zwinger, A. H. 1983. A Desert Country Near the Sea: A Natural History of the Cape Region of Baja California. Harper and Row, New York.

32