A CRITICAL STUDY OP THE EXPERIENCE UNIT IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OP ERIE COUNTY, NEW YORK
Dissertation
Presented In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University
By Anthony Milanovlch, B,S., M.S. The Ohio State University 1952
Approved by*
Adviser AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer takes this opportunity to express his sin cere appreciation to the many people who helped to make this study possible. Special thanks are due his adviser, Dr. Harold Alberty, for his wise counsel, constructive criticism, and understanding attitude. The writer is also deeply in debted to the other members of his committee, Dr. Lowry W. Harding and Dr. Ward G. Reeder, for cooperation, encourage ment, and practioal suggestions. The writer owes a debt of gratitude to the teachers, principals, supervisors, and su perintendents of Erie County, New York, who so willingly participated in this study; and to the jury of experts who assisted in validating the criteria. Finally, grateful ac knowledgment is due the writer’s wife, Betty, for constant inspiration and for the typing of the manuscript.
i 803142 ii TABLE OB’ CONTENTS c h a p t e r p a g e I.-THE NEED FOR A MORE VITAL EDUCATION ...... 1 THE STUDY, DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, AMD RELATED STUDIES ...... 9 THE S T U D Y ...... 9
Setting of the study...... 9 Purpose of the study...... 9 Importance of the study ...... 10 Method of the study ...... 10 Limitations of the study...... 12 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ...... 12
RELATED STUDIES ...... 13 The New York City Experiment...... 14
A Study by the New York State Education De partment...... 15
ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ...... 16 II. TEE ROLE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN A DEMO CRATIC SOCIETY...... 18 NATURE OF A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY...... 18
A Democratic Society...... 19
A Democratic Personality...... 23
ROLE OF THE ELEMENTARY S C H O O L ...... 28
Responsibilities of Our Schools ...... 28
The Changing Role of the Elementary School. . 35 SUMMARIZING PRINCIPLES...... 48 iii III. THE NATURE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILD AND OF TEE LEARNING PROCESS...... 50 NATURE OF THE CHILD...... 50 Erroneous Views Regarding the Child. . . . 52 The True Nature of the C h i l d ...... 55 Basic Needs of the Child ...... 59 NATURE OF LEARNING ...... 63 Older Views of Learning...... 64 Theories of Learning ...... 65 Modern Views of Learning ...... 73 Characteristics, Conditions, and Princi ples of L e a r n i n g ...... 76 PRINCIPLES OF CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT . 83 SUMMARISING PRINCIPLES ...... 94 IV. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS OF UNIT TEACHING IN THEIR HISTORICAL SETTING ...... 98 GROWTH OF' THE PHILOSOPHY UNDERLYING EXPERIENCE UNIT TEACHING ...... 98 European Teachers and Philosophers.... 98 American Influences...... 100 THE BEGINNINGS OF UNIT TEACHING...... 114 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS OH' UNIT TEACHING.... 118 The Trend Toward Unit T e a c h i n g ...... 118
Present Concepts of Unit Teaching...... 1 2 1 Classification of Units ...... 129 iv V. DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE EXPERIENCE UNIT ...... 139 THE PROCEDURE USED TO DEVELOP AND REFINE THE CRITERIA ...... 139 Development and Defense of the Original Criteria...... 139 Validation and Refinement of the Criteria...... 140 DEFENSE AND REFINEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL CRITERIA IN LIGHT OF THE JURY RESPONSES . . 141 THE REVISED SET OF CRITERIA ...... 173 VI. A SURVEY OF THE CURRICULAR PRACTICES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCPIOOLS OF ERIE COUN T Y ...... 176 THE PROCEDURES USED TO OBTAIN THE DATA. . . . 176 The Questionnaire M e t h o d ...... 176 The Interview and Observation Method. . . . 177 INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DATA ...... 179 VII. EVALUATION OF THE CURRICULAR PRACTICES IN• LIGHT OF THE ESTABLISHED CRITERIA ...... 231
VIII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 2 4 5 CONCLUSIONS ...... REC 0 MMEN DAT IO N S ...... 248- BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 255 APFENDIX...... 263 AUTOBIOGRAPHY ...... 277 v LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. s u m m a r y OP THIRTY-THREE JURY RESPOUSES ON ALL CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE EXPERIENCE UNIT. . 170 II. DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES TAUGHT BY THE TEACHERS
WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE...... 180 III. YEARS OP COLLEGE PREPARATION OP THE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 181 IV. YEARS OP LAST SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF TEE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE...... 182 V. YEARS OF ELEMENTARY' TEACHING EXPERIENCE OP THE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE. . . . 183 VI. NUMBER OP PUPILS IN THE SCHOOLS WHICH
PARTICIPATED IN THE STUDY...... 184 VII- NUMBER OP PUPILS PER ROOM OP THE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 186 VIII. DISTRIBUTION OP GRADES VISITED BY THE WRITER . . 187 IX. SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OP INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND ‘WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM. Ill— TYPES OP CURRICULAR ORGAN I NATIONS...... 189 X. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM
PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM IV--DETERMINATION OF SEQUENCE ...... 193 XI. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM- Vi PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM V--PROVISION FOR INDIVID UAL DIFFERENCES...... 196 XII. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM VI— SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES BASED UPON DIRECT EXPERIENCE ...... 199 XIII. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER’S RESPONSES ON ITEM VII— DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTERISTICS ...... 202 XIV. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS’ AND WRITER’S RESPONSES ON ITEM VIII— SELECTION OF MA TERIALS AND ACTIVITIES ...... 205. XV. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM IX— ORGANIZATION OF SUB JECT MATTER ...... 208 XVI. SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM X--TIME IN WHICH CURRICU
LUM IS CENTERED...... 2 g>i XVII. SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM PARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S vil
RESPONSES ON ITEM XI— EMPHASIS UPON ALL-ROUND
DEVELOPMENT ...... 214
XVJII• SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COM
PARISON OP INTERVIEWED TEACHERS’ AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM XII— USE OF COMMUNITY RE
SOURCES ...... 217
XIX. SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS’ RESPONSES AND COM
PARISON OP INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER’S
• RESPONSES ON ITEM XIII--METHOD OP EVALUATION. .220
XX. SUMMARY OP ALL UNIT TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND
COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS’ AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM XIV,ABC--3E-
QUENCE OF U N I T S ...... 223 XXI. LENGTHS OF UNITS AS REPORTED ON ITEM XIV,D
OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE...... 225 XXII. TIME DEVOTED DAILY TO UNIT TEACHING AS RE
PORTED ON ITEm XIV,E OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE . . .227 XXIII. CONDITIONS WHICH INTERFERE WITH CARRYING OUT
THE BEST PROGRAM AS REPORTED ON ITEM XV
OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 2 2.9 A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EXPERIENCE UNIT IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF ERIE COUNTY, NEW YORK
CHAPTER I
THE NEED FOR A MORE VITAL EDUCATION
Half a century ago John Dewey,**- the foremost educator
of our times, called attention to the shortcomings of the
"sitting and listening" school. Approximately thirty years
later Rugg and Shumaker2 also pointed out the lag in educa
tional practice. This lag between theory and practice In
education still exists and Is recognized by educators today.
"Most educators are firmly convinced that the schools are
teaching ideas and attitudes which clearly are out of date
and by methods which are behind the times."®
The "slingshot" education of the past few decades is not adequate for the atomic age in which we live. Just as the kerosene lamp has been replaced by the electric light, and the horse and buggy by the automobile, the education of thirty years ago must be replaced by a new education, if it is to meet the present needs of American life. As Kilpat
1 John Dewey, The School and Soclety (Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1899), p. 51.
2 Harold Rugg and Ann Shumaker, The Child-Centered School (Yonkers, New York: World Book Company, 1928), pp. 11-18.
® Harold Alberty, et al.. Let * s Look at the Attacks on the Schools (Columbus: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1951), p. 116. 1 2 rick‘d explains, the situation facing education today dif fers greatly from what formerly prevailed. We are faced with new social problems, both domestic and international, which are more numerous, more difficult, and more urgent than ever before. Science is continually suggesting new possibilities of control over nature. These possibilities for improving life should be realized. Modern study has provided new insights into child nature and into the learn ing process. These differences demand that education must change both its aims and its teaching procedures. No one would deny that our schools have been improving slowly and steadily since the turn of the century. However, they are neither good enough> nor have they changed fast enough. Educational theory is still years in advance of practice. The so-called "progressive” methods to which the public sometimes objects have really not been tried out to any great extent. Therefore, it is quite likely that the blame for many of the shortcomings of the public school has been unjustly placed upon the use of progressive methods. In the opinion of the writer, education has improved in proportion to the extent that it has Introduced sound, pro gressive practices.
The statement is often made among educators that the best teaching is done in the elementary school, and that
jf .... William H. Kilpatrick, nAmerican Education and Amer ican Life," New Republlo. 122:12, March 20, 1950. 3 the quality becomes progressively poorer as we advance up the educational ladder, being the poorest at the graduate level. This kind of generalization cannot be proved; fur thermore, it is dangerous in that it is likely to produce a false complacency on the part of the people associated with elementary schools and to prevent needed improvement• There are indeed many excellent schools in our country, and su perior teachers can be found in the most remote and rural schools. Nevertheless, there is always great need for and possibility of improving the elementary schools. Caswell concurs with this point of view when he states that*
The gap between best practice and average practice in elementary education is very great, and between the best and the poorest it is tremendous. Closing this gap presents a task of major proportions.5
Most of our elementary schools are still subject-mat ter-centered; they emphasize the mere acquisition of iso lated facts and skills.® Little attention is paid to the needs, problems, and interests of the children by the cur riculum designers. Furthermore, information and skills are seldom taught in meaningful social situations and are rarely related to the daily experiences of the pupils.
In the following paragraph Rugg ably describes the type of school suited for our modern society:
5 riollis L. Caswell, Education In the Elementary School (New York: American Book Company, 1942), p. 2.
6 See J. Paul Leonard and Alvin C. Eurlch (Editors), An Evaluation of Modern Education (New York: D. Appleton- Century Company, 1942), p. 33. 4 Out of fifty years of vigorous thought and exper imentation we have come to conceive the school as an enterprise In living; hence what was narrowly and for biddingly called in the old education the curriculum becomes in the new education *the life and program of the school.* Every aspect of a truly vital education partakes of life Itself; the school becomes a school of living . . . the curriculum becomes the very stream of dynamic activities that constitute the life of the young people and their elders# Thus the new school is a social as well as a personal enterprise in living.”
One reason that practice lags so far behind our knowl edge in elementary education is the fact that elementary education is one of the most widely and continuously inves tigated fields of educational research. In the Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Gray8 reports that 2,700 scientific studies of reading, most of them conducted in elementary schools, had been made by 1948. Besides the extensive re search dealing with the most effective methods of teaching the various subjects, many studies have been made relating to the nature of the elementary school child and the condi tions under which he grows and learns best.
In light of the findings in the field of educational research, some elementary schools have switched their empha sis from book learning and memorization to a more vital edu cation. They emphasize the building of proper attitudes and habits, cooperation, creative self-expression, purposeful activity, cultivation of individuality, teaoher-pupil plan-
1 Harold Rugg, Foundations for American Educ at ion (Yonkers, New Yorks World Book Company, 1947), p. 650.
8 Walter S. Monroe (Editor), Encyclopedia of Educa tional Research (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1950), p. 965. 5 ning, and learning through direct experience. In addition, these schools stress rich present-day living and acquaint ance with a changing world. Skills and abilities are taught In a functional manner, with the curriculum being organized around broad problems which grow out of the social activities of the children. The daily program provides for large, flexible blocks of time, and all types of experiences are utilized: audio-visual aids, community resources, etc.
The Experience Unit. It is the writer*s belief that, in light of what we have discovered about the nature, needs, and problems of children; the learning process, the nature of a democratic society, and the best methods of teaching, the Experience Unit is a type of curricular organization which provides a more vital education for either the ele mentary or the secondary school. Gertrude Noar expresses her approval of the Experience Unit thus:
The experience unit, cooperatively planned by the pupils and the teacher around a center of interest chosen because the learners are concerned with it, has become the most promising element in curriculum devel opment.9
In a recent article Alberty highly recommends the Ex perience Unit. He proposes that the high school break sharply with the traditional type of curriculum and recom mends that it turn to the elementary school for an effective
9 Gertrude Noar, Freedom to Live and Learn (Philadel phia: Franklin Publishing Company, 1948) , p. 2. 6 curric-ular organization.10 H© describes this organization very clearly as follows: In the better schools [elementaryj a large part of the school day is given over to the comprehensive unit of work, which draws upon all pertinent resources, regardless of so-called subjects or fields of knowl edge. For example, the group may start with the prob lem of getting to school in the morning and plan a study of transportation which calls for trips to vari ous places in the community, library study of the evo lution of transportation, understanding of the rise of technology, and the like. It is not difficult to see that learning of this sort has vitality, because it touches the daily lives of the children. It is also obvious that such a unit Involves language, literature, social science, science, mathematics, the arts, and possibly all the subjects thought to be essential in the elementary curriculum. This does not mean, of course, that time may not be set aside for leisure reading, for drill In terms of demonstrated needs, or for the development of special skills.H
A careful analysis of the so-called "activity unit," which Is also organized around direct, first-hand experi ence, reveals that It is very similar to the Experience Unit.
These terms are used synonymously by Macomberl2 and by
Yoakam and Simpson.I5 Many of the people affiliated with the Progressive Education Association held the view that "a unit [activity unltj of work Is an activity Initiated by some pupil or pupils to meet a need that Is brought about
1U Harold Alberty, "A Proposal for Reorganizing the HIgh-School Curriculum on tlie Basis of a Core Program," Progressive Education. 28:57-61, November, 1950. 11 Ibid., p. 59.
12 Freeman G. Macomber, Guiding Child Development In the Elementary School (New York: The American Book Company, 1941)“, p. 18. 13 Gerald A. Yoakam and Robert G. Simpson, Modern Methods and Techniques of Teaching (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949), p. 38. by some situation; while the California State Department of Education, one of the foremost advocates of the activity program, describes an activity (activity unit) as . . . any large learning situation brought about by the strong purpose of a child or group of children to achieve a worthy end desirable to themselves, which, like those situations in life through which we are most truly educated, draws upon a large number of different kinds of experiences and many fields of knowledge.15 All, or many, of the criteria of the Experience Unit, as stated in CHAPTER V of this study, have been implemented in the curricular practices of the schools which have gained recognition for their educational reforms. Some of the public school systems best known for their inauguration of the activity program are: Berkeley, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, California; Denver, Colorado; Winnetka, Illinois; Grand Rapids, Michigan; Montclair, New Jersey; Bronxville, Manhasset, New York City, Roslyn, and Scarsdale, New York; Raleigh, North Carolina; Shaker Heights, Ohio; Seattle, Washington; and Norfolk, Virginia V s Several careful studies have been made to evaluate the trends in modern education, many of which have been sug gested by the activity or Experience Unit. In An Evaluation of M odern Education, 3.54 such studies are reviewed. The
Loren.a B. Stretch, The Curriculum and the Child (Minne a p o 1 i s: Educ a t ion a 1 Pub li s he r s, Inc . , i 959’}', ” p. 71. 15 California Curriculum Commission, Teachers* Guide to Child Development in .the Primary Grades (Sacramento: State" Department of Education, 1950"), p. 17V”'
-Ls J. 7/ayne V/rightstone, Appraisal of Newer Elementary School Practices (New York: Bureau of Publications*, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1958), pp. 14-26. 8 reviews show that, in practically every study and in almost
every skill, children in schools which have adopted the newer practices are slightly or noticeably superior to chil dren in the traditional schools. The children in the more modern schools have proved their superiority in knowledge and their use of it. They are more able to interpret Tacts and to make generalizations• Xt also appears that the mod ern schools are much more eTfective in developing such cit izenship qualities as leadership, self-initiative, cooper ativeness, civic beliefs, and critical thinking.^
Wrightstone, who has contributed much to the appraisal of newer educational practices, summarizes his findings as follows: Provided the major objectives of elementary edu- cation— or the selected aspects which were defined and evaluated in this study— are accepted as desirable pur poses of the learning process, the conclusion from the comprehensive evidence collected is that the practices in experimental schools are conducive to more compre hensive growth in pupils than the practices in conven tional schools.18
The evidence gathered by Wrightstone and other educa tors points to the validity of the educational theory and principles upon which the newer-type practices are based. This evidence also indicates that the Experience Unit is a desirable form of curricular organization for the elementary
school, since the experimental schools adopted the character istics of the Experience Unit to a greater or lesser degree.
J-'/ Leonard and Eurich, o£.* clt.. pp. 280-81, 284.
18 Wrightstone, o£. clt.. pp. 210 . . 9 THE STUDY, DEFINITIONS OF TERMS, AMD REL ATED STUDIES
THE STUDY
Setting of the studj. This study was conducted In Erie
County, New York, which Is located in the Y/estern part of
New York State. Erie County has r. population of 899,258;
in population it is the fifth largest county in New York
and the fourteenth in the United States. Its population 19 exceeds that of thirteen states. There are 3 cities, 16 villages, and 25 towns (townships) in Erie County. The public schools are directed by 3 citjr superintendents, 6 village superintendents, and 4 supervisory district super intendents. Ten of the villages and the 25 towns come under the jurisdiction of the supervisory districts. Excluding the teachers of Buffalo, there are approximately 500 ele mentary teachers in the cities and villages, and there are approximately 700 elementary teachers in the supervisory districts. Because an intensive survey was being carried on in the Buffalo schools at the time this study was made, V* those schools did not participate in the study.
Pnilpo_se_ oj? the_ study. The purpose of this study was fourfold: (l) to arrive at some suitable characteristics of the Experience Unit; (2) to determine the extent to which the Experience Unit Is used in the public elementary schools
^"9 News itT em in the Buffalo Evening News, August 15, 1951. 10 of Erie County, New York; (3) to reveal some of the condi tions which interfere with the improvement of the elementary schools; and (4) to make recommendations for the most ef fective use of the Experience Unit in the public elementary schools of Erie County, New York.
Importance of the study. More and more educators are becoming aware of the advantages of the Experience Unit as a type of curricular organization for the elementary school.
Evidence of this fact can be seen in the Increasing Interest expressed In the Experience Unit in college classes and by the leaders of our public schools. In spite of the general
Interest manifested in this type of curricular organization, the characteristics of the Experience Unit are still vague.
There Is a real need for the establishment of some common characteristics. So far as the writer has been able to learn, no studies have been made to determine the extent to which the Experience Unit is being employed In our elemen tary schools. Furthermore, there have not been sufficient studies made to reveal the obstacles which interfere with the Improvement of our elementary schools.
Method of the study. There were four major steps in the procedure of this study: (1) formulating and validating the criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit; (2) formu lating a questionnaire on curricular practices; (3) sending the questionnaire to elementary teachers in Erie County; and (4) Interviewing and observing the teaching of some of the teachers who returned the questionnaire. 11 In order to develop valid criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit, the writer surveyed the available litera ture on the subject. Those characteristics of the Experience
Unit upon which there seemed to be the greatest agreement among writers were utilized In developing the original cri teria. These criteria were then supported In terms of the factors which the writer believes to be basic In a consid eration of the most effective curricular organizations the nature of a democratic society, the role of the elementary school, the nature of the elementary school child, and the nature of the learning process. To validate the criteria further, they were submitted to a group of thirty-three edu cators who have had wide and practical experience in the field of elementary education. In light of the original criteria and the judgment and suggestions of the jury the final set of criteria was evolved.
On the basis of the final set of criteria, a question naire on curricular practices was prepared and sent to 156 elementary teachers selected at random from the faculty lists supplied by the superintendents of schools in Erie County. The questionnaire served two purposes: (1) to show the ways In which, and the extent to which, the cur ricular practices of the teachers are consistent with the criteria of the Experience Unit; and (2) to reveal some of the factors which prevent more extensive use of the Experi ence Unit from being carried on. The questionnaire results are presented in CHAPTER YI. 12 Xn order to increase the reliability of the question naire data, the writer interviewed four out of every eleven
teachers who returned the Questionnaire. In all, the class
rooms of 48 of the 132 teachers who responded were visited,
and interviews with these teachers were held. After inter viewing each teacher, the writer responded to the major items on the questionnaire. The teachers* responses to these items
and the writer* s are compared in TABLES IX through XX in CHAPTER VI.
L imi t at ions of the .study. The questionnaire part of
this study is subject to the limitations inherent in the
questionnaire method. The teachers who responded were un doubtedly sincere and conscientious in their responses; nevertheless, the writer’s interviews gave evidence that there was a tendency on their part to overrate themselves on
some items. It is quite likely that the items were not always interpreted as intended by the writer. Many of the limitations of the questionnaire method were overcome by the interview and observation method; however, there was at least one limitation to this method. In some instances the writer was unable to observe the classrooms in session for any extended period of time.
DEEH':ITIOHS OR TERMS
Elementary schools. Throughout this study "elementary schools" refer to grades 1 through 6.
Primary grades and primary teachers. "Primary grades" 13 include grades 1 through. 3, and the "primary teachers"
comprise the teachers of these grades.
Intermediate grades and intermediate teachers. The
"intermediate grades" denote grades "intermediate teachers" are those who teach these grades. City and village^ teachers. The "city and village teachers" include those who teach in the cities and villages which come under the supervision of the city and village superintendents. Supervisory district teachers. The teachers who are employed in the supervisor?/ districts and come under the direction of the four district superintendents are desig nated as "supervisory district teachers" in this study. Criteria and. characteristics. The terms "criteria" and "characteristics" are used synonymously in this study. Experience Unit. In this study an "Experience Unit" refers to a series of educative experiences organized around the problems, needs, purposes, or interests of the learners. It emphasizes the learners’ experiences, draws upon all per tinent resources, and is developed cooperatively b?/- the teacher and pupils. RELATED STUDIES The writer was unable to find any studies directly re lated to this one. So far as he was able to learn, no studies concerning the characteristics or use of the Experi ence Unit have been made. In a sense, the studies reviewed 14 by Leonard and Eurich might be considered as related to this study, since the forward-looking schools which these writers discuss in their book have experimented with many of the educational practices suggested by the Experience Unit. Leonard, Eurich, and Wrightstone have been primarily con cerned with an evaluation of the modern practices. The con clusions reached by these authors have been referred to in the introductory pages of this study. The New York City Experiment. Since the activity move ment and Experience Unit teaching are so closely related, it seems appropriate that the experiment with the activity pro gram in New York City2*-* should be considered as a related study. As previously noted, there have been several experi ments with the activity program. The one carried on in New York City was one of the largest and best known of such ex periments . The Elementary Division of the New York Citjr schools launched the activity program in 1955. It extended over a period of six years, and seventy schools participated in it. The program emphasized teacher-pupil planning of subject matter and activities, experiential learning, activities based upon the needs and interests of the pupils, the meeting of individual differences, and construction and creative ex pression in the arts and crafts. 2 0 For a detailed account of the New York City program, see: J. Cayce Morrison, The. Activity Program: A Curricu- l^nn Experiment (Albany: New York State 'Department of Educa tion, 1941)'. 15 It also stressed unit teaching, the socialized proce dure, flexible daily schedules, self-control rather than imposed control, parent cooperation, the wide use of audio visual aids, and a variety of forms and records of work (logs, diaries, case histories, anecdotal records, etc.). The program was, in reality, a reaction against textbook mastery, teacher domination, and formal recitation.2-*- Continuous and extensive evaluation revealed that, in comparison with the conventional type school, the activity program v/as as efficient in developing children’s mastery of fundamental knowledges and skills, and it was more effec tive in developing children’s attitudes, interests, social behavior, ability to think, and ability to work on their own initiative. It was recommended that the program be continued and extended to the other schools in New York City. A Study joy the N e w Yojrk State Education Department. A study conducted by the Bureau of Curriculum Development, Division of Elementary Education, of the New York State Edu cation Department 5 2 is important and is, in part, related to this one. In March, 1948, a questionnaire was sent to all the elementary school principals and supervisors of New York. The purpose of the questionnaire was to discover the curric- 21 Xbid.T~PP. 19-21. 2 2 II. George Murphy, Curriculum Projects and Practices. Elementary School, General Curriculum Leaflet I ifAlbany: Division of Elementary Education, New York State Education Department, 1950). 16 ulum projects under way, the curriculum development practices In use, the facilities available to teachers for curriculum work, and the factors which hinder curriculum development. Of particular interest in this study are the obstacles to curriculum development. A total number of 588 principals and supervisors, representing 217 superintendencies, replied to the Questionnaire sent out by the Bureau of Curriculum Development. These respondents indicated ten obstacles to curriculum change. They are arranged according to the fre quency with which they were mentioned by the principals and superintendents: (1 ) lack of time on the part of teachers, principals, and supervisors; (2 ) lack of materials and funds; (3) traditional attitudes and habits; (4) inertia, or lack of concern on the part of teachers; (5) lack of leadership; (6 ) restrictive courses of study, high school or college re quirements, or Regents* examinations; (7) staff (shortage, turnover, and poor training); (8 ) conservative public; (9 ) large classes and lack of space; and (1 0 ) lack of coordina tion, plan, policy, or philosophy. 2 3 ORGANIZATION-OF THE STUDY CHAPTERS 11 and III are concerned 'with the basic phi losophy underlying the Experience Unit. CHAPTER II discusses THE ROLE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL H! A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY, and CHAPTER III deals with THE NATURE OE THE ELEMENTARY "23" Ibid., p . 34. SCHOOL CHILD AMD OP THE LEARNING PROCESS. CHAPTER IV, en titled ITODERN DEVELOHvlENTS OP UNIT TEACHING IN THEIR HIS TORICAL SETTING, traces the development of Experience Unit teaching. CHAPTER V, DEVELOHHITT AND REFINEMENT OP CRITERI POR EVALUATING THE EXPERIENCE UNIT, presents the original criteria, the responses and comments of the jury of experts who judged them, and the revised criteria in light of the jury responses and comments. CHAPTER VI, A SURVEY OP THE CURRICULAR PRACTICES IN THE EL “IE -NTARY SCHOOLS OP ERIE COUNTY, summarizes the results of the Questionnaire method and the findings of the interview and observation method. CHAPTER VII gives an EVALUATION OP THE CURRICULAR PRACTICES IN LIGHT' OP THE ESTABLISHED CRITERIA, and CHAPTER VIII list the CONCLUSIONS AND RECOIvLHNDATIOKS. 18 CHAPTER II THE ROLE OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY How shall we determine the test way to organize the curriculum and to provide the most effective learning ex periences for the pupils in the elementary school? In order to answer this question, at least four factors must be con sidered: (1) the nature of a democratic society, (2) the role of the elementary school, (3) the nature of the ele mentary school child, and (4) the nature of the learning process. This chapter deals with the first two factors; the next chapter discusses the third and the fourth. NATURE OF A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY Every educational system Is closely related to and is conditioned by the culture which sustains it. The totali tarian education found in Russia today, for example, Is pat terned after the totalitarian Communist party which is in control. Our schools, likewise, look to the nature of the society which supports them for their sense of direction. Education In America must assume the responsibility of pre serving, improving, and promoting our democratic culture. Upon first thought, this task may appear relatively simple; however, upon closer observation, one immediately becomes aware of the dilemma in which educators find themselves. There are so many views among Americans in regard to what constitutes the democratic way of life that schools become 19 perplexed when they are faced with the situation of se lecting the essential democratic values to be interpreted and transmitted. It, therefore, seems logical that, in order to determine the proper role of the elementary school, we should first consider the distinctive features of our democratic society* A Democratic Society Historically, our culture goes back to the Hebraic - Christian tradition of the Western World, since the Hebraic - Christian ethic lays the cornerstone for our democratic society* This moral system asserts the supreme worth and dignity of the Individual human being. According to It, every man Is of great value simply because he Is a man* He Is also valuable because he is unique, because he is himself and no one else* The development of each individual to his full stature Is the chief responsibility of our society. Democracy first and foremost stands for faith in the human dignity of each person.'1 Science in General Education^ lists the major ideals of a democratic society as being (a) the optimum develop ment of each personality, (b) reciprocal individual and group responsibility for promoting common concerns, and 1 See George S. Counts, Education and the Promise of America (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1945), pp. 77-79. 2 See Committee on the Function of Science in General Education, Science in General Education (New Yorks D* Apple- ton-Century Company, 1938), p p • 36-40. 20 (c) free play of intelligence. John Dewey, the dean of modern education and philosophy, has described democracy most effectively in the following paragraph! Democracy . . . means voluntary choice, based on an Intelligence that Is the outcome of free association and communication with others. It means a way of liv ing together in which mutual and free consultation rule instead of force, and In which cooperation instead of brutal competition is the law of life; a social order In which all the forces that make for friendship, beauty, and knowledge are cherished in order that each individual may become what he, and he alone, is capable of becoming.3 Hopkins4 has carefully analyzed the democratic way of life and has suggested the following beliefs as being basic In a democracy: (1) belief In the worth of the individual as a human being, (2) belief that everyone has the capacity to learn how to act on thinking, (3) belief that a person who must abide by decisions should have a part in making them, (4) belief that the control and direction of democratic action lies in the situation, not outside of it, (5) belief that the process of living Is the interactive process, and (6) belief that cultural change should be accomplished through deliberative social action. The above beliefs should not be considered as separate and Isolated, for each is closely interrelated with the others and derives its support from every one of them. If 3 John hewey, nEducation and Social Change,w Social Frontier. 3:238, May, 1937. 4 L. Thomas Hopkins, Interaction: The Democratic Process (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1941), pp. 102-3. 21 democracy la to survive, the beliefs must become effective in all aspects of living. When belief in the worth of the individual is denied, his liberties are curtailed and he becomes a tool of the dominating groups or individuals. When belief in the individual's capacity to learn how to act intelligently is eliminated, he will no longer be educated to participate effectively in thoughtful group action. When belief in the ability of the masses to decide questions of policy is rejected, the people be come the slaves of the 'elite' class of 'superior* per sons. When belief that the control and direction of action from within the situation is seriously chal lenged, domination of others outside of the situation is invited and assumed. When the interactive process is blocked so that the individual's movements in the culture are restricted to a narrow one-way street, both the respect for his individuality and for his potential educational capacity are doomed. When belief that cul tural change should be accomplished by deliberative social action is denied, uncontrolled violence is the possible alternative and the peaceful, thoughtful solu tions of democracy are lost.5 A good way to clarify the meaning of democracy is by contrasting it with totalitarianism. The purpose of a de mocracy is to serve the people individually and collectively, so that each may protect the welfare of all and all may protect, the welfare of each. However, the welfare of the individual is the end sought. The purpose of totalitarian ism is primarily to promote the interests and welfare of the state. In a democracy discussion and persuasion are the methods employed. The ultimate of the totalitarian ideal is a world state dominated by force and controlled by one ruling group. The civil liberties (freedom of thought, 6 Ibid.. “pp. 111-12. 22 speech, action and religion) are guaranteed as necessary to the functioning of a democracy, while the denial of these liberties is essential to the functioning of totalitarianism. Governmental officials are chosen "by the people in free elections in a democracy; in a totalitarian state they are named "by the dictator and are subject to his will. Democ racy prospers through an informed and critical public, but totalitarianism thrives on ignorance and fear.^ Respect for and faith in human personality call for the optimum development of every person, irrespective of color, background, social standing, etc. Maximum development of one*s capacities and interests can best be attained through association with others, sharing in the achievement of com mon interests and purposes. In a democracy, social, economic, and political activities are organized to provide for ever- increasing participation by the entire group. Group action comes from common consent, and decisions are reached through cooperative thinking. ’’There must be a large variety of shared undertakings and experiences, for a social life is successful to the extent that the area of common concerns is widened, and to the extent that it Interacts with other groups.8 ®~^rriVayne V/rightstone and Doak S. Campbell, Social Studies ancL the American Way of Life (New York: Row, Peterson and Company, 194217pp. 7-8. ^ John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1935 ), ~pp. 97-98. 8 I h i d ., p. 115. 23 The American way encourages the free play of intelli gence and places faith in the method of intelligence in all areas of living. A democratic society relies on the common man’s capacity for intelligent thought and action. It urges him to use his intelligence widely, to Inquire freely, and to express his Ideas without fear. In a democracy improve ment of the social order depends upon freedom of the indi vidual and group to plan and execute their course of action on the basis of a cooperative, intelligent method. WA free society must be able to change its way of,life whenever changes become necessary, and it must be able to make changes with a minimum of violence. A Democratic Personality The elementary school is charged with the great respon sibility of helping to develop children with the capacity for effective living In a complex, democratic society, which Is dynamic and constantly changing. What type of person should It develop for this kind of society? Perhaps a good answer to this question can be found In a consideration of the nature of a democratic personality. In their description of a democratic personality, AlbertylO and his committee describe him as one possessing v Alan F. Griffin. Freedom American Style (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1940I, p. 71. Harold Alberty, etal •, ,fProgressive Education: Its Philosophy and Challenge.w Progressive Education. 18:10, May, 1941. 24 the ability and zeal to use the method of reflective think ing in meeting the problems of living, the ability to work cooperatively in solving problems of common concern, and as having cultivated the attitude of social sensitivity. They also list the ability to become increasingly more self-di rective, a sensitivity to aesthetic values, and a zeal to live creatively as other characteristics. The democratic person facing a problem withholds judg ment until every possibility is carefully considered and all the data examined and evaluated. The plan of action is reached with a complete consideration of the consequences which may result. The democratic personality knows and practices the techniques of participating with a group in the solution of common problems. His contributions depend, of course, upon his special abilities. He realizes the sig- nigicance of group relationships and appreciates the values of differences among people. He is tolerant of differences in opinion regarding the solution of social, economic, po litical, racial, and religious problems.H The report of the Committee on the Function of Science in General Eduoation^ proposes the following seven personal traits as being characteristic of a democratic personality: (1) social sensitivity, (2) tolerance, (3) cooperativeness, 11 Loc . c it. 12 Committee on the Function of Science in General Education, cjd. olt.. pp. 42-53. 25 (4) disposition and ability to use reflective thinking in the solution of problems, (5) creativeness, (6) self-direc tion, and (7) aesthetic appreciation. The faculty of the Ohio State University School has done a very thorough job of outlining the characteristics of an ideal democratic society and of an ideal democratic personality, and of pointing out the implications of these characteristics for democratic living. The writer believes that a discussion of a democratic society, or of a demo cratic personality, would not be complete without including at least part of the work of the faculty of the Ohio State University School.^-3 Since there is a definite relationship between the individual and society, the characteristics have been set up in parallel columns: A. MAINTAINING PERSONAL HEALTH AND PROMOTING HEALTHFUL LIVING Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Democratic Society Democratic Personality A democratic society is In order to maintain concerned with the health of personal health and promote all of its members. It seeks healthful living in the demo* to promote healthful living cratic society of which he conditions through the use of is a member, the Individual, the method of intelligence in using the method of intelli- dealing with problems of per- gence in dealing with his sonal and community health and problems and the problems of by cooperative planning for: the group, seeks to: 1. Sanitary, comfortable, 1. Follow consistently well-designed homes. and intelligently a program of good health practices. 13 For the complete work of the faculty, see: Faculty of the University School, The Philosophy and Purposes of the University School (Columbus: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1948), pp. 5-9. 26 2. Control and elimina- 2. Control ©motions such tion of contagious and infeo- as fear, worry, hate, jealousy, tlous diseases* and joy* B. ACHIEVING AND MAINTAINING A SENSE OF SECURITY Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Democratic Society Democratic Personality A democratic society is In order to attain op concerned with the conditions timum development and growth of living which promote a In his sense of security in sense of security for all its family, school, and wider members. This implies: community relationships, the 1. Cooperative planning individual: and working together for the 1* Seeks to establish improvement of social and eco sound relationships and to nomic life* achieve status In an ex 2. A feeling that the panding social environment work which one does actually as relationships with his counts In enriching and Im family develop and change. proving social living. 2. Seeks acceptance by his agemates, gradually de velops a sense of belonging to the group, and forms friendships with members of both sexes. C. DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING A SENSE OF ACHIEVEMENT Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Democratic Society Democratic Personality A democratic society rec In order to develop a ognizes that all of Its mem sense of satisfaction which bers should possess a sense of comes through meeting social satisfaction in accomplishment. situations and life problems It therefore seeks to provide: successfully, the individual 1. Opportunities for suc seeks to: cessful participation In group 1. Make wise choices In activities directed toward terms of his own needs and common ends. the common good. 2. A democratic way of 2. Participate construc life that is constantly being tively in socially signifi improved by the cooperative cant activities in school, planning and participation of at home, and In community all. groups, and feel that his participation Is worthwhile. 27 D# DEVELOPING AND J4AINTAINING EVER WIDENING AND DEEPENING INTERESTS AND APPRECIATIONS Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Democratic Society Democratic Personality A democratic society is The democratic individ concerned that the living of ual : all of its citizens be contin 1. Develops a wide range uously enriched by the exten of interests and apprecia sion of the range of interests tions and seeks continuously and appreciations. It desires to extend and enrich them. that all of its members seek: 2. Cooperates with 1. Wholesome family life others In ventures which which promotes growth in In will provide opportunities terests and appreciations. for expanding and deepening 2. Contacts with institu Interests and appreciations. tions and organizations which afford opportunities for the cultivation of Interests and appreciations• E. ACHIEVING A SOCIAL OUTLOOK ON LIFE Characteristics of a Characteristics of a Democratic Society Democratic Personality A democratic society is In a democratic society one whose members consciously each member should develop strive to understand more a consistent and unified out clearly and refine Its basic look on life and grow in sen ideals, and to apply them to sitivity to the values and the enrichment of living. To Ideals of our democratic so this end: ciety. Such an individual: 1. Its members have mu 1. Respects the person tual concern for optimal de ality of others and accepts velopment, e.g., health, se differences in Interests, curity, achievement, Interests. capacities, beliefs, stand 2. Its members seek to ards, and customs. extend the use of the method 2. Believes that every of Intelligence to the solu person should have the op tion of problems of living in portunity to develop to the all areas, including the per extent of his capacities, sonal, social, aesthetic, regardless of race, color, civic, and economic. class, family, occupations, wealth, sex, or place of residence• 28 ROLE OP THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL If democracy Is to be our choice, then we must de cide whether to take as our primary aim for schools the Imparting of knowledge, In and of Itself, or the build ing of character of the kind demanded by democratic living— Inclusive character, the individual*s Inclusive tendencies to behavior In personal living and In group living, as a person and as a citizen. This character must be of the kind to make the Individual self-direct ing (rather than ruled from above, as we have seen in the many historic Instances); It must be sensitive to the needs of people and of society and to obligation to act on these needs (as opposed to the selfish in sensitivity found in many educated people through the ages); it must be informed intelligence, thoughtful (rather than blind to the surrounding world and incom petent to think about it and cope with it on any in telligence basis). This means, of course, that the in dividual must have knowledge, much knowledge, but knowl edge to be used primarily for better thinking and con sequent better acting (not primarily to satisfy a so cial scale index or for mere personal enjoyment) Responsibilities of Our Schools It seems quite evident that the major responsibility of our schools (both elementary and secondary) is to teach the meaning of and further the cause of democracy. We talk a lot about the meaning of democracy and human freedom, but unfortunately these concepts are very inadequately under stood by American teachers and educational leaders. The schools* failure to interpret democracy to our children is tragic, especially in these days when democratic values find themselves in a hazardous position in the world as a whole. To most teachers, democracy is a political concept, having to do chiefly with government. Very few of them realize the l4 William H. Kilpatrick, Philosophy of Bduc at ion (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951), pp. 295-96. 29 meaning of democracy In human relations; likewise, few of them see any implications of democracy for art, music, or literature* The behavior of many educational administrators indicates that they, too, do not understand democracy.!5 Today, more than ever before, it is necessary that our schools clarify the meaning of democracy, the democratic values we seek to live by, and the criteria upon which we base the solutions of our common problems.I6 It should be understood that a democracy sets its own standard for right and wrong, based upon the experiences of associated living* Since the principle of democracy rests on the authority of the nature of man, it can never become fixed or final* De mocracy stands for the best insight that we now have as to the manner in which an individual can be developed to the fullest. "When this insight is improved, our standard will vary accordingly• "17 Bodel® states that the democratic way carries with it a disturbing Intellectual and moral responsibility, for it requires the reconstruction of deep-seated beliefs and habits and the reshaping of our whole way of life. He em- 16 SrnestO. Melby, "Democracy and Human Freedom," Educational Administration and Supervision. 33:149, March, 1947* 16 Vivian T* Thayer, American Education Under Fire (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944), p. 187* 17 Boyd H. Bode, Progressive Education at the Cross roads (Chicago: Newson and Company^ 1938), p. 110. 18 Boyd H. Bode, Democracy as a Wav of Life (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1937), pp. 61, 71* 30 phasizes that this reconstruction must be accepted as a personal responsibility; it must never be transferred to an obliging dictator* Bode also points out that a democratic social order does not attempt to prescribe beliefs; never theless, it cannot ignore the responsibility of providing help in this respect to its members* This is one of the chief obligations of education* Bode also adds that, if we accept the principle of democracy, we must question the im mutable, eternal values which so often control the educa tional process* Since the character of education is determined by the nature of the society which supports it, our elementary schools should undoubtedly teach the following values: be lief in the dignity and worth of man, cooperation for the common good, tolerance, freedom of speech, religious free dom, and the other values of democracy which have been sug gested by American educators, historians, and philosophers•19 As Dewey2^ suggests, it is natural to assume that a society which changes, with the hope of improving itself, will have different standards and methods of education from one which aims merely to perpetuate the status quo, The Educational Policies Commission2^ of the National 19 Newton Edwards, Education in a Democracy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 194lT, p. 32* 20 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, op* clt*. p. 94. 21 Educational Policies Commission, Learning the Ways of Democracy (Washington, D*C*: National Education Associa- tion, 1940), p p • 35—39* 31 Education Association advocates that democratic education should: (1) be concerned with the welfare of all the people (2) serve each individual with justice, seeking to promote equal educational opportunity for all, regardless of intel ligence, race, religion, social status, economic conditions, or vocational plans; (3) respect the basic liberties in practice and clarify their meaning through study; (4) be concerned for the maintenance of those economic, political, and social conditions which are necessary for the employment of liberty; (5) guarantee to all members of its community the right to share in determining the purposes and policies of education; (6) use democratic methods in classroom, ad ministration, and student activities; (7) make efficient use of personnel, teaching respect for competence in positions of responsibility; (8) teach through experience that every principle entails a corresponding duty, every authority a responsibility, every responsibility an accounting to the group which granted the privilege; (9) demonstrate that far- reaching changes, of both policies and procedures, can be carried out in orderly and peaceful fashion, when the de cisions to make the changes have been reached by democratic means; (10) liberate and use the intelligence of all; (11) equip citizens with the materials of knowledge needed for democratic efficiency; and (12) promote loyalty to democracy by stressing positive understanding and appreciation, and by summoning youth to service in a great cause. Alberty2^ has outlined the responsibilities of the American school In furthering democracy. In his opinion, It should make Itself a democratic place In which students and teaching staff live together with due respect and con sideration for all members of the group. The good school makes provision for the clarification of the meaning of de mocracy on the part of all students, and it encourages and respects the expression of beliefs and opinions of all of them. It also helps students to clarify and reconstruct their beliefs and values. Alberty goes on to say that the school should provide experiences for group thinking on com mon problems and for the development of the whole individual. It should base its curriculum upon the problems, needs, and interests of youth. Lastly, It Is obligated to help the student learn to use the method of intelligence as a guide to his behavior. The right kind of educational program will provide for opportunities and experiences in which boys and girls can grow In their understanding of the world in which they live, In the skills necessary for social competency, and in the Ideals and attitudes that will Influence them to become the kind of citizens who are prepared to live effectively In a democracy. There is a great need today for citizens who are cooperative, tolerant, socially sensitive, critically- ” 22 Harold Alberty, Reorganizing the High-School Currie - ulum (New Yorks The MacmlXian Company, 194*0 , pp. S§5-9^. 33 minded; and who respect leadership and constituted authority, have faith in the intelligence of man to solve his social problems, and are capable of self-direction. Elementary schools must provide opportunities for the development of self-reliance, resourcefulness, self-control, and personal responsibility. "They must also help students to understand and develop an undying faith in and loyalty to the three principles TidealsJ of democracyH23 which were presented earlier In this chapter. It is evident that a democracy requires capable and responsible people, and it is also clear that they can best be developed by an effective educational system. In order to fulfill their obligations most satisfactorily, schools must organize themselves and operate with the basic demo cratic values In mind at all times. They should Interpret democracy and develop skills in democratic living. By all means, they must provide the best possible example of demo cratic living. Every means should be taken to develop each pupil to the maximum degree, and there should be many op portunities for group planning and execution in the solution of real problems. Every child should contribute according to his special interests and abilities, so that he will feel a sense of responsibility and satisfaction In belonging to the group and participating In Its progress. Our schools 23 J. fcaul Leonard and Alvin C. Eurich (Editors), An Evaluation of Modern Education (New York. D. Appleton- Gentury Company, 1942), p. 147. 34 should prepare citizens who are experienced In democratic group action, who are able to analyze problems and make in telligent judgments, and who are capable of choosing the best leaders* Obviously, the preparation of effective cit izens begins in the elementary school. According to H u l l f i s h , 24 true democratic education Is characterized by free, full, and fair exploration of Ideas; intellectual freedom, shared and critical Intelligence, freedom of discussion and expression, examination of ideas; and research. Fact Is substituted for prejudice; truth takes the place of dogma. Such an education develops the individuality and Initiative of a people, and It builds self-control and self-reliance. Real democratic education produces citizens who are understanding, tolerant, coopera tive, creative, and responsible people who can work together and chart their course calmly and effectively under the most trying circumstances. "Education Is the great experiment station of our democratic society.^e should look to It, then, for direction on how to improve our way of life. In answer to the question of how schools can best teach democracy, Hopkins replies: To this question there appears to be only one really valid answer. The schools can teach democracy <24 i^rom a speech delivered by H. Gordon Hullfish at a convocation commemorating the Seventy-Fifth Anniversary of Ohio State University (October 14, 1948). 25 h . Gordon Hullfish, "What Kind of Education?" Edu cational Research Bulletin, 26:118, May, 1947. 35 only as they become a democracy operating on, with, by, or through the beliefs which are basic to democratic living. They must exemplify such beliefs in all of their practices. The schools must become a means through which all lndlvlduals--puplls, teachers, admin istrators, parents, and others— may build a better per sonality or creative individuality, may grow to the maximum of their capacity, may learn in all relation ships to develop cooperative, Interactive social action, may learn to use prepared-in-advance outside conclusions as a datum and not as a dictum, and may learn to believe in, respect, and utilize the appeal to reason In all social relationships; so that acting on the best think ing available at all times becomes a part of their or ganic structure.26 The Changing Role of the Elementary School Settings A democracy struggling against strangu lation in an era marked by confused loyalties in the political realm, by unrest and deprivation, by much unnecessary ill health, by high-pressure propaganda, by war, by many broken and ill-adjusted homes, by foolish spending, by high crime rates, by bad housing, and by a myriad of other urgent, real human problems. And what are the children in this school, in this age, in this culture, learning? They are learning that the square of the sum of two numbers equals the sum of their squares plus twice their product; that Millard Fillmore was the thirteenth President of the United States and held office from January 10, 1850, to March 4, 1853; that the capital of Honduras is Tegucigalpa; that there were two Peloponnesian and three Punic wars; that Latin verbs meaning to command, obey, please, dis please, resist, and the like take the dative; and that a gerund is a neuter verbal noun used in the oblique cases of the singular and governing the same case as its verb.2” To one not familiar with the history of education, it is often a great surprise to learn that elementary educa tion Is relatively new. Secondary education developed in 26 Hopkins, 0 0 . c i t . , pp. 131-32. 27 Educational Policies Commission, The Purposes of Education in American Pemocracy (Washington, DTcT s National Education Association, 1938), p. 147. 36 Europe many years before the government or the church ex pressed an interest in universal elementary education* The secondary school began during the early Renaissance, and the humanistic educators developed the academy as a preparatory school for the university* The students who entered the academy had no elementary school preparation; what education they had was obtained through private tutoring. When the elementary school arrived, it had no relation whatever to the secondary school. The two schools existed for years without any relationship to each other— the elementary school for the masses and the secondary school for the rich. The fact that the elementary school was aimed for the masses was responsible for rapid changes in purpose, causing it to ac cept modern practice much more readily than the secondary school. Educators today agree that the elementary school is more liberal in its program and curriculum. As the ele mentary school became more flexible, introduced change, and discovered new methods, the high school limited its objec tives more and more by regarding itself as a preparation for college• Education as training for life hereafter. The elemen tary school, as we know it, had its origin in the religious education of the medieval church. Before the Reformation, the elementary school*s one function was to instill the re ligious truths of the Church. The influence of Luther and the Protestant Reformation made it necessary for everybody to learn to read the native tongue; for, since the Bible 37 prescribed the standards of conduct, It was necessary to learn to read It In order to behave properly, and to obtain religious salvation. Educationally, the chief Importance of the Reformation was the incentive it furnished for the es tablishment of a widespread system of schools for which the church, the family, and eventually the state assumed support With the coming of cities and the merchant class, the aim of education was broadened to include sufficient knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic to promote trade. The Prus sian schools, on which our elementary system is based, in cluded a strong nationalistic element at the beginning of the nineteenth century.^® The earliest systems of schools in America were de veloped in the New England colonies, where, as in the early elementary schools of Germany, the influence of the Refor mation was felt. The first few words of the preamble of the Massachusetts Law of 1647 furnish us evidence of the reli gious motive in educations ttIt being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, • . .n It is clear that the purpose of the first elementary schools was to train the child for life hereafter. Education as training for adult living. Following the Renaissance, a new point of view arose concerning the func- 55" George A. Retan, Management and Teaching Technique in the Elementary School (New Yorks Prentlce-Hall, Inc., 1933T7 PP. 16-17. 38 tion oT education; namely, realism. It represented a phil osophical and scientific approach to education and protested against the classical and disciplinary learning. It viewed education as a means of attaining a knowledge of human mo tives and of the relation of man to his social Institutions and environment. Even though the old subject matter was re tained, the purpose of education was broader under realism. Scholastic knowledge was considered significant only as a means to an end, and the purpose of study was thought to be the physical, moral, and social development of the Individ ual. The goals of education emphasized freedom of thought and of action, rather than thoughtless acceptance of author ity. Realism abandoned education as training for future life; Instead, education was looked upon as training for adult life.29 The realists, such as Locke and Comenlus, emphasized the importance of trips and direct experience in learning and questioned the value of reading the thoughts of great men of past centuries. Education as synonymous with contemporary life. Ac cording to Euggett and Millard,30 the last step in the evo lution of educational objectives came about only after the three great epochs of western cultural development had re vealed their social Implications. The three epochs, the 29 Albert J. Huggett and Cecil V. Millard, Growth and Learning In the Elementary School (Bostons D.C. Heath and Company, 1946), p. 5. 20 ifria» * p p . 6-7. 39 Renaissance, the development of science, and the emergence of the common man, had to take place before education was looked upon as being synonymous with contemporary life, rather than a preparation for life hereafter or for adult living. All our modern conceptions of education have e- volved from the concept that education is life itself, not a preparation for the future. Both of the earlier concepts of education emphasized experiences which are real to adults, but artificial to children. Modem educators do not question the preparation of children for adult life; they do, however, question the methods by which this aim is accomplished. A paragraph from a recent book by Lucy Sprague Mitchell is pertinent here: To prepare children for adult life has always been a fundamental aim of the school. It still is. The shift in the concept of the school’s job is pri marily in the kind of life children should live while they are children in order to grow up into well-rounded, fully functioning adults, equal to meeting their life situations. Schools are moving away from the concept that the best preparation for a good adult life is to train children to take on adult forms of thinking and behavior as early as possible. Recent trends in object ives. A survey of the curric ulum of the American elementary school of 1775 reveals that the cardinal objective of education was literary--a knowl edge of reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, and the Bible. In 1900 the elementary school curriculum Included Lucy Sprague Mitchell, Our Children and Our Schools {New York: Simon and Schuster, 195lT^ p"I 19". 40 health, drawing, music, history, civic education, geography, and nature study. Until recently the chief trend in broad ening the objectives of the elementary school curriculum has been the addition of new subjects. A recent and more promising trend in curriculum development has been the fusing of separate courses within a field (e.g., language arts and social studies)• In the most modern schools sub jects are integrated around a theme, problem, project, or unit which cuts across subject matter lines.^ Par too many of our schools are still emphasizing the teaching of isolated facts and meaningless skills as a preparation for successful adult living. They are primarily concerned with Intellectual development which is supposed to be achieved by memorizing the content of the 3R’s. Schools of today should be thinking In terms not only of the intellectual, but also of the physical, social, and emotional development of children. They should also be teaching facts, Information, and skills in relation to the needs, interests, and experiences of children. McGaughy advises that we must agree with those who . • • believe that the school should be a place in which a child meets, and is helped to solve, prob lems which are very real and vital to him at his pres ent stage of experience and maturity; . . . the school is not properly a practice field or cramming pen where the child is prepared to begin to live after he be- J . Wayne 7/rightstone, Appraisal of Newer Elementary School Practices (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1933), p. 113. 41 comes an adult.33 Reviewing the changes in objectives and the curriculum, Mehl, Mills, and Douglass reports The simple curriculum of reading, writing, and arithmetic of our forefathers has been replaced today by a much more complex curriculum. The Three R*s have maintained their place; but Instead of being the end in instruction as they were in the early day, today they serve as fundamental tools toward an end in learning. In addition to the Three R*s, today*s curriculum in cludes, for example, the following areas: music, ex cursions, directed and free play, health units, audio and visual aids, and safety units. Emphasis also is being placed upon creative work, such as art, through which the child expresses his attitudes, impulses, and appreciations. By making it possible for the child to enjoy a variety of experiences, he is more likely to develop those attitudes, appreciations, and understand ings which are basic in an emotionally stable individ ual.34 Herold C. Hunt,33 General Superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools, states that recent changes in the major purposes of education have all emphasized the development of more capable citizens, who are qualified to assume and to fulfill their Important responsibilities In a democracy. The past thirty years of educational change and experimenta tion in American education have been fruitful. However, there is much evidence that schools are still in the earliest stages of the transition from the graded, subject-centered 33 J . R“ ScGaughy, An Evaluation of the Elementary School (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1937), p . 33 . 34 Marie A. Mehl, Hubert H. Mills, and Harl R. Douglass, Teaching in the Elementary School (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1950 ), p • 4. 35 Kerold C. Hunt, "Halfway to Where?" Journal of the National Education Association» 40:104, February, 1951. 42 school of the past century to a school which will serve American democracy functionally and effectively. Elsbree and McNally have summarized the recent trends in elementary school objectives very wells The trends are becoming clearer In recent years. Educators are realizing the Inadequacy of the subject curriculum to meet today*s needs, realizing that a more dynamic, functional, realistic, and practical learning program Is necessary to help children learn the technique of living In today*s challenging world. Out of this realization has been slowly evolving, over the past few decades, a learning program which Is com ing to be more and more centered In the here-and-now living problems of children.36 A review of proposed objectives. Among the lists of objectives most frequently proposed by writers Is that form ulated In 1918 by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education37 and popularly referred to as the wSeven Cardinal Principles.” These objectives ares (1) health, (2) command of fundamental processes, (3) worthy home membership, (4) vocation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of leisure time, and (7) ethical character. As Indi cated, these objectives were originally intended for sec ondary education, but they have gradually been accepted for elementary education as well. There are certain commendable features about these 36 Willard S. Elsbree and Harold J• McNally, Elementary School Administration and Supervision (New York: The Amer ican Book Company, 1951), pp. 100-101. 37 See Clarence D. Kingsley, Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1918) . 43 famous cardinal objectives. They specify the fields, or general divisions, of learning which are important in the education of children. They also guide the teacher in pro viding instruction in the major areas of human activity, thus emphasizing subject matter made up of genuine, every day experiences. There are, nevertheless, certain limita tions to this list of objectives. They do not provide explicitly for the develop ment of important aspects, or phases, of the child's personality. To be specific, there is no reference to the development of the child in attitudes, or ideals, in intelligence, and in social behavior. A teacher could so direct instruction in these seven areas of human interest and activity as to give just 'animal training* to the pupils and thus to prepare them for life in a static, or undemocratic, society. For in stance, vocational instruction might become mere vo cational training instead of vocational education. Such vocational 'education* would not provide for social Ideals, breadth of view, and habits of thinking. Instruction would tend to be merely the teaching of specific skills. In like manner, civics, a subject designated usually for educating the child for citizen ship, may be and sometimes is so taught that the child learns the subject through rote memory and develops antisooial attitudes. In such a course little may be done to promote in the pupil the inclination and the ability to solve such social problems as are common in modern society. Evidently, the Cardinal Principles do not form an adequate basis for a democratic program for the elementary school. They are as suitable for a dictatorship as for a democratic society.38 Sensing the Inadequacy of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, the Committee on Elementary Education^ 38 W. A. Saucier, Theory and Practice in the Elementary School (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1941), p. 104. 39 s©e Committee on Elementary Education of the New York State Council of Superintendents, Cardinal Objectives in Elementary Education (Albany: University of the State of New York Press, 1931). 44 of the New York State Council of Superintendents prepared a list of objectives for the elementary schools. These ob jectives, which have been widely approved and accepted throughout the state of New York and elsewhere, are: 1. To understand and practice desirable social relationships 2. To discover and develop his own desirable in dividual aptitudes 3. To cultivate the habit of critical thinking 4. To appreciate and desire worth-while activities 5. To gain command of the common integrating knowledge and skills 6. To develop a sound body and normal mental at titudes Even a cursory examination of these objectives con vinces one of their superiority over those proposed by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. They view education as being more than the acquisition of facts and skills in the seven areas of human interest and activity suggested in the earlier list of objectives. Their emphasis upon social relationships, individual aptitudes, critical thinking, worth-while activities, and mental and physical health is very encouraging. It is evident that these cardinal objectives of elementary education were con ceived and formulated with the desirable traits of the dem ocratic personality in mind. There have been many formulations of educational ob jectives; however, those proposed by the Educational Poli cies Commission40 of the National Education Association are 40 Educational Policies Commission, cjd. clt.. pp. 50, 72, 90, 108. 45 currently the most authoritative and widely recognized and accepted set. They are organized around four general head ings with several objectives listed under each of them: The Objectives of Self-Realization The Inquiring mind. The educated person has an appe tite for learning. Speech. The educated person can speak the mother tongue clearly. Reading. The educated person reads the mother tongue efficiently. Writing. The educated person writes the mother tongue effectively. Number. The educated person solves his problems of counting and calculating. Sight and hearing. The educated person is skilled in listening and observing. Health knowledge. The educated person understands the basic facts concerning health and disease. Health habits. The educated person protects his own health and that of his dependents. Public health. The educated person works to improve the health of the community. Recreatlon. The educated person is participant and spectator in many sports and other pastimes. Intellectual Interests. The educated person has mental resources for the use of leisure. Esthetic Interests. The educated person appreciates beauty. Character. The educated person gives responsible direc tion to his own life. The Objectives of Human Relationship Respect for humanity. The educated person puts human relationships first• Friendships. The educated person enjoys a rich, sin cere, and varied social life. Cooperation. The educated person can work and play with others» Courtesy. The educated person observes the amenities of social behavior. Appreciation of the home. The educated person appre ciates the family as a social institution. Conservation of the home. The educated person con serves family ideals. Home-making. The educated person is skilled in home- making • Democracy in the home. The educated person maintains democratic family relationships. 46 The Objectives of Economic Efficiency Work. The educated producer knows the satisfaction of good workmanship* Occupational Information* The educated producer under- stands the requirements and opportunities for various jobs. Occupatlonal choice. The educated producer has se lected his occupation. Occupational efficiency. The educated producer suc ceeds in his chosen vocation. Occupational adjustment. The educated producer main tains and Improves his efficiency. Occupational appreciation. The educated producer ap preciates the social value of his work. Personal ^economics. The educated consumer plans the economics of his own life. Consumer judgment■ The educated consumer develops standards for guiding his expenditures. Efficiency In buying* The educated consumer Is an in formed and skillful buyer. Consumer protection. The educated consumer takes ap propriate measures to safeguard his Interests. The Objectives of Civic Responsibility Social justice. The educated citizen is sensitive to the disparities of human circumstance. Social activity. The educated citizen acts to correct unsatisfactory conditions. Social understanding. The educated citizen seeks to understand social structures and social processes. Critical judgment. The educated citizen has defenses against propaganda. Tolerance. The educated citizen respects honest dif ferences of opinion. Conservation. The educated citizen has a regard for the nation's resources. Social Applications of science, The educated citizen measures scientific advance by Its contribution to the general welfare. World citizenship. The educated citizen Is a cooper- atlng member of the world community. Law observance. The educated citizen respects the law. Economic llte'racy. The educated citizen Is economic ally literate. Political citizenship. The educated citizen accepts civic duties. Devotion to democracy. The educated citizen acts upon an unswerving loyalty to democratic Ideals. 47 The objectives listed above are so clearly stated by the Educational Policies Commission that comment on them hardly seems necessary. Their thoroughness and excellence are quite apparent. It is also clear that the committee which formulated these objectives had the welfare of both our democratic society and of our boys and girls In mind. An analysis of proposed objectives and a few visits to some of our elementary schools will reveal that there are two opposing sets of objectives held by teachers and admin istrators. One set of objectives emphasizes subject matter mastery as the primary objective of elementary education. Those who advocate this purpose propose that it Is the prin cipal function of the elementary school to pass on the ^social heritage” and to teach the so-called ^minimum essen tials.” The other set of objectives emphasizes the develop ment of well-rounded personalities. Those who advocate this theory are not so concerned with the social heritage and minimum essentials. Instead, they stress the Importance of providing an environment in which children have experiences that are rich, purposeful, and full of meaning to them In their particular stages of development. Elementary education must emphasize happy, suc cessful living and the solving of real problems, even when the child is within the walls of a school build ing. Its curriculum must be as broad as child life It self and must be made up of real experiences appropriate to the level of maturity of the various groups of chil dren JiflcGaughy, ojd. cit. . p. 39. 48 SUMMARIZING PRINCIPLES The original criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit, which are proposed In CHAPTER V, draw upon CHAPTERS II and III for their support. Therefore, each of these chapters closes with a list of summarizing principles, some of which will be utilized in defending the criteria. A. Nature of a Democratic Society 1. A democratic society respects and has faith in each Individual and aims to develop each one of them to his ful lest capacity, regardless of race, social standing, back ground, etc. 2. A democratic society has faith in the ability of the common man and relies on him to think and act intelligently In the solution of group and Individual problems. 3. A democratic society encourages the method of In telligence in all areas of living. 4. A democratic society emphasizes group consultation and cooperation, rather than force and competition. 5. A democratic society believes that all people should participate in making decisions and in solving their common problems. Government rests on t he consent of the governed, who utilize the process of cooperative, intelligent thinking. B. Role of the Elementary School 1. The elementary school should clarify the meaning of and further the cause of democracy by being the best pos sible example of democratic living. 2. The elementary school should respect each personal- 49 ity and should attempt to develop each child to his maximum degree, regardless of color, belief, economic status, abil ity, Intelligence, etc, 3. The elementary school should provide an environment conducive to the children’s best physical, social, emotional, and mental development, 4. The elementary school should provide many problems which require the method of intelligence for their solution, 5. The elementary school should provide a variety of rich experiences and many real problems which call for group planning and action. 6. The elementary school should provide opportunities for the development of self-direction, resourcefulness, social sensitivity, creativeness, initiative, adaptability, tolerance, personal responsibility, and aesthetic apprecia tion . 7. The elementary school should help pupils to clarify and reconstruct their beliefs and values, to solve their problems, to meet their needs, and to discover and extend their interests and abilities. 50 c h a p t e r III THE NATURE OP THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILD AND OF THE LEARNING PROCESS A consideration of the nature of the elementary school child and of the learning process is essential in arriving at the most appropriate curriculum organization for the ele mentary school. Because the nature of the learning process is so closely related to the nature of the child, these two factors are treated in the same chapter. NATURE OP THE CHILD Within recent years there has been a growing public interest in child growth and development. This emphasis upon understanding the child has expressed itself in addi tional child-development courses in our teachers colleges, in numerous articles in newspapers, journals, and monographs; and in an Increased number of books and speeches on child nature and behavior. Some authors have properly referred to the present age as the f,century of the child. As further evidence of the growing interest in child development, one can cite the numerous research centers and child-guldance clinics. One of the best known centers, which has contributed much to our understanding of the nor mal stages of child development, is located at Yale Univer sity and is directed by Dr. Arnold Gesell. Among other centers which are contributing to our knowledge of children, their needs, and their development, are the Institute of 51 Child Welfare at the University of California, the Experi mental School at the University of Michigan, the Child Wel fare Research Station at the University of Iowa, the Insti tute of Child Welfare at the University of Minnesota, the Merrill Palmer School in Detroit, Brush Foundation at West ern Reserve University, and the Fels Foundation at Antioch College. Perhaps the outstanding child-guidance clinics are the Judge Baker Foundation in Boston, the Philadelphia Child Guidance Center, and the Institute for Juvenile Re search in Chicago.1 The research centers have provided knowledge concerning the general pattern of development and individual variation within that pattern, while the guidance clinics have helped In understanding the child's emotional life and its relation to the growth process. No one will deny that the elementary school should exist for the sake of the child. This means, then, that the people directly concerned with elementary education are not adequately prepared without a basic understanding of the nature of the elementary school child and how he develops. How can schools provide the most effective learning experi ences for our boys and girls without first understanding them? As Dr. Dildlne, of the Institute for Child Study at the University of Maryland, has well said: r,The things we will do to educate children depend in large part on our Ideas I Gladys G. Jenkins, Helen Shaoter, and William W. Bauer, These Are Your Children (New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1949), pp. 13-15. 52 about child nature and how it develops. Erroneous Views Regarding the Child The child a miniature adult. Many of the important changes in the education of our children during the modern period have come about largely as a result of our acceptance of children as children. Even down to the nineteenth cen tury the child was looked upon a3 a miniature adult, and education was planned from the point of view of adult in terests and standards. Since children were thought to be similar to adults in physical, mental, and moral character istics, they were dressed like them and were expected to act like them.^ The Miniature Adult Theory made a deep im pression on modern society, as evidenced in the widespread notion that education is preparation for adult life, rather than a period of child growth and development. This concept of children is reflected in several unfavorable ways in the elementary school. Doctrine of Innate depravity. In harmony with the be lief that the child is a miniature adult has existed the doctrine of innate depravity--the notion that his moral nature is inherently sinful. According to this view, the infant is born with a tendency toward wrongdoing In thought 2 Glenn 0. Dildine, ,,Energy--Basis of Living and Learn- ing,w Journal of the National Education Association. 39:252, April, 1950. ® Hollis L. Caswell, Education In the Elementary School (New York: American Book Company, 1942), p. 88. 55 and behavior. Furthermore, he becomes progressively more sinful with age, unless prevented through rigid discipline by his elders. The purpose of education, then, is one of remaking the child’s nature to help him live a more right eous life in this world and the next.^ There is some evi dence that the doctrine which describes child nature as evil has survived the teachings of the Middle Ages and still exerts much influence upon educational practice. Rousseau’s teachings. Rousseau, the French philoso pher, made the first major attack on the innate depravity doctrine in his Bmile. published in 1762. He advocated that, instead of being evil by nature, children are innately and naturally good. He also insisted that children remain righteous and innocent until they are contaminated by the customs and conventions of adults, especially teachers and 5 parents. Rousseau was working in the right direction when he objected to the doctrine of inherited sinful nature; how ever, he also introduced an equally unscientific view of child nature. Ho one has been able to prove the innate goodness of human nature. The recapitulation theory. Another misconception re garding the child was originated by G. Stanley Iiall, often £ Louis P. Thorpe, Child Psychology and Development (New York: The Ronald Press, 1946), p. 10. 5 Harry G. Good, A History of Western ."Education (New York: The Macmillan Comp any,‘ 1947 J, p. STD-. referred to as the "father of the child study movement." His recapitulation and culture-epoch theories held that a child, as he grows to maturity, relives the biological evo lution of the race from barbarism to civilization. Accord ing to Hall, the child goes through different stages (cul ture epochs) of development comparable to the experiences lived by his primitive ancestors. The crawling child is supposedly recapitulating the period of evolution when his ancestors moved about on four legs. The boy playing "Indian" is reenacting the period when his forefathers spent most of their time hunting and fighting, and the tendency to play with pets is thought to reflect an earlier period of animal- istic experiences. Hall’s theories are rejected by leading psychologists and educators today. Theory of unfolding Instincts. Thorpe7 includes the theory of unfolding Instincts as an erroneous conception regarding child nature. According to this notion, the child is born with strong innate tendencies called "instincts,w which are thought to be inner drives transmitted from par ents to children as racial characteristics. The instincts are supposedly present at birth but not active until matur ity. Behavior is said to be motivated by the instincts, each constantly striving for expression. The child is thus expected to perform many involved functions (eating, drink- 6 Thorpe, op. c it., p. 13. 7 Ibid.. p. 14. 55 Ing, avoiding danger, etc*) without having learned them. Psychologists have refuted the instinct theory. The True Nature of the Child All modern scientific studies reveal that the child is not a miniature adult. He is an individual, different and distinct In make-up from the adult.® There is also evidence to disprove both the doctrine of Innate depravity and the teachings of Rousseau. A child Is born neither inherently bad nor inherently good. What he becomes is determined pri marily by his physical and social environment. Hall*s re capitulation theory, which influenced the courses of study In several school systems, Is questioned by modern curricu lum authorities. There Is no evidence of distinctly differ ent periods In the child’s development; development is of a continuous nature. Studies show that child behavior Is not determined by Instincts, but rather by the experiences which he meets in his social environment. Contrary to the impression which one might gain from an observation of the practices In the typical elementary school, the child is not a passive learner. Modern psychol ogy describes him as an active, dynamic being, directing his energies toward one goal after another In an ever-changing environment. Expressing this point of view, the committee on Progressive Education writes that *. . . the human Indi- 8 Elizabeth B. Hurlock, Child Development (New Yorks McCraw-Hill Book Company, 1942), p. 12. 56 vidual la essentially a dynamic energy system, constantly absorbing, transforming, and expending energy in ways that are defined by the process of living."9 Current psychology sees the child as an energy system in unstable equilibrium* Yiflaen the equilibrium is upset, tension results, a goal is set up, and action toward stabil ity takes place* The child finds the satisfying of tensions a requisite for successful living* In explaining this theory of human behavior and learning, Raup asserts that "all be havior arises as a consequence of the disturbance of a con dition called complacency £equilibrlumj ."TO The normal child is constantly seeking successful release from a ten sion or disturbance of the complacency condition* As needs arise, tensions, motives, purposes, goals, and stresses develop. When the body has need for food, a person becomes hungry, and a tension which seeks food results* When food Is eaten, the body is again at ease. The need (for food) causes a tension (hunger) which calls for an ac tivity (eating) to satisfy the need, so that the body will again be at ease (equilibrium)• Other needs operate In much the same manner. When a child feels cold, he looks for shelter, more clothes, or a fire; when he becomes tired, he y KaroId Alberty, e t a l •, "Progressive Educations Its Philosophy and Challenge," Progressive Education, 18:11, May, 1941. 10 Robert B. Raup, Complacency * the Foundation of Human Behavior (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1926), p. 13. 57 seeks rest; when he la neglected, he tries to get attention; and when he Is lonesome, he looks Tor companions. As each type oT need expresses itself, the child Is aroused to ac tivity in order to satisfy the need, so that equilibrium may again be restored. As long as a person is alive, there is a constant recurrence of needs, and learning occurs when one meets a need by means which he has not previously used.H • • ., the dynamic purposing nature of the human being, is fundamental to the reorganization of the school from a passive to an active affair, from one where teachers plan and children follow a program foreign to their experience and Interest to one where child purposing, planning, and execution are deliber ately sought . . .12 Scientific study reveals that WA living organism is a unified system of energy.w13 It develops as a unit, or whole child, who is carrying on many learnings at the same time. His physical, emotional, social, and mental aspects cannot be separated; they are affected in every experience. Every normal child is born an Integrated unit and functions as a whole. He is also born with a biological drive to con tinue functioning that way. When conditions arise which in terfere with this unity and wholeness, his body develops ways of protecting and preserving it. 11 Henry J. Otto, Principles of Elementary Education (Hew Yorks Rinehart and Company, 1949), p. 287. 12 Orville G-. Brim, The Foundations of Progressive Edu cation (Columbus: Elementary Education Club, Ohio State University, 1937), p. 7. Raymond H. Wheeler and Francis T. Perkins, Princi ples of Mental Development (New Yorks Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1932), p. 39. 58 Burton helps to clarify the meaning of the phrase, "the whole child," in the following paragraph: The child comes to school, as popularly supposed, to get his mind trained* To the great annoyance of many teachers, the child insists on bringing his body and his emotions with him. This semi-flippant state ment introduces us directly to the modern concept of 1 the whole child.’ The whole child comes to school. More than that, he learns all over; he learns as a whole child and not by sections. It is quite Impossible to train body or emotions without affecting each other and the intellect as well. As a matter of fact, the very terms, intellect or mind, body, emotions, are ar bitrary designations. The aspects so named are not separable entitles. Mind and body are functioning as pects of one unified whole. The individual reacts as a unified, integrating whole. The living child cannot be divided up for teaching purposes.14 The doctrine of "the whole child" has two very signifi cant implications. First, the school should be concerned with the development of the entire person, not certain parts of him. Secondly, it Is clear that it is Impossible to of fer a school experience vjhich affects only a part of a child. The school can no longer restrict Itself to the task of de veloping facts and skills. It must assume the responsibility for health service and Instruction, recreation, safety train ing, and citizenship. In other words, emphasis Is upon all round development. The modern school realizes that every experience involves the total child. For example, the phys iological and emotional aspects are also involved and will be modified when one is thinking. These elements cannot be separated in a learning situation. We know that, when emo- '14 William H. Burton, The Guidance of Learning Activi ties (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1944), p. 142. 59 tional tone Is low, "physical and Intellectual effectiveness tend to be low; when physical resistance Is depleted, emo tional tone tends to be depressed and mental alertness slight. Basic Needs of the Child Students of psychology constantly tell us that, In order to explain the actions of people, we must understand their basic needs. Children, too, have fundamental needs which motivate them and which Influence their behavior. In an effort to satisfy their needs, which Is the major purpose of all human beings, children often behave in ways which baffle the adults working with them. Since the basic needs of children underlie all their actions, these needs should be a very significant factor in determining the best cur ricular organization, practices, and procedures. Several writers have proposed lists of basic needs. An examination of some of the best known of these lists reveals a great deal of similarity among them. A decade ago El s b r e e ^ listed the basic needs of chil dren ass (a) success, achievement, mastery, and desire to avoid failure, frustration, and disappointment; (b) recog nition, approval, and admiration; (c) sympathy, affection, intimacy, and understanding of self; (d) security, freedom Ife Caswell, op.. clt., pp. 89-90. Willard S. Elsbree, "School Practices that Help and Hurt Personality," Teachers College Record. 43:24-34, October, 1941. 6 0 from want, sense of possession, and freedom from worry and anxiety; (e) adventure, new experiences, activity, and change from monotony and routine. In his discussion of the needs which motivate our ac tions, Thorpe^7 classifies them as organic and psychological* The organic needs are those occasioned by hunger, thirst, fatigue, loss of sleep, extreme heat or cold, and sex. The psychological needs are affection, recognition, indlvidvxal- lty, and feeling of adequacy that comes from successful achievement (self or ego needs); cooperation with others and assisting them In satisfying their need for status and for a sense of personal worth. A list of needs which has gained considerable recogni tion is the list of emotional needs proposed by Raths and Metcalfs^-® belonging, achievement, economic security, free dom from guilt, need for sharing in decisions, and need for a world outlook. One of the best analyses of basic personality needs is presented by Prescott, who says* The needs of developing children fall naturally into three categories representing three major aspects of the life of a person. These categories of need can be called* (1) physiological, when describing needs that spring pr5.marily out of structure and dynamic bio chemical equilibria; (2) social or status needs, when describing the relationships that It Is essential to establish with other persons in our culture; and (3) ego or integrative needs, when describing needs for Thorpe, oj>. clt. . pp. 188-91. ■*-® Louis Raths and Lawrence Metcalf, '*An Instrument for Identifying Some Needs of Children,'1 Educational Research Bulletin. 24*169, October IV, 1945. 61 experience and for the organization and symbolization of experience through which the individual will dis cover his role In life and learn to play It in such an effective manner as to develop a sense of worthy self hood According to Prescott, the physiological needs Include air, food, liquids, and the clothing and shelter necessary for the maintenance of proper body temperature. Regular and adequate elimination, an appropriate rhythm of activity and rest, and sexual activity are also basic physiological needs It Is obvious that the physiological needs must be met, If satisfactory child development is to be accomplished. It is also clear that the good school must take these needs In to account in Its program. The social needs arise out of the fact that life must be lived in contact with other people. Social needs are very strong in elementary school children. The need for af fection and security Is basic; it appears in very young chil dren and continues throughout life. The absence of condi tions which meet these needs Is responsible for behavior problems and personality maladjustments. Insecurity is caused by a situation In which a child Is not wanted, or is the result of a disturbed home life. A sense of security Is best developed in an atmosphere in which an weven temper is maintained, where firmness and affection are consistently ~ 19 Daniel A. Prescott, Emotion and the Educative Process (Washington, D.C.: American "Council on Education, 1938), p. 113. 20 I M d ., pp. 114-16. 62 present, where standards of conduct exist, and where democ racy and mutual respect n o u r i s h .*21 ^he child needs to ex pand the scope of his activities into successively wider social groupings, and he must have the feeling of "belonging" in these groupings. He must feel important, well thought of, and valued. Likeness to others also affects one’s social relations. "The possession of characteristics which sharply differentiate a person from others, unless it be in a manner greatly applauded by society, is a handicap and a hazard. "22 Integrative needs grow out of the drive of an individ ual to be recognized as an individual and to establish a satisfactory working relationship with the world about him. One cannot be adjusted well unless he believes in himself, unless he feels that he has attained a worthy and effective selfhood. The basic need for a sense of worthy selfhood gives rise to a series of needs which have far reaching imp lications for educations (a) contact with reality, (b) har mony with reality, (c) progressive symbolization, (d) in creasing self-direction, and (e) balance between success and failure.23 The programs found in many elementary schools are little Influenced by the basic needs of children. A balance " Caswell, o p . c i t . . p. 98. 22 Prescott, ojd. cit. . p. 118. 25 Ibid.. pp. 119-24. 63 ■between activity and rest is often not maintained. Pupils are faced with, too many unsuccessful tasks, and the impor tance of peer approval is overlooked. The school cannot be organized effectively without full regard for the basic physiological, social, and integrative needs of children. Prescott summarizes the implications of these needs for edu cation very well in the following words: 3Por the school to meet the implied challenge is for it to reorganize very thoroughly and on a much more ’functional* basis. School people will have to recognize the need of children for more activity and for more rest. They must encourage the development of friendship between pupils and between pupils and teachers. Conditions and belonging will have to be understood and provision definitely made for opportun ities for socially useful behavior that will give chil dren a chance to know that the:/ belong. If the gamut of affective experience is to ~be run, the curriculum must offer more success to dull and underprivileged children and the challenge of tremendously difficult situations to very bright ones. Particularly must the piecemeal, fragmentary mode of learning be replaced by a system of training that will stimulate the organiza tion of knovvrledge, the appearance and checking of gen eralizations, and the emergence of value concepts.*4 NATURE OP LEARNING It is obvious that the people interested in providing the best curricular organization for the elementary school should be familiar with the latest view in regard to the nature of the learning process. A knowledge of the way learning takes place is very fundamental to effective cur riculum organization. An examination of the concepts of learning found in our elementary schools today makes one ^ I b i d .T~~PP . 126-27. 64 realize how inadequate those concepts are. Learning has been too often considered, even by the more sophisticated teacher, as synonymous with mem orising or, at best, as the acquisition of knowledge or skill. Y/hile these are legitimately considered forms of learning, they are not the whole of it; they are not even the most important aspects of it.s5 Older Views of Learning According to the older views, learning resulted from teaching exercises in which the teacher served as a disci plinarian, drill master, and an expounder. The child was to listen, observe, and memorize, so that he could repeat exactly what he had learned. Reading was taught through phonic exercises separated from context and meaning; while history was learned through reading, memorizing, and repeat ing what the textbook and the teacher said. The older views of learning assumed that the child nat urally disliked the facts, appreciations, and skills which the school taught; so such devices as preparation and pres entation, extrinsic motivation, and the like were used to interest the child in subject matter. Discipline was, how ever, the chief factor between the child and subject matter, which was used as a means of forcing the child to learn. It was thought that, if enough effort was applied in the way of repetitions of the same type, and if enough dissatisfaction arose from the pain of failing to learn, the child would "7 National Society for the Study of Education, Learn ing and Instruction. Forty-Ninth Yearbook, Part 1 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press," 1950 )~, p. 15. 65 gradually become disciplined and docile and make up his mind to learn. He eventually became able to recite the words of the textbook and teacher, spell long lists of meaningless words, write like a master penman, and solve arithmetic problems of no practical use whatever, all of which suppos edly prepared him for adult life. Education was a long and often very painful process of preparation.26 Theories of Learning Faculty psychology. One of the earliest theories of learning, which was accepted by practically all the elemen tary schools fifty years ago, was that education is a training of the faculties of the mind. This theory of learning assumed that the mind is composed of several sep arate, generalized faculties, such as memorizing, observing, reasoning, thinking, and feeling. It also assumed that there was complete transfer of training. It was believed, for instance, that mastery of arithmetic trained a general faculty which could be used when an individual faced a problem which involved logical thinking. Neatness in hand writing and in school papers was thought to transfer to dress and care of a room. It was also believed that mem orizing ,fmemory gems'1 in poetry, the rules of grammar, or definitions of arithmetic developed a general power of £6 Gerald A. Yoakam and Robert G. Simpson, Modern Methods and Techniques of Teaching (New York: The Macmil lan Company, 1949} , p • 16. 66 memory -which could be used to memorize telephone numbers or the names and faces of people. Subject matter was selected in terms of how It could best develop the various faculties of the mind.27 The theory of learning which accepted transfer of training and the notion that the mind Is composed of a num ber of separate faculties, each of which can be trained through exercise like a muscle, was known as "faculty psy chology" and Its educational counterpart was called "formal discipline." Although faculty psychology has been questioned by psychologists for half a century and has been discarded as unsound, It still has some influence on the curricula and practices found In our most conservative elementary schools. The stimulus-response theory. E. L. Thorndike was one of the most influential of the research workers who produced evidence to displace the formal discipline psychology. The results of his theories and experiments have had a great ef fect on educational psychology. Most of the current school practices in the elementary schools are based upon his stim- ulus-response concept of learning, popularly referred to as the S-R bond theory. This concept holds that learning is mechanical. It declares that any given stimulus leads along specific nerves and results In a certain predetermined re sponse. The path between the stimulus and the response Is 2T"“m n SleGraughy, An Evaluation of the Elementary School (Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1937), pp. 137-38. 67 produced in a mechanical way* According to Thorndike, the pathways are built by means of the laws of readiness, exer cise, and effect which have had a long and tremendous impact upon educational practices. The readiness law has had great influence on the motivation of school work, while the law of exercise has been used to explain the need for drill in arithmetic, spelling, and the other subjects in the ele mentary school* The law of effect has motivated teachers to give consideration to the importance of the satisfaction which children get from their school activities.^® Thorndike’s doctrine of learning, commonly designated the "atomistic,” or ”connectionist" theory, still greatly influences curricular practices in the elementary school, even though there have been studies to indicate that learn ing cannot be satisfactorily explained by this theory. Lashley, a connectionist, carried on an experiment with rats to determine the physiological basis of learning. After years of very careful experimental research, he came to the conclusion that the results of his experiments ”are incom patible with theories of learning by changes in synaptic structure.29 Criticizing Thorndike*s laws of learning, Bode writes: Thorndike’s laws of learning— the law of use, the law of disuse, and the law of effect— are laws of habit fete Ibid. 1T“p p . 139-40. 29 k . S, Lashley, Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929), p. 176. 68 formation and nothing more. If we give a place to ’in sight' in the learning process, these laws become of subordinate importance. The core of the learning pro cess Is not habit, but intelligence.30 Discussing the S-R bond theory, Alberty^l states that the traditional school has regarded the individual as pas sive and learning as a "pouring In" process, which depends upon the building of appropriate stimulus-response bonds In the nervous system. All learning has been considered as being specific; so children have responded to situations In piecemeal fashion, learning each element by itself and then bringing them together by the process of association. This concept of learning has naturally placed a great emphasis upon mechanical drill as the secret to effective learning. Alberty concludes by saying: The S-R bond psychology has been repudiated by most psychologists. However, the present emphasis on the part of certain educators upon discipline through drill and formal exercises, mastery of fundamentals, imposition of learning of logical systems of knowledge in science, mathematics, and language regardless of the Interests of the learner, Is within the same gen eral pattern and subject to the same criticisms.32 The Gestalt. or organIsmlc. theory. The Gestalt, or organismlc, psychology was developed after the turn of the century. Many psychologists have contributed to this theory, but four names from Germany and three from the United States 30 Boyd H . Bode, Conflicting Psychologies of Learning (Boston: D.G. Heath and Company, 1929), p . 231. 3^ Harold Alberty, Reorganising the Hlgh-School Cur riculum (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1947), p. 46. 32 Loc. cit. 69 stand out above all the others. Prom the German school are Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Lewin American psychologists supporting this view are R. M. Ogden, George Hartman, and Raymond Wheeler. The Gestalt psychology which has advanced the most recent theory of learning, is often called the "field theory." This concept is rapidly being accepted by modern educators, but it is not always clearly understood by them. The Gestalt psychology, with its emphasis upon the whole rather than the sum of its parts, grew out of studies of human nature and behavior. As stated earlier, the human being is a unified system of energy. We have come to see that the child is at all times a unity— a unique, dynamic, living, organism. Being an organism, it is constantly absorbing and transforming energy, assimilating and excreting ma terials, itself growing and developing through func tion. It is constantly expending energy in ways dic tated by the conscious and unconscious objectives it is attempting to achieve.33 Organismlc psychology finds its basis In this biologi cal concept of a unified living organism. Emphasizing the importance of the whole In the learning process, Wheeler writes t In the learning process the whole also determines its parts. Learning by wholes proves more effective than learning by parts; massed efforts are inefficient because too frequent repetitions destroy the unity of the performance. The ease with which the learner ap prehends parts In their relation to the material as a whole measures his rate of progress. In so-called transfer of training It is the organism-as-a-whole that learns a particular performance; It Is not a limited Alberty, et a l .. o p . c l t ., p. 9. 70 part or organ.34 Commenting on the theory proposed by Gestalt psycholo gists, McGaughy writes: They set forth the theory that we do not see each separate little part of a total thing, add these images up on our minds, and thus reach the picture of the whole as the summation of these parts. Instead, each person sees things in their entirety, and sees them differently because of his past experiences or his native endowment, and any given individual sees a thing differently at different times, depending upon his in ner condition and his outside environment. This psy chology has been given the general name of * Gestalt.' Gestalt is not a German psychologist's name, as some teachers have supposed, but is a word signifying a 'pattern' or 'formation,' or, in free translation, a total organism.33 According to Gestalt psychology, things are not atomic, but organic. Parts have no significance except as they are seen in relation to the whole to which they belong. That is, the real nature of wholes is recognized only when they are viewed as totalities. This newest concept of learning introduced with it the whole-to-part method of teaching. We have seen the effect of this method in the teaching of reading, for example. The part-to-whole method advocates the teaching of reading by starting with the letters of the alphabet; then proceeding to the word, phrase, clause, sentence, and paragraph. Ac cording to the whole-to-part procedure, reading should be 34 Raymond H. Wheeler, Sclence of Psychology (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1929), p. 510. 35 McGaughy, ojs. cit., p. 142. 71 taught by beginning with a whole thought— the sentence, or even the paragraph. The conversational method of teaching foreign languages is also a whole-to-part procedure which has developed within recent years. When a child learns informally, he learns by the whole method. In learning to walk or talk, he does not start by analyzing the skill into its separate parts; he Mlearns all over.” Neither does he learn to ride a bicycle Mby parts.” However, the fact that a child begins to learn from the whole does not mean that he will not have to consider the parts, for practicing on the whole each time is only part of the answer to efficient learning. The time often comes when it is necessary to isolate some of the parts and to concentrate on them. In piano practice, for instance, the learner starts with the whole selection; then he works on the hard spots that need more attention. Likewise, in t7/ping certain difficult letter combinations are isolated for practice; in handwriting certain strokes and letter forms need special attention, and in reading the difficult and complex sound combinations are isolated for practice.3e The practice on parts is helpful as long as the rela tion of the parts to the whole is kept in mind, and as long as practicing on the whole proceeds simultaneously with practice 011 the parts. There is evidence that practice on isolated parts is not so wearisome when the learner meets £b Gertrude Hildreth, Child Growth Through Education (New York: The Ronald Press, 1948T1 pp*. 46-47. 72 the parts through working with the whole. This type of practice Is more Interesting, purposeful, and enjoyable, because the learner sees the sense and value in practicing the parts. By practicing with understanding, he also gains much more satisfaction in developing the skill he is seek ing to p e r f e c t . ^ Gestalt psychology does not introduce any new princi ple into learning; instead, it places emphasis upon cer tain principles which have previously been generally ac cepted. It emphasizes the fact that behavior, at any given time, depends upon the working together of all the stimuli present in the total situation in which one finds himself, and it rejects the notion that each detail of behavior can be ascribed to some one detail of the situation. Gestalt psychology holds that we do not learn by experience, but by insight. Experience merely furnishes the opportunity for learning. This psychology also affirms that learning is a process of maturation, which exerts itself in the form of goals. According to it, repetition does not cause learning Ml It merely provides opportunities for learning to take place. Motivation is considered a matter of insight or understand ing.38 The meaning for education of the Gestalt psychol- 37 I b i d .I p . 47-43. 38 Clarence E. Ragsdale, Modern Psychologies and Edu cation (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932), pp. 80, 176-78, 198. 73 ogy Is not yet clear. Probably it places first em phasis upon making clear to pupils the goals for which they are striving. It requires, too, that these goals shall not be set beyond their reach--beyond their level of insight. It minimizes the value of drill and rou tine procedures and favors a unit plan of learning.39 Modern Views of Learning The following paragraph offers a modern definition of learning: Learning may be defined as theprogressive change in behavior which is associated, on the one hand, with successive presentations of a situation, and on the other, with repeated efforts of the Individual to re act to it effectively. Learning may also be thougjht of as the acquisition of ways of satisfying motives or of attaining goals . . . Learning occurs when old ways of acting are Incapable of overcoming obstacles or meeting new conditions.40 Describing the new psychology of learning, Kilpatrick writes: The newer psychology grows out of a better blol*;- the doctrine of evolution, andthe fact of modern rapid change. It views life as a process of continual Interaction between the organism and its environment, and accordingly understands both learning and thinking as Instrumental aspects of this process working Inher ently within It. This conception of learning and thinking, In contrast with the older static view, Is essentially creative and dynamic as befits a plastic and changing world.41 In light of the principles on which agreements have been reached by the various schools of thought, the learning £9 Ibld. ~ p . 399 . 40 Arthur I. Gates, ejb aT., Educational Psychology (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1942), p. 299. ^ William H. Kilpatrick, Remaking the Curriculum (New York: Newson and Company, 1936), p. 22. 74 process can be described as purposeful, active, and goal- directed. It is a function of the total situation in which a child finds himself and involves Insight as well as trial and error. Learning is an intelligent and a creative proc ess, and not merely a mechanistic reaction to sensory stim uli. Learning affects the whole individual. When one learns, It Is not a matter of individual sets of neurons and their connections cooperating; it Is a coordinated and uni fied pattern of response. The purpose of education Is not to condition Individ uals to certain ways of reaction and to prepare them to meet fixed situations, but it Involves the selection of the important factors In a situation and the ability to adjust to them and to respond in a meaningful way. The highest objective of learning Is to develop in individuals the abil ity to meet new situations Intelligently. Since the future Is never like the past, it Is necessary to develop resource fulness, adaptability, initiative, and independence in our boys and girls. It Is very dangerous for teachers to as sume that the future Is a repetition of experiences of ex actly the same nature as those which happened In the past and to regard the task of education as one of conditioning the pupils to meet certain fixed situations.4^ Elsbree and McNally43 report that the findings of psy- ' 42 Yoakam and Simpson, o j d . clt. . p. 21. 43 Willard S. Slsbree and Harold J. McNally, Elementary School Administration and Supervision (New York: American Book Company , 1^51) , p~. & 7 • 75 chological research, during the first half of this century have indicated that learning is not a logical thing. There is evidence that learning proceeds from the complex to the simple as often as it does from the simple to the complex. It is also a relatively unorganized process. What organiza tion it has is based upon the purposes of the learner, not the logic of the subject, and its sequence is determined in light of the learner’s growth, needs, and experiences. Fur thermore, children’s learning rates differ so much that it has proved impossible to "grade" pupils into learning levels and to subscribe to the grade standard theory of education. The modern teacher realizes that the most efficient learning often takes place outside the classroom, so trips to the farm, factory, museum, and other places of interest are often taken. He further realizes that the most impor tant features of the learning situation are psychological instead of physiological. He tries to develop a cooperative social atmosphere, which is relatively free from conflict, and a group spirit of friendly association in working toward common goals. He recognizes his position of leadership and the importance of the ways in which he exercises that leader ship. However, it is net enouigh merely to have a class in which children get along well together, the control is good, the necessary equipment and supplies are available, and interesting trips are taken. Too often an enthusiastically "progressive" teacher goes little further than this. Every good teacher should be cognizant of the fact that his job 76 is not only to keep children happy, but also to provide an environment In which they learn*44 Characteristics, Conditions, and Principles of Learning The major characteristics, conditions, and principles of learning as accepted by modern psychologists and educa tors are here summarized. It is the opinion of the writer that such a summary Is basic to a study concerned with cur ricular organization. Learning is a, reconstruction or reorganization of ex perience.4^ This means that effective learning begins with the experiences which a learner has had, and that ” . . . . every experience should do something to prepare a person for later experiences of a deeper and more expansive nature.”46 We can assume, then, that learning which is based upon past experience will proceed much faster than that which is based upon meaningless abstractions. Dewey defines experience as the result of the interaction of a living organism with its environment, but he cautions us that all experience is not educative: The belief that all genuine education comes about 44 Sidney L. Pressey and Francis P. Robinson, Psychol ogy and the New Education (New Yorks Harper and Brothers, 1944j^ p. 444. 46 John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1935} , p T ”89. 46 John Dewey, Experience and Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939), pT 88. 77 through experience does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education cannot be directly equated to each other. For some experiences are miseducative. Any experience is miseducatlve that has the effect of arresting or distorting the growth of further experience.^ Learning begins when equilibrium Is upset by doubt. confusion. or perplexity. Learning is an active, not a passlve process.49 Chil dren are naturally active; they are constantly shouting, jumping, running, manipulating, talking, and listening. It is impossible to prevent a normal, healthy child from learn ing. When the school provides many opportunities for actlv ity, both interest and learning are increased. Teachers must be careful, though, to avoid activity for activity's sake only. Children learn by doing; however, unless it is clear to them how an activity is related to learning, there is danger that mere activity might be mistaken for learning Learning is a. creative act.50 The essence of the learning process is discovery, a continuous doing of some thing new; so learning must come about by way of a creative process. More and more, educators are coming to believe that all learning is of a creative nature for each individ ual. Children should, therefore, be encouraged to make dis 47 Ibid .T~~P« 13. Alberty, ojp. clt . . p. 53. 40 Harold Spears, Some Prlnciples of Teaching (New Yorks Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949), pT 26. 50 Wheeler a n d Perkins, ojd. c l t ., pp. 118-19. 78 coveries for themselves rather than rely upon the teachers for all the answers. Learning Is purposeful .5 It is evident that learning la more rapid, effective, and permanent when It Is purpose ful. Children and adults alike learn rapidly those facts and abilities which are necessary in order to realize a genuine purpose. The greater the purpose of the learner, the more rapid the learning. The good school keeps the purposes of the children constantly in mind. Learning begins with the interests of the l e a r n e r .52 Interest Is one of the greatest factors in learning, and it Is developed by those things about which children know the most. The more interested one is in a problem, the harder he works at It. There can be no real learning without In terest; therefore, effective teaching considers children’s interests of basic Importance and builds upon them whenever possible• Meaningful situations facllltate learning. Meaning is always based on experience, and experience is meaningful In terms of previous understandings• There can be meaning, then, only In terms of what a child understands. An effec tive teacher learns to know his pupils well and finds out what is meaningful to them. Experiments carried on by Kilpatrick, ojc. cit.» p. 2 9 . Charles B. Mendenhall and Kenneth J. Arlsman, Secondary Education (New Yorks William Sloan Associates, Inc•, 1951),’p . 59• Wheeler and Perkins^ revealed that the degree of learning la In direct relationship to the extent of meaning in the materials presented* This means that the materials which learners understand should always be presented first. Learning Is more effective when the material taught is suitable to the maturation level of the learner. The ma turity of the child Is a very Important factor In his learn ing. Since all children do not mature at the same rate, nor reach the same level of learning, an Important task of the teacher Is to direct learning so that It will be within the capacities of the children* If experiences are postponed for a while, less teaching is sometimes necessary. The experiments with postponed reading have borne out this fact. Children tend to seek those experiences for which they are ready and to reject those for which they are not r e a d y . 54 The learner accepts and acts upon the learnIngs which he believes are personally valuable to him. It is a truism that not all learnings are or can be retained by a person. Only those learnings are kept which an Individual thinks are worth keeping. These include those which are useful at the moment and those which might be of help In dealing in telligently with future experiences* A person learns what he lives and lives what he learns. In the words of Kilpat- k*5 Wheeler and Perkins, oj3. clt., pp. 296-97. Willard C. Olson, Child Development (Bostons D. C. Heath and Company, 1949), p. 336. 80 rick, n . . ., we learn only and exactly what we live; we learn what we accept as our way of living, and we learn It In the degree we live lt.n55 Learning Is facilitated when the learner* s mental. physical, and emotional health are good. Children who are under pressure to achieve beyond their abilities, those who are undernourished or ill, and those who are upset by con ditions at home or at school cannot be expected to learn effectively. Likewise, the learning of a child who is wor ried, anxious, or afraid, is very much Impaired. The good elementary school program emphasizes the mental, physical, and emotional health of pupils. It provides a program which is pleasant, stimulating, and wholesome.56 A child learns best when he is free to make his own organization of materials as he satisfies his own purpose ful goals. Children and teachers must work together on the selection and sources of materials and on the organization of them. There is no method of arriving at goals, nor Is there any single organization or set of materials which Is indispensable • 56 William H. Kilpatrick, Philosophy of Education (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1951), p . 120. 56 Ohio State Department of Education, Living and Learning with the Children of Ohio» Curriculum Bulletin No.6 ^Columbus: P. J. Heer Printing Company, 1945), pp. 40-41. Indiana State Department of Public Instruction, A Good Start in School, Bulletin No. 158 (Indianapolis: De partment of Public Instruction, 1944), p. 29. 81 A child learna beat when he can share in the management of the learning experiences with the other children: guided, but not controlled, by adult a .58 All schools which are fully aware of the needs of their pupils will provide op portunities for children to share in determining their learn ing experiences. It is important for our way of life that children learn to work cooperatively in the management of their own living. A child learns best under the guidance of sympathetic adults who understand him as a growing personality.59 The desire for sympathetic understanding Is one of the strongest characteristics of all children, and respect for the person ality of each Individual is the foundation upon which our democracy Is built. Children can attain optimum develop ment only In an atmosphere where there is respect for every child's personality and ability. Learning is more effective when it is vivid and dra matic and when sensory experiences are increased.60 Chil dren who actually visit a farm or a paper mill will under stand more clearly and remember much longer the work of the farmer and the various processes by which paper Is made. The good school makes effective use of community resources by bringing real experiences into the classroom and by going 58 L. Thomas Hopkins, Interaction: The Democratic Proc ess (Bostons D. C. Heath and Company, 1941)", pT 165. Indiana State Department of Public Instruction, op. cit. , p. 29. 60 Ohio State Department of Education, ojd. cit. , p. 44. 82 outside of the classroom for them. It makes use of trips, films, supplementary books, etc. Learning is enhanced when opportunities are provided for seeing relationships and when these relationships are drawn out and made clear.6^- Teachers must not assume that children can always see the relationships which mature minds easily see. Relationships should be drawn out and attention called to them to help children see and understand them. The value of proper eating, for example, can be taught chil dren very effectively by letting them experiment with the effects of various diets on the growth of white rats. A child learns best when he is conscious of his progress toward his own goals and those which soclety has set for him, and when he can evaluate his own achievernent.62 Insight obviates the need for much repetition and drill. Too many teachers still believe that learning depends upon repetition. They assume that insight and understanding are the result of drill. Research studies show that, when in sight is developed, the need for drill decreases and learn ing is more permanent. rtThe results suggest that in fur thering learning the role of the teacher is one of helping students to gain insights rather than one of prescribing drill procedures.”65 This does not, of course, eliminate 61 Indiana State Department of Public Instruction, oj3. . , p . 32. 62 Ibid., p. 33. 63 Mendenhall and Arisman, ojd . clt. . pp. 60-61. 83 the need for meaningful repetition and practice to meet rec ognized needs. Drill should not he mechanical; It should always he functional and meaningful. The most effective method of learnlng Is reflective thinking, since hy this process understandings are achieved. present behavior Is evaluated, and unique modes of behavior are established. ^ Learning Is most effective when the child participates In the planning of experlences. the execution of the plans, and the evaluation of them.65 in the traditional school the pupil engages only In the carrying out of the plans worked out in advance by the teacher. The teacher also does all the evaluating by himself. Learning should result In changes In behavior. 66 Un less the experiences which children have at school bring about some changes in their behavior, learning has not transpired. PRINCIPLES OF CHILD OROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Scientific research in the field of child growth and development has revealed several guiding principles with which elementary teachers and those concerned with the ele mentary school curriculum should be familiar. A knowledge ^ Alberty, ojd. clt., p. 53. Spears, ojc. cit., p. 42. 66 Mendenhall and Arlsman, ojc. clt. , pp. 61-62. 84 of these principles provides a necessary background for un derstanding the elementary school child and for providing the types of school experiences which will result in the most effective and desirable kinds of growth. No disucssion of child nature would be complete without a review of some of the major principles of child growth and development. Children differ in rate and level of growth. T h i s principle has very definite implications for the organiza tion of the curriculum and for the selection of methods of instruction. No two children grow in exactly the same way. They "differ in their rates of growth, in the ages at which they begin a particular kind of growth, and in the maximum toward which they are growing."6® Children of the same chronological age differ considerably in their readiness for various types of learning and experience. On this point, Olson reports that children of the same chronological age and the same grade "regularly differ among themselves by as much as four or five years or more in their maturation and their readiness to perform tasks.In discussing the great individual differences in reading, he states that Willard C. Olson, "Concepts of Growth--Their Signif icance to Teachers," About Children--How They Learn. Fee 1, and Grow (Washington, -0. C.s Association for Childhood Education, 1945), p. 5. 6® Cecil V. Millard, Child Growth and Development in the Elementary School (Bostons D. C. Heath and Company, 1951), p. 12. 85 there is a range of ten years for boys and seven years for girls at eleven years of chronological age. Studies of eighth-grade graduates reveal that there is a range of abil ity among them ranging from the fourth to the eleventh grade. 70^ Since children differ in rate and level of growth, we can expect an average classroom to include a range of mental ages of four or five years and a range of achievement in each of the various school subjects of four or five grades. Individual differences in growth in reading, arithmetic, spelling, and the other subjects point to the undesirability of a fixed curriculum and uniform standards of achievement within a classroom. These are not consistent with what we know about child growth. It is not in agreement with the laws of nature that children should advance lock step through the grades, as they do In the traditional school. Behavior problems are sure to arise when children are pres sured to reach standards of achievement and conformity for which they are not ready. The good school program provides for a wide range of difficulty in each subject and for an informal, flexible grouping of children. It also emphasizes the comparison of a child with his own previous record, rather than with group or national norms. Each child has his own individual pattern of growth. l/0 Paul A . Witty, w0n This We Agree, n Journal of the National Education Association, 40S187, March, 1951. unique to h i m .7^ Some children are tall and some short; some slender and some stocky. Some are strong; others are weak. Some are bright, while others are dull. In describing the term, Olson writes:"A pattern of growth refers to the relationship of various measured characteristics within an individual at a given point in time, or to a succession of changes with time.”^ illustrations of individual pat terns, he contrasts a child of ten who has high mental and reading ages and low height, weight, carpal, and dental ages with another ten-year-old who has high physical ages and low mental and achievement ages. Ereckenridge and Vincent offer the following words of advice to teachers and administrators in regard to Individual patterns of growth: Certain intellectually fast growing children have the physical stamina and social maturity to enter school at five and one-half years of age. Other chil dren of the same chronological and mental ages will be quite unable physically or socially to stand the com petition of other first graders. Some children seem slow to catch on in school for several years, yet prove later to be excellent students. Forcing the pace of growth at any stage will not produce good results In the long run, and may incur 3erious damage along the way. Forcing children Into any pattern of growth which Is not in harmony with their natural potentialities Is likely to result in tragedy both for the child and for the misguided adult.73 Development follows an orderly sequence . 74 Every ^1 Arnold Gesell and Frances Ilg, I‘he Child from Five, to Ten (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946)1, p • 5. 72 Olson, Child Development, op. cit. , p. 5. 73 Yarian E. Breckenrldge and E. Lee Vincent, Child De velopment (Philadelphia: W. B. Sunders Company, 194S), p. 15. 74 Alberty, et__al., ojc. c l t ., p. 10. 87 species follows a pattern of development peculiar to that particular species* In the case of human beings, develop ment Is not haphazard and unorganized, as It may sometimes appear. A child normally sits before he stands, stands be fore he walks, and walks before he runs* He likewise talks before he reads and reads before he spells. Also, his abil ity to read develops before his ability to write* G-esell and Ilg further describe the nature of growth sequences in this ways Every child is unique, but every child is also a member of one human species. Obedient to these species characteristics there are growth sequences which are rarely or never circumvented. The motor control of the eyes precedes that of the fingers; head balance pre cedes body balance; palmer prehension precedes digital prehension; voluntary grasp precedes voluntary release. Banging comes before poking; vertical and horizontal hand movements before circular and oblique; crawling before creeping; creeping before upright walking; ges tures before words; jargon before speech; nouns before prepositions; solitary play before social; perceptions before abstractions; practical before conceptual judg ments • ”5 The proc ess of growth and development is continuous. Growth is a continuous process, an unbroken sequence In which each new phase of development emerges from the old. Children do not grow by leaps and bounds, as G. Stanley Hall, founder of the child study movement In this country, be lieved. Educators must discard the notion that progress Is made abruptly as a child passes from one grade to another. "Even alternation of growth spurts and plateaus, while often marked and noticeable, Is not abrupt, one stage usually fading almost Imperceptibly into the next.”'76 Some people believe that there are distinct periods of growth and that growth has ceased at other times. This is not true, for growth continues from birth to maturity at a slow, regular pace. Development proceeds from general to specific respon ses In all phases of development, whether motor or men tal, the child’s responses are of a general nature before they become specific. At all times general activity pre cedes specific activity. The newborn infant moves his whole body at one time, instead of moving any one part of it. The baby’s arm movements are general and random before he can reach for specific objects. Also, his legs engage in ran dom kicking before he can coordinate the leg muscles well enough to crawl or walk. In the area of language, the baby produces general, babbling sounds before he speaks words. Teachers undoubtedly do some damage to children by giving them too much and too complicated handwork during the kin dergarten and first grade. The larger muscles should be trained during these early years; fine handwork should be avoided• Development occurs at different rates for different parts of the body.^8 Although growth and development fol- *76 Jenkins, Shacter, and Bauer, ojc. cit. . p. 8. ^ Otto, oj>. clt.. pp. 277-78, Hurlock, ojg_. cit., p. 37. 89 low an orderly sequence and the process Is continuous, it is not uniform. Not all parts of the body develop at the same rate, nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed evenly. Olson^O gives an excellent illustration of this principle when he reports the fact that at age six the gen ital system has attained 9 per cent of its adult size, the body about 42 per cent, the brain and nervous system approx imately 90 per cent, and the lymphoid system about 90 per cent. Since the different phases of mental, physical, emo tional, and social growth occur at their individual rates and reach maturity at different times, the current emphasis upon chronological age must be changed. For educational purposes, it is sometimes helpful to view a child*s growth as a whole by using the concept of organismic age (the av erage of his intellectual, physical, emotional, and social maturities).80 Correlation , not compensation is the rule. Even today we find people who believe in the rule of compensation in human growth and development. They believe that children with superior minds have weak bodies and are subject to a great deal of illness; conversely, they think that children with strong bodies have weak minds. The fallacy of this 79 Olson, Child Development. op. clt., p. 22. 80 w. C. Olson and B. 0. Hughes, "The Concept of Or- ganismio Age," Journal of Educational Research. 36:525-27, March, 1942. 90 common belief has been demonstrated time and again by exper imental studies.It is not true that the child who is above average in one trait will always be below average in others in order to equalize his capacities. As a matter of fact, research shows that the opposite is ordinarily true. There Is much evidence to prove that the bright child Is generally also above average in health, size, sociability, and special talents. This tendency of desirable phases of growth and development to appear in the same individual Is known as the rttheory of correlation." Many forms of "problem behavior" are normal behavior for different ages. Teachers and parents should realize that each developmental age presents some undesirable forms of behavior which are to be accepted as normal, and which will disappear as a child grows into the next stage of de velopment. Very often parents who are not cognizant of this fact become much disturbed when undesirable forms of be havior appear.82 At certain stages of development there is hostility between boys and girls, but this hostility ceases to exist within another period of development. In the ele mentary school the typical boy objects to washing his hands, face, and ears. However, this same boy becomes very partic ular about his grooming and appearance during the adolescent stage. The forms of behavior characteristic of various age m Otto, op. cit . , p. 278. Hurlock, ojc. cit. . p. 39. 91 periods must be accepted as normal behavior. Much of children’s behavior Judged inappropriate or antisocial by teachers and parents simply repre sents normal behavior in terms of the efforts children make to adjust to and utilize their environment at their respective stages of development.83 Growth and development are complex and Interrelated * Growth is a very complex process, and the various aspects of it are intimately interrelated. The physical child can not be fully understood without also understanding him as one who thinks and has feelings. Likewise, it is impossible to understand mental development without also considering the physical body and its needs. There is close relation ship between school success and a child’s emotions, physi cal health, and his intellectual ability. Fatique and hun ger influence a child’s behavior, while an emotional dis turbance may affect his eating and sleeping habits.8^ The school must, therefore, recognize the child as an indivis ible unity. The tempo of growth is not even. Children do not all reach the common sequences of development at the same time. There are periods of fast growth and periods of very slow growth. We are all familiar with the rapid growth during the infancy and early pre-school years and the slower growth during the later pre-school and school years.85 ' 53 Otto, op. clt., p. 281. 84 Breckenridge and Vincent, op., clt., p. 15. 85 Caswell, op. clt., p. 7. 92 Each, developmental phase has traits peculiar to It. At each age some traits develop more rapidly than others. During the pre-natal, babyhood, and early adolescent years, physical development is most conspicuous. During babyhood development of control over the body is the predominant growth characteristic. . . . sociability and social cooperation are characteristics of late childhood, awkwardness of early adolescence, and ’smartness,* with a desire to show off and shock others, of late adolescence.8® Development is predlctable. Since the rate of develop ment for each child Is constant, It Is possible to predict the ultimate mature development of a child early in his life. This has helped In planning the education of a child and In assisting him to prepare for the type of work for which he is best fitted. It has also proved invaluable in the se lection of children for adoption.87 In order for elementary education to be most effective, those concerned with It should be familiar with the above principles and the growth characteristics of elementary school children. An understanding of what can generally be expected from children of a particular age is very useful background for planning a sound educational program. Per haps two of the best known and most widely used outlines of the growth characteristics and developmental needs of chil Hurlock, o£. clt., p. 39. 87 ibid., p. 38. dren are found In How Children Develop*^ and The Child from Five to Ten»89 It should he made clear that characteristics are not to be regarded as rigid norms, for each child is his own best norm. It Is Impossible to predict just what growth characteristics an Individual will possess at any particular time. It Is true, though, that general sequences of change are evident. If curriculum makers know the gen eral sequences of growth and the characteristics and devel opmental goals of various ages, they will be better pre pared to provide the best experiences for each phase of de velopment • An understanding of children Is essential for teachers, most of whom do not understand them very well. As teachers gain more Insight into child behavior, they usually become more sympathetic and friendlier. They also gain In self confidence as they familiarize themselves with the facts and principles of child development. Teachers who under stand children think of their behavior as being caused. They accept all children emotionally, rejecting none as hopeless or unworthy. They recognize that each one is u- nique and that children face a series of common develop mental tasks. They know the most important scientific facts which describe and explain the forces that regulate 8b Faculty of the University School, How Children De velop . University School Series, No. 3 (Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1946)• 89 Gesell and Ilg., ojo. clt. 94 human growth, development, motivation, learning, and behav ior. Lastly, teachers who understand children use scien tific methods in making judgments about any child. ^ 0 SUMMARISING PRINCIPLES A. Nature of the Elementary School Child 1 . The elementary school child is an active being, who develops in interaction with a dynamic environment. 2 . The elementary school child is a unified system of energy; he Is born as an Integrated whole and continues to function as a whole. Any behavior Involves the whole child; his physical, emotional, and Intellectual aspects of behav ior cannot be separated. 3. The elementary school child Is constantly seeking goals and directing his energies toward accepted purposes in an effort to restore and maintain equilibrium. 4. The development of the elementary school child Is motivated by his goals (interests, motives, needs, wants, purposes, problems). 5. The elementary school child has certain basic psy chological needss achievement, recognition, affection, se curity, belonging, adventure, freedom from guilt, coopera tion with others, and sympathetic understanding. ^0 Staff of the Division on Child Development and Teacher Personnel, Helping Teachers Understand Children (Washington, D. C.t American Council on Education, 1945), pp. 8-11. 95 B. Nature of the Learning Process 1. Learning Is a reconstruction of experience, with one experience leading to another. 2. Learning begins when equilibrium is upset by doubt, confusion, or perplexity. 3. Learning is an active and a creative process. 4. Learning Is facilitated when it satisfies a genuine need or purpose, when it is interesting, when it is meaning ful, and when It is suitable to the maturation level of the learner. 5. The learner learns the facts, Information, knowledge, and skills which he can use at the current time and those which will help him to deal effectively with the Immediate future• 6. Learning is facilitated when the learner’s mental, physical, and emotional health are good. 7. Effective learning begins with the experiences of the learner. 8 . Learning is most effective when children share In the selection and organization of materials and experiences, in the planning and execution of plans, and in the evalua tion of progress, under the direction of adults. 9. Learning Is most effective when it Is vivid and dramatic, when sensory experiences are Increased, and when opportunities for seeing relationships are provided. 10. One learns best when his goals are clear and ac- 96 cepted by him, when he is conscious of his progress toward them, and when he can evaluate his own achievement. 11. Reflective thinking is the most effective method of learning. 12. Learning is not a logical thing; it proceeds from the complex to the simple as often as it does from the simple to the complex. Its organization depends upon the experiences, needs, and purposes of the learner. 13. Insight makes much repetition and drill unneces sary. 14. A learner responds to a whole situation, not to isolated parts of it, and learning affects the whole indi vidual • 15. The most effective learning sequence is determined by the learner*s interests, needs, and experiences. C. Nature of Child Growth and Development 1 . Children differ in rate and level of growth. 2. Each child has his own individual pattern of growth 3. The process of growth and development is continuous 4. Development follows an orderly sequence* 5. Development proceeds from general to specific re sponses • 6 . Different parts of the body develop at different rates. 7. Growth and development are complex and Interrelated 8 . The tempo of growth Is uneven. 97 9. Each developmental phase has traits peculiar to It. 10. Many forms of "problem behavior" are normal be havior for different ages. S8 CHAPTER IV MODERN DETELOmiHNTS OF UNIT TEACHING IN THEIR HISTORICAL SETTING This chapter outlines the factors which have contrib uted to the philosophy underlying Experience Unit teaching, showing the influence of European teachers and philosophers and of American leaders, organized groups, and experimental schools. It then traces the evolution of unit teaching from its early beginnings to modern developments, closing with a discussion of the various types of units. GROWTH OE THE PHILOSOPHY UNDERLYING EXPERIENCE UNIT TEACHING European Teachers and Philosophers Our schools have Inherited many good ideas from Euro pean teachers and theorists. In tracing the philosophy upon which the Experience Unit is based, the European contribu tions to current practice should not be overlooked. The European teachers and philosophers who have contributed most to the philosophy of the Experience Unit were John Amos Comenius, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozsi, Friedrich Herbart, and Friedrich Froebel. Their contribu- tions are presented briefly here. 1 Writing in the seventeenth century, Comenius main tained that learning should be based upon interest and un derstanding. He emphasized things rather than words, sug gested that children learn to do by doing, and advocated that everything should be taught through the senses. He also pleaded that discipline should be mild and gentle. Rousseau, often referred to as the "father of modern educa tion," contributed much to the philosophy underlying the Experience Unit. He urged that teachers must study their pupils carefully, emphasized the teaching of children rather than subject matter, and contended that education should be more sensory and rational. Like Comenius, Rous seau emphasized interest and understanding and recommended that a child should learn directly from experience. The theories of Pestalozzi, who is called the "father of the modern elementary school," were in harmony with much of our present-day educational doctrine. Pestalozzi1s con- For a fuller discussion of the contributions, see: Harry G. Good, A History of Western Education (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1947T, pp. 68-69; 244-45; 483-84; et_ passim. Adolph E. Meyer, The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950T, pp. 8, 17-20; et 'passim. Edward H. Reisner, The Evolution of the Common School (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932X, p. 135, ejt passim. 100 cept was that of* an activity and experience curriculum. Among other things, he introduced more concreteness, more thinking, and more doing into the curriculum. He also pleaded for more directed observations and for rich sensory experiences. Herbart, an admirer of Pestalozzi, believed that a child can be educated only if he is active and in terested. The National Herbart Club, which later became the National Society for the Study of Education, was organized in 1892 to spread his theories and practices in the United States. This society stressed observation, direct experi ence, understanding, children’s interests, correlation, and unit teaching. Froebel, pupil of Pestalozzi and founder of the kindergarten, held that education comes about through creative self-activity based upon the interests and purposes of children. He looked upon the child as an active organism, and he maintained that education should develop the child’s whole personality. American Influences American educators often speak of the "new education," even though there is really little new about it. These words have been part of our pedagogical vocabulary for a hundred years; and the ideas, as noted in the preceding discussion, have been prevalent in Western European writing to some ex tent for five hundred years, and to a great extent for three hundred years. However, the so-called "new education" has undergone some significant changes in America. First, in- 101 tellectual activity (observation, reason, understanding) rather than knowledge has been emphasized. Second, motor activities have been combined with intellectual activity. Third, a deeper and broader understanding of what it means to "learn to do by doing" has developed in America.3 The philosophy underlying the Experience Unit has been refined and extended in this country by (l) educational leaders, (2) organized groups, and (5) experimental schools. A brief discussion of each of these follows. Educational leaders. In tracing the development of modern education, one cannot ignore the work of Benjamin Eranklin, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson. Their at titudes toward religious dogma, their faith in individuals, and their strong democratic spirit are worthy of mention. Idealists like 7/illiam T. Harris and Halph V/aldo Emerson, although close to Essentialism, should not be forgotten. Harris directljr influenced Dewey, and Emerson’s writings are flavored with American practicality and common sense. Credit should also be given to the contributions of Charles S. Pierce and William James in American philosophy.3 3 National Society for the Study of Education, The Activity Movement. Thirty-Third Yearbook. Part II (Bloom ington, Illinois: Publ i'c Sc ho ol Publishing Companjr 1934), t>. 32. 3 Theodore Brameld, Patterns of Educational Philosophy (New York: World Book Company, 1950*7, pp. 102-103. A review of the evolution of the philosophy underlying the modern elementary school would not he complete without a consideration of the leadership of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, and Francis Parker. Yvhile none of these educa tors was an outstanding theorist, all three of them helped spread the modern philosophy. Mann, one of the greatest educational statesmen that America has produced, visited the Prussian schools and returned impressed with Pestaloz- zi*s system. He wrote very impressive reports of his vis its, which aroused the public on behalf of educational re form. Like Mann, Earnard was also a promoter of educational improvements; and he, too, was impressed with Pestalozzian methods. In his writings he urged that school work be based upon pupils* everyday observations and experiences; also, that concrete, meaningful teaching replace abstract teaching from the textbook. Barnard began the publication of The Arnerican Journa1 of Education in 1855, and for thirty-one years he served as its editor. In this way he kept the public and teachers informed of the latest trends in educa tion. Parker, who is regarded as the "father of American Progressive Education," did much toward developing the philosophy upon which the Experience Unit is founded, both in a theoretical and in a practical way. Parker "advocated learning by the socializing of school activities, featuring child interest and activity as the basic principles of ed- ucation.For most of his educational ideas, he was in1 0 3 debted to Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel; especially to the latter, whom he accepted as a great educational leader. On a visit to Germany he became familiar and very much im pressed with the theories and practices of these great Eur opean educators. He returned with a sincere respect for the child’s individuality. Shortly after his return from Germany, Parker was elected superintendent of the Quincy, Massachusetts, schools. He abolished the teaching of subjects in an isolated fash ion; they were taught in a functional manner in relation to a comprehensive, interrelated unit of meaningful exper ience. Porker did away with rules, prizes, demerits, marks, and the other devices used to bribe or threaten children into being industrious and obedient. Pupils were given an opportunity to behave as thoughtful and cooperative citi zens. They learned to spell by writing words which repre sented familiar thoughts and concepts, and arithmetic was taught through actual use rather than through fantastic problems. Few schools of today compare in quality with the schools which Parker developed.3 It is generally agreed that Fohn Dewey, our greatest philosopher and educational thinker, has influenced the ~ ^ Gertrude Hildreth, Child Growth Through Education (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1948), p. 128. 3 Reisner, op. cit. , pp. 508-11. 104 modem elementary school more than any other person. His influence on education Is unmatched In extent and depth. Every school child, in public and non-public schools, In this country as well as most other countries of the world, lives a much happier and better life because of Dewey. Pestalozzi prepared the way with the help of Froebel and Herbart. Mann, Barnard, Harris, Hall, Parker, and others were instrumental In refining and spreading Pestalozzi’s views and methods In America. One thing was still lacking; none of these men had offered an adequate theory for a completely democratic, science-respecting education. This task was left for Dewey. "The essence of his theory Is that education must continue to grow in the individual, and grow as part of the culture."6 Since 1909 the movement toward organized learning with unified teaching, and problem-centered activities has stead ily been gaining ground. Dewey is the leading exponent of this philosophy In America. Furthermore, he has emphasized pupil activity, children’s Interests, richness of experi ence, reflective thinking, and the importance of pupil pur poses in education. Dewey has also Identified learning with problem solving, an active mental process.Some writers8 have summarized Dewey’s educational philosophy 8 William H. Kilpatrick, "Apprentice Citizens,11 Saturday Review of Literature, 30:13, October 22, 1949. ? Hildreth, oj3. cit. , p. 128. 8 See Meyer, ojc. c it. , p. 45. 105 under four points: (1) education is life and not prepara tion for life; (2) education is growth., and education goes on as long as growth continues; (3) education is a contin uous reconstruction of experience; and (4) education is a social process, so the school must be a democratic commun ity. As we examine Dewey’s belief concerning such things as direct experience, interest, purposeful and creative activity, meaningful situations, growth, a rich environ ment, functional and unified teaching, respect for individ uality, child study, and education as a social process, it is evident that he has been influenced by previous thinkers, especially Froebel, Herbart, and Parker. It should not be assumed, however, that Dewey accepted the ideas of the ed ucational leaders who preceded him without thought and res ervation. He rejected some of them, questioned some, and refined others. Organized groups. Several organizations have contrib uted to the development of the theory and practice found in our better elementary schools. Among these organizations are the John Dewey Society, the Association for Childhood Education, the American Federation of Teachers, the Associ ation for Supervision and Curriculum Development of the National Education Association, and the American Education Fellowship, formerly the Progressive Education Association. We might also Include in this group the National Society 10 6 for the Study of Education, which was mentioned earlier. Of all these organized groups, none of them has advo cated and advanced the philosophy of the Experience Unit as much as the Progressive Education Association. This organ ization, founded in 1919 in protest of the formalism of American schools, changed its name to the American Educa tion Fellowship in 1944. In a recent speech, U.S. Commis sioner of Education Earl J. McGrath praised the work of this organization highly, and expressed encouragement for the way in which the fundamental principles of progressive education have permeated the American educational system within the past thirty years. He also added that these principles, which stem from the basic principle of demo cratic living, recognize individual differences, stress learning for decision making, and advocate the relating of school life to the physical and social world.® When the Progressive Education Association was organ ized, the following principles were adopted: (1) the child should be given freedom to develop naturally; (2) interest should be the motive of all work; (3) the teacher should be a guide, not a taskmaster; (4) there should be scientific study of pupil development; (5) there should be greater at tention given to all that affects the child’s physical de velopment; (6) there should be cooperation between school and home in order to meet the needs of child life, and ^ See Progressive Education, 28:136, February, 1951. 107 (7) the progressive school should be a leader In educa tional movements .3-° It is evident that these principles are predominantly child-centered. The social aspect of education is implicit, but the emphasis is upon freedom, and natural development of the child. For two decades the Progressive Education Association withheld from formulating a definite statement of its phi losophy beyond that of the seven principles just listed. Realizing the Inadequacy of the original principles, in 1938 the Association appointed a committee to draw up a statement of its philosophy. This committee, headed by Harold Alberty,H presented Its report in the May, 1S41, issue of Progressive Education» the publication of the organization. The new statement accepted most of the orig inal basic tenets, but it further recognized that the pur poses of education cannot be found In the child alone, a- part from his social relations. It also refused to sub scribe to the concept of a planned society as a basis for determining the purpose of education. The report declared The Committee then rejects the doctrine that the direction in which education should go, and the ends It should seek, are discernible In the child out of 10 For an elaboration of these principles, see: Pro gressive Education Association, Progressive Education Ad- vances (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1938), pp. 5-6. Other members of the committee were H. Gordon Hull fish, Alice V. Keliher, Daniel Prescott, Louis Raths, Paul B. Sears, Ruth Streitz, Paul Witty, and Laura Zirbes. Or ville Brim was originally the chairman. 108 relation to the culture. It also refuses to give allegiance to the concept of a ’planned* society toward which we shall strive. Where then shall we find the direction for education?12 In answer to the question of wherein lies the direction for education, the committee replied: ’’T h e Committee holds that the dominant Ideals of our democratic culture, con tinuously reinterpreted and refined, provide this central direction.”13 Experimental schools. The work of various experi mental schools has helped considerably— and In a very con crete way--to clarify and to promote the cause of the Ex perience Unit in elementary education. Five of the earli est and best known experimental schools in this country were the Dewey School, the Francis W. Parker School, the Junius L. Merlam School, Marietta Johnson’s Fairhope School, and Ellsworth Collings’ Experimental School. The first really experimental school In this country was founded by Dewey in 1896, while he was head of the De partment of Education at the University of Chicago. It was officially known as the University Elementary School and enrolled children from four to fourteen years of age. Many of the modern trends in elementary education were in corporated In Dewey’s school. Chief among these were the Ideas ’’that the school should be a community and that 12 Harold Alberty, et al., ”Progressive Education: Its Philosophy and Challenge,” Progressive Education, 18:5, May, 1941. 13 Loc. cit. 109 learning should be an active and cooperative process in volving investigation, construction, and artistic creation . . Above all, Dewey desired that the school should be a miniature society in which social and intellectual conflicts are resolved. The school aimed to prepare its pupils for life by representing life itself. Children were to be active; they were to work rather than listen, and they were to learn how to become socially efficient. Cooperation was emphasized instead of competition. The so-called "activity program” was in evidence, and the 3R’s were related to the life ac tivities of the children. DeweyTs statement of the ideal relationship between the child and the curriculum and the work of his experi mental school have had a significant influence upon cur riculum organization. They have led several schools to abandon artificial plans of correlation and to look for unity in school experience, where it really exists. Teachers have come to look for units of experi ence that are actual, life-sized sections of social existence, that are within the range of the children’s interests and abilities, and that contain within them selves a sufficiently wide range of practical, in formational, scientific, and aesthetic relationships.15 The Francis W. Parker School opened in 1901 with Flora J. Cooke, one of Parker’s former colleagues, as principal. Good, o p . cit. . pp. 485-S6. 15 Reisner, ojc. c i t ., p. 530. 110 Located on Chicago's north side, the school continued under the wise guidance of Flora Cooke for more than thirty years The school sought to eliminate hard and fast subject-mat ter boundaries and to break away from the mechanical methods and organization of the traditional school. Sub ject matter was used as it applied to the broad units of study. Activity, creative self-expression, study trips, understanding the individual, personality development, etc. were basic features of the program. The Junius L. ffieriam School was established at the Un iversity of Missouri by Professor Mariam in 1904, soon after Dewey's school closed. This school, too, abolished conventional school subjects and furniture. The curriculum centered around the children's activities, in which trips, observations, discussions, and constructive activities played significant roles. The school day was divided into four flexible ninety-minute periods, a far cry from the traditional school day with a rigid schedule of ten to thirty-minute periods. According to Meriam, the outstanding characteristics of the school were; (1) the 3R’s and the traditional sub jects were not studied, but subjects were taken from life outside of school; (2) textbooks were not used, but an ex tensive library was used to supplement educational trips; (3) it did not have recitations in which pupils were tested on assignments previously made, but conferences in which Ill pupils reported their findings on timely topics; (4) it did not make assignments as lessons to be prepared, but in the conferences developed new problems and opportunities that were more conducive to study than ,ftasks,f, and (5) it did not use final examinations or irregular tests to find out what had been accomplished or to spur the pupils on.^ Marietta Johnson organized the Fairhope School at Fairhope, Alabama, in 1907, Known officially as the School of Organic Education, the school was a more radical depar ture from current practice than any of the earlier.ex perimental schools. The former schools were based upon the doctrines of Herbart and Froebel, whereas this one was pat terned after the plan of Rousseau. Tables and chairs and movable furniture replaced all fixed furniture, and not more than twenty pupils were assigned to a teacher. No formal reading or writing was taught before the age of nine or ten; before that time children engaged in a variety of children's work and play. There was no acceleration or specialization in the early years; as Rousseau suggested, emphasis was placed upon losing time rather than gaining it. There were no recitations, assigned lessons, examina tions, awards, grades, failures, or promotions. Interest, spontaneity, joy, and mental grasp were the goals, not knowledge or skill. Music, dancing, singing games, hand- ~~ 16 National Society for the Study of Education, op. cit.. pp. 40-41. work, and stories made up the early curriculum.^ Johnson was seeking a more flexible method of instruc tion adjusted to the needs of each individual child. Her school aimed to provide the right conditions for growth and to make the school as lifelike as possible. Creative ac tivity was stressed at Fairhope. Several large rooms were reserved for work in clay, drawing, sketching, painting, metal work, woodwork, and weaving. Folk dancing, singing, and nature study were popular activities. Nature study was not taught to provide the children with facts, but rather to stimulate curiosity and to develop the power of invest igation. When children reached the age of fourteen they were automatically passed Into the high school, since em phasis was upon chronological and social grouping.18 Ellsworth Collings’ Experimental School, located in McDonald County, Missouri, was a one-teacher school with an enrollment of forty-one children ranging from six to fifteen years in age. It was located in a rural area, more than six miles from the nearest town. The aims of the school were not the mastery of the conventional knowledge or skills, but rather the improvement of the present life of the pupils. The starting point, therefore, was the actual life of the boys and girls, with all their interests and desires. The school directed the children in choosing ^ Good, bp. cit., p. 488. 18 Meyer, op. c it.. pp.67-68. 113 the moat interesting and fruitful parts of their Xives as the content of their schooX activity. Four ideas were basic to CoXXings1 school: (X) in order that the schooX may properXy discharge its function, the curricuXum should be seXected from the purposes of boys and girXs in reaX Xife; (2) actual Xearning is never singie; (3) aXX Xearning encouraged by the schooX shouXd be used here and now; (4) the curricuXum is a series of guided experiences so related that what is learned in one experi ence serves to elevate and enrich the following experiences. The children were organized into three groups, and the cur riculum was organized into four types of projects: (a) play projects, (b) excursion projects, (c) story projects, and (d) hand projects. The superiority of Codlings1 Ex perimental School over two control schools was the first scientific evidence available in regard to the advantages of the "new education.”-*-9 Several other schools in America have stressed the need for bringing life and school closer together, such as: The Modern School, Stelton, New Jersey; Moraine Park School, Dayton, Ohio; Park School, Buffalo, New York; Park School, Baltimore, Maryland; Beaver Country Day School, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts; Shady Hill Country Day School, German town, Pennsylvania; Helen Chase Country Day School, wash- 1§ See Ellsworth Collings, An Experiment with a. Project Curriculum (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923), pp. XVII-XX, 48, 339-42. 114 ington, D. C.; and the Ethical Culture School, Walden School, City and Country School, Speyer School, and Lincoln School, all of New York City.20 The Ohio State University School should also be Included in this group. European teachers and philosophers and American leaders, organized groups, and experimental schools have all contributed to the growth of the philosophy underlying Experience Unit teaching. One must be careful, however, not to assume that everything advocated by either European or American influences has been sound . The pupil freedom recommended by Rousseau, for example, must be considered both impractical and unsound as far as our public schools are concerned. Even in light of the criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit, which are developed in the next chap ter, one is forced to question the validity of some of the educational philosophy proposed. THE BEGINNINGS OP UNIT TEACHING It has long been apparent that the daily assignment- recitation technique, which is characteristic of the tra ditional school, is entirely inadequate to prepare boys and girls for democratic living and to provide for their ful lest development. Many criticisms have been directed at this method of procedure: (1) the daily recitation pro National Society for the Study of Education, op. cit.. pp. 39-40. 115 cedure la incompatible with the new psychology of learning; (2) it does not take care of individual differences very well; (3) it destroys student and teacher initiative; (4) it does not provide adequately for the achieving of demo cratic values; (5) it does not allow for cooperative teaching; (6) it does not favor the unifying of subject matter or learning experiences; (7) it promotes the ’’ground to-be-covered” idea of education, and (8) it encourages slavish use of the textbook.21 In an attempt to break the lock step in education, various plans of individualized instruction, the earliest attempts at unit teaching, have been proposed.The ef forts of Preston Search and Frederic Burk were the fore runners of the early plans of unit teaching. Since Search, superintendent of the Pueblo, Colorado, schools, did not t work out systematic plans for achieving his objectives, his ideas did not extend very far. Burk was the first ed ucator to work out a systematic method for Individualizing instruction. His plan was developed in the training school 21 Harold Alberty, Reorganizing the Hlgh-School Cur riculum (New York; The Macmillan Company, 1947) , p 2 2 2 . 2 2 For an excellent discussion of the various plans, see: J . G. Umstattd, Secondary School Teaching (New York Ginn and Company, 1937), Chapter VII. Alberty, ojc. clt. . Chapter VIII. J . R . MeGaughy, An Evaluation of the Elementary School (Indianapolis; Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1937), pp. 229-32; 239-40; et, passim. 116 of the San ITrancisco State College. The Burl: Plan was seemingly successful; however, the fundamental concepts of the plan were really perfected and spread by two of Burk’s students, Helen Parkhurst and Carleton Y/ashburne. The well-known Dalton Plan was designed by Helen Parkhurst. The central feature of the plan was the "con tract,” which consisted of enough work in a subject to last a month, and which was subdivided into both weekly and daily assignments. The amount of work necessary to com plete a daily assignment was considered a unit. The so- called "unit” as proposed by Helen Parkhurst was not in clusive enough to be considered a unit. Similar to the Dalton Plan in principle, the Y/innetka Plan was launched by Carleton Yvashburne in 1919. The pri mary objective of this plan is to adapt the instruction to the abilities of the pupils. One of its main features are the "goal books," which are sets of materials covering various phases of the skills and knowledges needed by every child. The material in a goal book is often referred to as a "unit." As in the case of the Dalton Plan, hardly any ef fort is made to correlate subjects or to utilise units of a comprehensive nature. Two other plans which gained some popularity are the Project Method and the Morrison Plan. The term "proj ect" originally referred to any practical problem which involved the physical making of a product. As the present century got under way, many teachers began to speak of 117 projects when they had In mind learning activities in which pupils had an opportunity to choose, plan, and direct their work under conditions similar to those of real life. For example, building a house, making a new hat or dress, or producing a play were considered projects. The Project Method Is initiated by the pupil and Is real and meaning ful to him. The major criticisms against it are that it wastes time In worthless activity and that it omits very essential content and pupil experience. The Morrison Plan was conceived by Henry C. Morrison, after whom it takes Its name. Like the Winnetka and Dalton Plans, this procedure also emphasizes the unit assignment. The Morrison Plan has had a greater influence upon educa tional practices than any of the plans heretofore presented. Some of the ,,unit,f teaching now carried on In our elemen tary schools and much of that practiced in our secondary schools have grown out of the Morrison Plan of teaching. Billett's well-known survey of unit teaching in the high school*^ revealed that, of the 8594 schools reporting pro visions for individual differences, 9 per cent of them were using the Morrison Plan. Morrison was one of the first writers to look upon the unit as a meaningful whole and a unified portion of knowledge. The chief weakness of 23 Roy 0. Billett, Provisions for Individual Differ ences . Marking, and Promotion» National Survey of Secondary Education, Office of Education Bulletin, 1932, No. 17, Monograph No. 13 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 9. 1X8 his plan is that It does not extend unification to include more subjects. It is much too limited in light of our present conception of unit teaching. Some of the plans for Individualizing instruction have been presented briefly. Other plans which might be Included in this group are the problem method, the Miller contract plan, the group-study plan, the Thayer plan, and the workbook. These plans were forerunners of the modern concepts of unit teaching, which are discussed in the fol lowing section. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS OP UNIT TEACHING As pointed out In the preceding section of this chap ter, unit teaching began with the various schemes for in dividualizing instruction, which were introduced, to take the place of the traditional assignment-recitation pro cedure. The last section deals with the beginnings of unit teaching; this section presents the modern developments. Present concepts of unit teaching are reviewed; character istics of desirable units are suggested, and classification of units Is discussed. The Trend Toward Unit Teaching Over sixteen years ago Curtis^ wrote that the unit ■assignment had become a widely established practice and 24 Francis D. Curtis, ?,The Unit Assignment,11 Junior- Senior High School Clearing House, 9:546, May, 1935. 1X9 that It would probably continue to grow. He also urged that unit teaching should command the attention and in tensive study of all educators, who should make a sincere effort to understand its potential advantages and disad vantages. A year later the California Curriculum Commis sion^ noted the shortcomings of the single textbook and formal recitation procedure, maintaining that this tech nique was no longer adequate to meet the social purposes of education. As a substitute for the daily assignment- recitation procedure, the Commission recommended units of work which are organized around life situations and which involve the use of many books, charts, maps, pictures, etc. It further suggested the use of study trips to give reality and vitality to learning, and the integration of art, music literature, history, geography, science, etc., with the center of interest or unit of work. The concept of unit organization has been widely ac cepted in present-day educational literature, and most teachers of today are familiar with the unit idea in some form or other. Further evidence o f ‘the widespread accept ance of unit teaching Is found in the more recent state and city courses of study and in recently published textbooks for elementary schools. Most courses of study now recom- {^5 California Curriculum Commission, Teachers1 Guide to Child Development in the Intermediate Grades (Sacramento State Department of Education^ 1956), pT XI. 120 mend units of some nature, and most of the textbook writers have recognized and adopted the unit idea in the organiza tion of their books. The G-estalt concept of the nature of the learning process has been largely responsible for the widespread ac ceptance of the unit idea for organizing curricular mater ials. Another factor which has contributed to the accept ance of the unit organization of teaching is the increasing recognition on the part of educators of the need for a more adequate method of providing for Individual differences. One of the chief arguments advanced by the proponents of the unit method is that this type of organization provides most effectively for individual differences. However, the possibilities of the unit in this respect have been too often neglected. Hildreth26 suggests that the trend toward unification is the result of a reaction against rote learning. The traditional school has stood for the memorizing of facts and mechanical drill. This method leaves little time in the program for challenging problems and meaningful exper iences. It also wastes many valuable hours in meaningless rote learning and in mastering isolated facts that never help solve genuine problems. Reading has been taught chiefly as a process of word calling, with little reference to the meanings which the words convey. Arithmetic has 26 Hilcfrefch, op. c it. , p. 18. 121 emphasized the memorization of Isolated facts instead of the understanding of processes and principles- Spelling words have been those which are little used In practical writing, and materials In the content fields have been com pletely divorced from meaningful associations. The memori zation of facts in a mechanical fashion does not capitalize upon the relatedness among separate facts and items, with the result that there Is a loss In learning efficiency. This piecemeal type of education has little to offer In the way of real learning and problem solving in dally living. Hildreth concludes her discussion of the trend toward unit teaching in this ways The advantages of meaningful problem solving and relatedness In children* s school experiences, seeing the details In relation to wholes, are now more fully appreciated. As a result, a reaction has set In against artificial drills and formal lessons that are remote from the learner1s experience and understanding. Requiring the memorization of answers to questions without reference to the larger problems to which the facts and questions pertain Is falling Into disrepute as a pedagogical method. The roles of meaning and understanding In learning are more fully understood and appreciated by educators today.^ Present Concepts of Unit Teaching The confused c one ept ion of unit teaching. One needs only to ask a few educators what they think unit teaching means to discover how many different concepts exist. In fact, the concepts are so numerous that the term has become ^ Ibid pp. 18-19. ambiguous and almost meaningless. As Harap^® noted over tv/o decades ago, the interpretation of the term f,unit,? dif fers widely among teachers. To some, it designates a se quence of experiences engaged in by the learner in order to attain specific goals, such as the running of a grocery store in the first grade to attain knowledge of numbers, reading, etc. To others, the unit means a large subdivi sion of subject matter centered around a central idea, with activities developed about it to give children certain de sirable knowledges and skills. Many state courses of study use this method of organizing subject matter. To still another group of teachers the unit denotes a large division of work based on a center of interest (e.g., transportation) which progresses simultaneously with the work in the sev eral subjects. A fourth group of teachers ignores all for mal subject matter and builds the work of the grades around a few large centers of interest or units. Deploring the careless use of the word "unit/ Melvin writes: The term unit of work, with its brief life of but a few years, has already been so bandied about in pedagogical discussions that it has reached a stage of vacuous insignificance. Arising as a desirable phil osophic concept to indicate a series of organic and harmoniously integrated activities, it has come to mean anything at all. It is now frequently used to indicate a confused mess of subject-matter and activ ities with no clear philosophy or purpose in their de velopment. We are left but two alternatives: never 26 Henry Harap, ,flSfext Steps in Curriculum Making, Elementary School Journal. 31:19, September, 1930. 123 to use the word except in its organic meaning to re fer to activities, not subject-matter; the second is to discard the word entirely. It has already been so seriously misused by teachers of education and their satellites that it seems to be lost beyond redemption.2® As further evidence of the confused conception of unit teaching, the writer turns again to the study made by Billett, under the auspices of the United States Office of Education. He found that there were ten different designations for unit types of subject-matter organisation: (l) project method, (2) problem method, (3) differentiated assignments, (4) long-view assignments, (5) contract plan, (6) laboratory plan, (7) individualized instruction, (8) Morrison plan, (9) Winnetka plan, and (10) Dalton plan. It Is signifi cant to note that all of these plans were ’’one and the same thing" in practice; they differed In name only. The meaning of unit teaching. A review of a few def initions of the unit as proposed by various writers will reveal some of the basic characteristics of the unit con cept. Morrison used the term to mean a large section or division of subject matter which resulted in adaptation In the pupils. His section or division of subject matter might well refer to traditional chapters in textbooks. It is clear that Morrison1s unity resides in the subject matter, while Kilpatrick’s project plan, for example, recognizes the pupil’s purpose as the unifying factor in the organi- 29" A. Gordon Melvin, The Activity Program (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 19367‘T’p* 155. Billett, op. cit. , p. 330. 124 zation of learning materials. Describing the unit method of teaching, Umstattd de clares: The central fact of the unit idea is that con tent should be studied as complete meaningful wholes rather than in isolated or unrelated lessons or bits. This central fact applies whether the content is an experience, such as building a radio, or whether it is a topic, such as the Industrial Revolution. Content based upon the experiences and activities of children and content drawn entirely from books can alike be handled best in unified wholes, or units, which are well rounded and meaningful to the pupil. 1 In the opinion of Stretch. . . ., units of work are organized subject matter and experiences, broken up into large comprehensive divisions,, brought together because of relationship, and presented to the pupils in such a manner as to de velop within,,them the right attitudes, abilities, and skills . . According to Lee and Lee, . . a unit consists of purposeful (to the learner), related activities so developed as to give insight into, and increased control of, some signifi cant aspects of living; and to pyovide opportunities for the socialization of pupils,.0 For an excellent up-to-date summary of the character istics of good unit teaching, the writer turns to A l b e r t y . 3 ^ First, unit teaching recognizes that learning takes place most effectively in terms of wholes rather than fragments. tJms't a t td , op . c it . , p. 130. 32 Lorena B. Stretch, The Curriculum and the Child (Minneapolis: Educational Publishers, Inc., ~l939), p. 71. ^33 J. Murray and Dorris M a y Lee, The Child and His .Curriculum (Hew York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1950), p . 222. 34 Alberty, op. cit., pp. 242-44. 125 Emphasis Is placed upon significant and comprehensive ac tivities, concepts, or problems, not piecemeal activities. Second, unit teaching recognizes that learning takes place most effectively when the learner understands and accepts the goals to be achieved, and when he shares freely In plan ning for the attainment of those goals. Third, unit teach ing provides for Individual differences in rates of learn ing, Interests, appreciations, and special abilities. Fourth, unit teaching provides a sound basis for evaluation. Unit teaching usually follows three stages of develop ments (l) the planning or Introductory stage, In which problems are clarified and plans made as to the procedure to be followed; (2) the working or developmental stage, which consists of such activities as group discussion, re search work in the library, investigations, experimentation, and individual and committee work; and (3) the culminating or concluding stage, In wrhich the results of the working stage are shared, conclusions drawn, and results evaluated.3 Wrightstone3® has outlined the development of a unit of work in six principal steps. He has also suggested the procedures and the types of activities appropriate to each of them. Since they have gained a great deal of popularity, they are mentioned here. The six steps are: (1) stimula 3b Ibld.~P. 245. 36 See J. Wayne Wrightstone, Appraisal of Hewer Ele mentary School Practlces (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938), p. 91. 12 6 tion or identification of interests, (2) formulation of aims, activities, and methods, (3) investigation and col lection of data, (4) integration or correlation of data, (5) culmination of activities, and (6) evaluation of out comes . Characteristics of desirable units. In a discussion of the present concepts of unit teaching, it seems approp riate to conclude with a short section dealing with the characteristics of desirable units. The writer predicts that the quality of unit teaching In our elementary school would improve appreciably If units v/ere selected more care fully. He believes that far too many units In the elemen tary school are chosen in a very careless and haphazard manner. A list of the characteristics of desirable units should serve as a yardstick by which proposed units of work might be evaluated before their selection. The distinguishing features of desirable units of work have been proposed by several writers.^ The suggest characteristics, which have been carefully examined by the present writer, are summarized below. They can be used to evaluate both subject matter and Experience Units. ----- 37 £ee Tames B. Burr, Lowry W. Harding, and Leland B. Jacobs, Student Teaching in the Elementary School (New fork: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc'. , 1950) , pp. 36-38. Henry Harap, e_t ah., The Changing Curriculum (New York: D. Appleton-Century Company"^ 19 37) , pp. 265-66. Lee and Lee, o p . c it . , pp. 224-30. Stretch, o j d . c it . , p. 75. 127 Desirable units of work: 1 . Deal with areas of experience or problems of living which are purposeful and important enough to justify care ful study. 2. Are vital, interesting, and challenging to all of the pupils• 3. Deal with problems and materials which are within the maturity level of the pupils. 4. Provide for a wide variety of activities and ex periences for the group and for individual pupils. 5. Are selected from situations which are real and meaningful to the pupils. 6 . Provide for the needs, interests, and special abil ities of the pupils. 7. Provide for continuity in the development of the pupils. 8 . Provide for many research activities by the pupils. 9. Provide for rich first-hand experiences - 10. Provide for the socialization of the pupils. 11. Help pupils to develop desirable interests, atti tudes, ideals, and habits. 12. Furnish situations necessitating planning, evalu ating, sharing, assuming responsibility, cooperating, making decisions, sensing and solving problems, etc. 13. Provide for situations which call for the organi zation of subject matter in such a way as to eliminate com partment allzation. 128 14- Are cooperatively controlled by the teacher and pupils, who participate in all aspects of their develop ment • 15. Are an integral part of the total curriculum plan of the school. The writer believes that, in order to insure the se lection of desirable units, schools should go a step fur ther. Teachers and pupils should evaluate all proposed units of study in light of a set of criteria established by them cooperatively. The elementary classes of the Ohio State University School follow this procedure in selecting units of work. Examples of the kinds of questions often raised by the teachers and children before selecting a unit are: 1. What studies have we had? 2. Are there important problems to consider? 3. Is it something that is interesting to all of us? 4. Will there be opportunities for both individual and group contributions in the study? 5. Are there plenty of reading materials suitable for us? 6 . Can we keep up with changing information? 7. Will there be trips, movies, and speakers to help us ? 8 . Will there be things to write about? 9. Will there be science experiences to help us? 10. Will there be related arts experiences that will be valuable? 11. Will there be music experiences that we can use? 12. What kinds of arithmetic will help in the study?38 38 See Elementary School Staff of the University School, A Descriptlon of Curricular Experiences, Lower School (Columbus! College of Education, Ohio State Uni versity, 1948), p. 50. 129 Classification of Units Just as there is lack of agreement over the meaning of unit teaching, there is also lack of agreement over the classification of units. A few examples of classification from various authors will illustrate this point. Caswell and Campbell^9 propose the following classi fication : 1. Subject matter a. Topical unit b. Generalization unit c. Unit based on significant aspect of environment or culture 2. Experience a. Based on center of interest b. Based on pupil purpose Jones, Grizzell, and Grinstead^O classify units into three groups: 1. The subject matter unit 2. The center of interest unit 3. The unit of adaptation Leonard^ suggests that there are four types of units i 1. Traditional subject matter unit 2 . Functional subject matter unit 3. Possible child experience unit 4. Immediate child experience unit The contradictions and overlapping are evident in the above classifications. Conflicts between subject matter 39 Hollis- L. Caswell and Doak S. Campbell, Curriculum Development (New York: American Book Company, 1937) , pTT 406. 40 a . j, Jones, E. D. Grizzell, and W. G. Grinstead, Prlnolples of Unit Construetion (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc • , 1939) , p p . 13-14, 19-22. ^1 J. Paul Leonard, MvVhat Is a Unit of Work?w Cur riculum Journal. 8:103-6, March, 1937. 130 snd experience are apparent. Theoretically, all units should be based on pupil needs and should be identified with their interests and purposes. ./ill good subject-mat ter units are center of interest units, and all center of interest units utilize subject matter. /furthermore, shouldn’t every unit result in adaptation and adjustment? Leonard’s classification raises the question as to what extent subject matter is experience. At least three authors 42 have proposed a common class ification of units with which the present writer agrees; they will be utilized later in this discussion. These authors have classified units as subject matter and experi ence Units. The distinction is, of course, partly arbi trary, for all units should utilize both organized subject matter and direct experience. The difference lies in the hind of emphasis; therefore, it is not always possible to recognize the type of unit by its title only. Contrary to the accusation of some critics, the modern school which employs Experience Units actually makes use of more and better subject matter, and uses it more effec- ^ ^ See William H. Burton, The Guidance of Learning Activities (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1944), pp. 252-55 . L. Thomas Hopkins, Interaction: The Democratic Process (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 19 41), pp. 253-65. Henry 1. Otto, Principles of Elementary Education (Hew York: Rinehart and"Company, 1949T", p. 328. tlvely, than the traditional school does. Likewise, the traditional school also utilizes experiences, since every thing one does is experiencing. Therefore, the subject- matter school is an experience school, and the experience school is a subject-matter school. It is true, however, that the traditional school subordinates experiences to subject matter. The experiences in it are few and formal and are aimed at subject-matter mastery. The type of learning situation found in it, which is dominated by sub ject matter, and which Involves few and limited experi ences, is regarded as a subject-matter unit. It is also true that the experience school emphasizes experiences; subject matter Is considered as a means, not an end. The experience school stresses personal-social-moral traits and integration, and it utilizes many and varied functional learning experiences. The learning situation in it, which is dominated by purposeful learning experiences, is con sidered an Experience Unit.4^ Subject-matter units. Some authors describe a subject- matter unit as one which assists pupils in acquiring cer tain information and skills to the point of mastery. Bur ton defines the subject-matter unit as a concentration of materials "around a central core found In the subject mat ter itself, to be studied by pupils for the purpose of ac quiring learning outcomes derivable from experiences with 43 Burton, op• cit. , pp« 246-47. 132 the subject matter. 4 Mehl, Mills, and Douglass46 state that in a subject-matter unit information is centered around a division of a particular subject-matter field. The learning experiences are formal; textbooks provide the major source of information. The unit is usually rela tively short, and the teacher plans it and directs the children's work. The characteristics of subject-matter units have been ably stated by various writers.46 In order that a clearer description of them might be gained, a summary of the major characteristics is presented here. Subject-matter units: 1. Are carefully prepared in advance of the teaching by adults. 2. Are directed by the teacher; materials, methods, sequence, and evaluation are usually under his exclusive direction. 3. Have fixed outcomes, set up in advance, and re quired uniformly of all pupils. ' 44 Ibid."p. 245. 4® Marie A. Mehl, Hubert H. Mills, and Harl R. Doug lass, Teaching in the Elementary School (Hew York: The Ronald Press Company, 1950) , p'. 219. 4® See Burton, op. cit., pp. 247-48. Hopkins, op. c it.. pp. 245-49. Albert J. Huggett and Cecil V. Millard, Growth and Learning in the Elementary School (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1946) ,' pp. 106-7. 133 4. Rely on formal methods and on textbooks as the chief source, and only slightly on the human and physical resources of the school and community. 5. Are usually centered in the past. 6. Are taught in a relatively short time— usually from a few days to a few weeks. 7. Provide few opportunities for creative activities and for meeting Individual needs and abilities. 8 . Are usually logically organized from simple to com plex and within subject fields. 9. Are based upon the additive conception of learning. 10. Are evaluated by formal tests of subject matter mastery. 11. Usually close with a backward look and are forgot ten when completed. The previously mentioned writers who agree on a com mon classification of units propose four kinds of subject- matter units: (1) the topical unit, (2) the theme or gen eralization unit, (3) the survey unit, and (4) the problem unit. The most common subject-matter unit is the topical unit, which Is very broad in scope. It is difficult to organize because it does not suggest where the unity lies. There is a tendency to discard this type of unit In favor of one of the others. Burton^1? indicates the following titles as being characteristic of topical units: Coloniza 4y Burton, ojd. c i t . , p. 251. 134 tion oT America, Communication, Sanitation, and The West ward Movement. There are two groups of theme or generalization units. One group of them lasts for only a few weeks, while the other group lasts for as long as a year. In both cases the theme serves as the unifying center, with the subject mat ter organized around It. The theme unit Is used most fre quently in social studies and science and not at all In the skill subjects. The themes are usually within a sub ject-matter field; seldom do they relate to other subjects or to the problems of child or adult living. Some illus trations of theme units ares How the Industrial Revolution Changed Man’s Life and Brought Him Many Problems, How Man Moves from Place to Place In Search of Better Conditions of Living, and The Interdependence of Modern Life in Con trast to the Self-Sufficiency of Earlier Civilizations. In some cases the entire program for an elementary school Is set up in terms of yearly themes in social studies and s c i e n c e . ^ The theme or generalization unit provides a better basis for the organization of subject matter than either the topical unit or the problem unit, which will be pre sented later. This type of unit does not, however, offer a sound basis for teaching for at least three reasons. First, pupils don’t learn to generalize by the inductive Hopkins, o p . c it . , pp. 255-56. 135 method. Second, the generalizations are usually unrelated to the experiences of the children. Generalizations which have real meaning for children develop out of children’s own experiences. Third, the better the subject matter is organized around adult generalisations, the more special ized it becomes. This makes learning for the children more difficult, for they must adapt the adult subject mat ter to their own experiences.^ The survey unit is used more in high schools and col leges than in elementary schools. In the high schools it is given such titles as Medieval Life, Greek Life, and American Life. In the elementary schools typical titles are Indian Life, Life in Mexico, etc. In one group of survey units the scope is determined by teachers and pupils, and the subject matter is developed as the unit proceeds; however, common subject-matter requirements are specified. The superiority of this group of units Is obvious.50 The survey unit is much broader than the topical unit, and it does not contain the unity of the theme unit. In the problem unit the unity is determined by the problem stated and Is very easy to discern, just as It is In the theme unit. Very often problem units are topical or theme units with the titles appearing in question form. For example, The Westward Movement, a topical unit, might Ibld.r~n. 257. 50 Ibid., pp. 258-59. 136 be changed to How Did the American People Conquer the West? In some problem units the problems are inherent in the sub ject matter as selected by adults. In others, the problems are developed from the interests of the pupils. A unit based upon the actual problems of children, even in a sub ject-matter field, is, of course, superior to the topical or problem unit in which the unity lies within the subject matter itself. Experienc e Units. Subject-matter units are organized around the important sections of a subject, whereas Bx perienc e Units are organized around important pupil pur poses. Ivlacomber writes: ,fAs the name implies, the exper ience unit emphasizes pupil experiences, rather than sub ject-matter mastery. . . f,51 Burton52 adds that all Exper ience Units are essentially alike in that they are all based upon a life need, purpose, problem, or interest of the learner. He defines the Experience Unit in these words: An experience unit is a series of educative ex periences organized around a pupil purpose, utilizing socially useful subject matter and materials, result ing in the achievement of the purpose and in the ac quisition of learning outcomes inherent in the ex- perienc e.53 51 Freeman G. Macomber, Guiding Child Development in the Elementary School (Hew York: American Book Company, 1941), p. 18. 5P Burton, op . c it . , p. 250. 53 Ibid. . p. 245. Subject-matter units are fairly easy to identify, but37 Exoerience Units cannot be so easily recognised. They must be observed in order to be properly identified. The titles used with Experience Units can also be used with subject- matter units. The difference lies in the emphasis and the method of development. An Experience Unit is organised functionally with no regard for the traditional subject lines; it is developed cooperatively by the teacher and uupils, and it is organized by a group facing a new situa tion or problem. The titles of Experience Units are likely to be stated as problems which arise from real life situa tions, rather than problems based upon the textbook. Since the following chapter, DWELOHPilMT AMD REFINE MENT OF CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING- THE EiEERIEiTCE UNIT, pre sents a detailed discussion of the Experience Unit, it seems unnecessary to discuss it thoroughly here. Three very good lists of characteristics of Experience Units have been proposed. 54 These lists have been reviewed by the present writer and are summarized in the following state ments. They suggested many of the original criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit, which are developed in the next chanter. See Burton, o p . cit. , pp. 247-48. Hopkins, op>. cit. , pp. 261-69. Gordon Hendrickson, ’'Some Needed Research in Ele mentary Education,” The Elementary 5chool Journal, 51:130, November, 1950. 138 Experience Units: X. Originate in the needs, interests, and purposes of the learners. 2. Are organized functionally, often from complex to simple, and cut across subject matter lines. 3. Are usually centered in the present, drawing upon materials from the past as they relate to present problems 4. Provide for the selection and organization of most of the materials and experiences as the units develop. 5. Have no fixed outcomes, known in advance, and re quired uniformly of all pupils. 6. Are cooperatively controlled throughout by the teacher and pupils. 7. Provide for a great variety of resources and many activities, both verbal and manipulative. 8. Aim at the ultimate purpose of developing desir able skills, attitudes, and understandings. 9. Provide for the care of individual differences in many w a y s . 10. Are based upon the integrative conception of learn ing. 11. Provide for the continuous evaluation of many out comes, with constant pupil participation, and the use of many formal and informal instruments. 12. Usually close with a forward look, leading to new interests and problems. CHAPTER V 139 DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE ISXP'RIENCE UNIT As pointed out in the introductory chapter, the char acteristics of the Experience Unit are very vague, despite the widespread acceptance of this form of curricular organ ization. One of the purposes of this study was to arrive at some suitable characteristics of the Experience Unit. Y/ithout these criteria, it would not have been possible to formulate a reliable questionnaire for measuring the use of the Experience Unit. This chapter presents the original criteria, which were suggested by educational writers, and which are justified by the principles found at the close of CHAPTERS II and III. Also, the responses, significant com ments, and recommended changes of the jury of experts who judged the criteria, plus the revised criteria, are pre sented. THO: PROCEDURE USED TO DEVELOP AND REFINE THE CRITERIA Development and Defense of the Original Criteria The original criteria were developed as a result of sev eral months of research on the part of the writer, during which many periodical articles, courses of study, books, bulletins, and reports dealing with unit teaching were reviewed. As the literature was examined, the writer noted the characteris tics of the Experience Unit as suggested by any of the 140 sources. After several sources had been examined, the characteristics which, were most often mentioned by the various writers were selected and accepted as the list of original criteria.1 The original criteria were justified in light of the factors which the writer feels should determine the best curricular organization for the elementary school. These factors are: the nature of a democratic society, the role of the elementary school, the nature of the elementary school child, and the nature of the learning process. This chapter presents the original criteria and the principles which justify them. The principles summarize the discus sions of the four factors upon which the writer believes the curriculum should be founded. Validation and Refinement of the Criteria To validate the criteria still further, they were sub mitted to a jury of forty experts in the fiel$ of elemen tary education and the curriculum. Thirty-three^ of them judged and returned the criteria. The experts were asked to indicate their approval or disapproval of each of the fifteen criteria, to state the modifications which they would recommend for any of them, and to suggest further I See the*""APPENDIX for Criteria for Evaluating the Ex perience Unit . ^ See the APPENDIX for a list of the Jury of Experts Who Judged the Criteria and for a copy of the letter sent with the criteria. 141 criteria - In judging the criteria, the jury had the choice of four responses: (1) Strongly approve, (2) Approve, (3) Disapprove, or (4) Strongly disapprove. Of course, they could also omit a response, which happened in some In stances. The jury was asked to make recommended changes when they disapproved of criteria; however, In most cases they merely commented on them. The jury responses were tabulated and significant comments were recorded. On the basis of the responses and the remarks made, each criterion was carefully evaluated. If there was sufficient evidence to justify it, the criterion was revised as suggested by the jury. If not, it remained as originally stated. DEFENSE AND REFINEMENT OF THE ORIGINAL CRITERIA IN LIGHT OF THE JURY RESPONSES The remaining pages of this chapter are devoted to the defense and refinement of the original criteria, in which each is traced from its original to its refined form. First, the original criterion is stated and defended. Sec ond, the results of the jury responses and their signifi cant comments are shown. Third, the responses and comments are analyzed. Fourth, the refined criterion is given. CRITERION I Original Criterion: The Experience Unit originates in the needs, interests, and purposes of the pupils. It rec ommends the psychological organization of subject matter 142 and learning experiences. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. The elementary school should help pupils to clarify and reconstruct their beliefs and values, to solve their problems, to meet their needs, and to discover and extend their interests and abilities (Principle B~7, p. 49). 2. The development of the elementary school child is motivated by his goals (interests, motives, needs, wants, purposes, problems (Principle A-4, p. 94). 3. Learning is facilitated when it satisfies a genuine need or purpose, when it is interesting, when it is mean ingful, and when it is suitable to the maturation level of the learner (Principle B-4, p. 95). 4. Learning is not a logical thing; it proceeds from the complex to the simple as often as it does from the sim ple to the complex. Its organization depends upon the ex periences, needs, and purposes of the learner (Principle B-12, p. 96). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 24 8 1 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts MThe experience unit originates in the needs, inter- 143 ests, purposes, and problems of the pupils.” '•The experience -unit should be selected with the major objectives and curriculum handbooks of the school as a frame of reference. Societal needs and experience of adult lead ership must play a part.” "I would eliminate the last phrase. It tends to dis criminate between subject matter and learning experiences. One is part of the other; a learning experience always in volves some kind of content.” ”The experience unit originates In the needs, interests and purposes of the pupils as they evolve in a social matrix It Is Important to see that the needs, interests, and pur poses develop in a changing society and are not purely per sonal in origin.” ”l approve In part. Some units originate in the needs of society (e.g., a unit on Conservation). Also, in some things a logical organization of subject matter is desirable ”The experience unit should originate in the needs, in terests, and purposes of the pupils wherever possible. I can think of many situations In which a unit should be Ini tiated by the teacher. There are two distinct points here-- origin and organization.” Analysis of jury responses and comments. This criter ion received almost unanimous approval, since 32 out of 33 experts agreed with it. Some good suggestions were made by the jury. It Is evident that children’s needs, interests, 144 and purposes cannot be considered apart from society. It is also true that this criterion covers two points: origin and organization. Therefore, two separate criteria have evolved from It. Revised Crlterion t The Experience Unit originates In the common needs. Interests, and problems of the pupils as they evolve In a social matrix. The Experience Unit provides for the organization of knowledge In terms of the experiential background, needs, and purposes of the pupils. CRITERION II Original Criterion: The Experience Unit Is selected, developed, and directed cooperatively (pupils, teachers, parents, administrators, etc.). Pupils, under the guidance of their teachers, however, play the greatest role in the selection and development of the unit. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. A democratic society emphasizes group consultation and cooperation, rather than force and competition (Princi ple A-4, p. 43). 2. The elementary school should provide a variety of rich experiences and many real problems which call for group planning and action (Principle B-5, p. 49). 3. Learning is most effective when children share in the selection and organization of materials and experiences, 145 in the planning and execution of plans, and in the evalua tion of progress, under the direction of adults (Principle B-8, p . 95). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No a nnrnvfl Approve Disapprove disapprove respon se 21 12 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts "Substitute ’a major role’ for ’the greatest role.’" "I think criteria for choosing a unit should be form ulated." "Not necessarily in the selection. Sometimes this is beyond the teacher's control; yet it can still be an ex perience unit." "The phrase ’under the guidance of their teachers’ is a very loose one. In some rooms it seems to mean only that the teacher is physically present; In others, it means that the teacher sells the children a bill of goods." "The teacher should be the recognized leader." "Pupils, under the guidance of their teachers, play an important role in the selection and development of the unit This role becomes Increasingly more Important as children mature and have more experience." Analysis of jury responses and comments. This criteri on got the unanimous approval of the jury. Since it was so 146 highly accepted, and since no important changes were sug gested, It remains practically as originally stated. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit is selected, developed, and directed cooperatively (pupils, teachers, parents, administrators, etc.). Pupils, under the direction of their teachers, play a major role in the selection and development of the unit. CRITERION III Original Criterion s The Experience Unit is organized and written as it develops, not in advance. Most of the materials, activities, and experiences are selected as the unit progresses. Defense of the criterion. This criterion Is justified on the following principles; 1. A democratic society believes that all people should participate in making decisions and solving their common problems. Government rests on the consent of the governed, who utilize the process of cooperative, intelligent thinking (Principle A-5, p. 48). 2. Learning Is most effective when children share in the selection and organization of materials and experiences, in the planning and execution of plans, and in the evalua tion of progress, under the direction of adults (Principle B-8, p. 95). 147 Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No nnprova Approve Dispmprove dIaap.nr.ove responae. 11 16 4 2 Slgnlficant Comments Made by the Jury of 'Experts ”Most of the Experience Unit Is organized and written as it develops* Some planning In advance by the teacher is not precluded. It should not be Interpreted as Implying unplanned activities.” ”The teacher needs to know of a wide range of helpful materials, possible activities, and related experiences in many areas.” ’’Some pre-planning by the teacher Is necessary for our teachers, in order for them to feel confident in undertaking the unit. Your criterion implies a fairly skilled stage of teacher development.” ”lt would seem reasonable to assume that, once a unit is selected, the teacher should do some pre-planning to de termine possible materials, activities, and experiences that might be used. Others can develop as the unit progresses.” ”l think it Is a two-way process. There should be pre development v/ 1th modification as it [ the un it] progresses.” ” . . . , the organization and selections are made as the unit progresses, but the teacher must have planned pre viously; so that she can help children with the organization 148 and selection of materials, activities, and experiences.1’ ”1 believe that much of the material should be well in the hands of the teacher, who has become fully and richly informed beforehand. We have so much random activity which often has little to show in return for the effort that has been expended.” ”Yes, if this doesn’t preclude the building of resource unit files from which materials for the ’learning unit* can be drawn.” Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion did not meet with as strong approval as did the first two cri teria, but it was approved by the jury. An analysis of the comments reveals the need for pre-planning on the part of the teacher. The use of the resource unit was recommended as a form of pre-planning. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit provides for the selection of materials and activities through teacher- pupil planning as the unit progresses. This does not pre clude the possibility of broad pre-planning in terms of resource units or problem areas. CRITERION IV Original Crlterlon: The Experience Unit provides for many sources of information and a variety of learning ac tivities . Defenae of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 149 1.' A democratic society respects and has faith in each individual and aims to develop each one of them to his ful lest capacity, regardless of race, social standing, back ground, etc. (Principle A-l, p. 48). 2. The elementary school should respect each person ality and should attempt to develop each child to his max imum degree, regardless of color, belief, economic status, ability, intelligence, etc. (Principle B-2, pp. 48-49). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly Ho approve... Approve . Disapprove disapprove response 28 5 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ’’The experience unit should provide . . .” ’’The experience Unit requires the use of many sources of information and a variety of learning activities. Un less the unit utilizes many sources and activities, it cannot be called an experience unit.” ’’Add ’regardless of the subject categories." ’’Should this criterion be separated into two criteria?” Analysis of res ponses and comments. This criterion was very well accepted by the jury, and the comments indicate no major objections; therefore, it is accepted as originally stated. However, it seems advisable to combine this cri terion with CRITERIA V and IX In the revised criterion. 150 Revised Criterion s The Experience Unit utilizes many sources of information and a wide variety of learning ac tivities based upon the direct, first-hand experiences of the pupils. Facts, information, knowledge, skills, and un derstandings are taught functionally in relation to these activities. This implies that the unit cuts across subject matter lines, drawing upon subject matter whenever it con tributes to the solution of problems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of interests. CRITERION V Original Criterion: The Experience Unit emphasizes the functional learning of facts, information, knowledges, and skills. Defense of crlterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. Learning Is facilitated when it satisfies a genuine need or purpose, when it is interesting, when It Is mean ingful, and when it is suitable to the maturation level of the learner (Principle 3-4, p. 95). 2. The learner learns the facts, information, knowl edge* and skills which he can use at the current time and those which will help him to deal effectively with the im mediate future (Principle 3-5, p. 95). 151 Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No npnrove Approve Disapprove disapprove response . . 26 V Slgniflcant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ,fI would add ’understandings1 to the above statement ”By ’functional1 do you mean facts and skills that are needed? This is one phase of the experience unit which I find is most frequently neglected and one on which we are most severly criticized. Too often this learning is super ficial and not sound, so that there is little carry-over and often no understanding of the other basic skills which are concomitant.” "Care should be used to provide practice in the use of skill and facts in order to assure the functional use of these activities in other situations ,,fFunctional' is a catch word that is likely to prove ambiguous in interpretation. I suggest that the term be treated operationally and, as such, may not even appear. I strongly approve what it means to me." MI suggest ’utilizes1 instead of ’ emphaa izes . *T’ ,fI believe that it also recognizes and identifies learn ing to be undertaken later in a systematic way. Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion received the general approval of the jury of experts, and 152 the comments made do not suggest any major revisions. As stated in the previous criterion, this criterion and CRI TERIA IV and IX have been combined in the revised criterion. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit utilizes many sources of Information and a wide variety of learning ex periences of the pupils. Pacts, Information, knowledge, skills, and understandings are taught functlonally In re lation to these activities. This implies that the unit cuts across subject matter lines, drawing upon subject mat ter whenever it contributes to the solution of problems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of interests. CRITERION VI Original Criterion: The Experience Unit stresses the all-round growth of children. It is concerned with the emo tional, mental, social, and physical growth of each child. Defense of criterion. This criterion Is justified on the following principles: 1. The elementary school should provide an environment conducive to the children’s best physical, social, emotional, and mental development (Principle B-5, p. 49). 2. The elementary school child is a unified system of energy; he Is born Integrated and continues to function as a whole. Any behavior involves the whole child; his phys ical, emotional, and Intellectual aspects of behavior can not be separated (Principle A-2, p. 94). 3. Growth and development are complex and inter-related 153 (Principle C-7, p. 96). 4. Learning is facilitated when the learner*s mental, physical, and emotional health are good (Principle B-6, p. 95) . 5. A learner responds to a whole situation, not to isolated parts of it, and learning affects the whole indi vidual (Principle B-14, p. 96). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 29 4 Signifioant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ”1 would add * and the relatedness of the four areas’ to this criterion.” ”Would every unit do this, or would emphasis shift in terms of the particular problem?” ”You'll have trouble judging this.” ”lt is only the rare teacher who is at all concerned with these growths. This is a desirable outgrowth, but I see it as a basic philosophy for the entire school program, rather than just the experience unit.” Analysis of responses and coiments. This criterion, too, was accepted unanimously by the experts in elementary education. The first comment suggests a minor change, which has been incorporated into the revised criterion. 154 Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit stresses the all-round development of children. Xt is concerned with the emotional, mental, social, and physical development of each child and the inter-relatedness of these four aspects. CRITERION VII Original Criterion: The Experience Unit emphasizes desirable school-community relationships and the use of com munity resources. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. Effective learning begins with the experiences of the learner (Principle B-7, p. 95). 2. Learning is most effective when It Is vivid and dra matic, when sensory experiences are Increased, and when op portunities for seeing relationships are provided (Princi ple B-9, p . 95). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No aonrove Atmrove Disapprove dlsaoDrove resoonse 25 7 1 Significant Commenta ftiade by the Jury of Experts "This, of course, Is one of the limitations of the ex perience unit as a basis for over-all curriculum develop ment. It is highly desirable for experience units to do as 155 Indicated in your statement, but bow can it be applied to teaching the United Nations, or Life in the Sahara?1’ ’’Are there two criteria in this one? I would omit the first part— ’desirable school-community relationships.1” "The experience unit usually emphasizes desirable school-community relationships and the use of community re sources. There may be occasional acceptable units which don’t, but it is important that they do.” ’’There are many vicarious experiences with audio-visual aids which should be included as well as the direct experi ences of the community.” Analysis of responses and c omment a. One of the jury disapproved of this criterion, but 32 approved it, giving it a very strong approval. The second comment seems worthy of acceptance; therefore, "desirable school-community rela tionships” has been omitted in the revised criterion. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit provides for the extensive use of community resources in carrying on pupil activities . CRITERION VIII Original Criterion: The Experience Unit emphasizes a trend away from a fixed body of subject matter, set up in advance, and required uniformly of every pupil in the class. It stresses and provides for differences in pupil achieve ment . Defense of c riterion. This criterion Is justified on 156 the following principles: 1. The elementary school should respect each personal ity and should attempt to develop each child to his maximum degree, regardless of color, belief, economic status, abili ty, intelligence, etc. (Principle B-2, pp. 48-49. 2. The elementary school child has certain basic psy chological needs: achievement, recognition, affection, se curity, belonging, adventure, freedom from guilt, coopera tion with others, and sympathetic understanding (Principle A-5, p . 94). 3. Children differ in rate and level of growth (Princi ple C-l, p. 96). 4. Each child has his own individual pattern of growth (Principle C-2, p. 96). 5. The process of growth and development is continuous (Principle C-3, p. 96). 6. The tempo of growth is uneven (Principle C-8, p. 96). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No Approve Approve D:Tn approve di sApprove re spon s e 24 8 1 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts "There are commonly needed, or uniform, learnings found in experience units.,f r,Diff erentiat ion c an b e provided in other ways quite 157 independent of unit work, of course.” ”The concept of failure is replaced by the theory of continuous progress. However, this does not preclude some thing in the way of a minimum core of knowledges, skills, habits, attitudes, ideals, appreciations, etc.” "Differences in pupil achievement can be recognized, even though certain fundamentals in learning are accepted.” "Continuity of growth in understanding of basic facts and ideas should definitely be considered.” Analysis of responses and c omment s. This criterion received the ardent support of the jury of experts; all but one of them approved it, 24 strongly. The comments do not recommend any change in the criterion, so it remains basic ally the same. However, this criterion and CRITERION X are combined and stated more simply in the revised criterion. Revised crIterlon : The Experience Unit stresses and provides for differences in pupil capacities, Interests, and talents • CRITERION IX Original Crit erlon; The Experience Unit cuts across subject-matter lines, drawing upon subject matter whenever and wherever needed. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles; 1. The learner learns the facts, Information, knowledge, and skills which he can use at the current time and those which will help him to deal effectively with the immediate 158 future (Principle B-5, d - 95). 2. Learning is not a logical thing, it proceeds from the complex to the simple as often as it does from the slim pie to the complex. Its organization depends upon the ex periences, needs, and purposes of the learner (Principle 3-12, p. 96). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly Wo approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 27 5 1 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts "At the intermediate level units may originate in any subject area, but they cut across subject matter lines in pursuing the solution to problems." "Again, limited approval. The various scholarly dis ciplines do have integrity, and this cannot be violated In any haphazard way. Some correlations are forced (e.g., poems on * communic at ion ’ ) .11 "Don’t the core curriculum, project method, etc., do the same?" Analysis of responses and c omments . This criterion was evidently considered very satisfactory by the jury; 32 of them approved It, whole one did not respond. Furthermore, none of the comments seems to be very significant. On the basis of the general approval and the nature of the comments, 159 this criterion is regarded as valid. In the revised cri terion this one Is combined with CRITERIA IV and V. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit ■utilizes many sources of Information and a wide variety of learning activ ities based upon the direct, first-hand experiences of the pupils. Facts, information, knowledge, skills, end under standings are taught functionally in relation to these ac tivities. This implies that the unit cuts across subject- matter lines, drawing upon subject matter whenever it con tributes to the solution of problems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of Interests. CRITERION X Original Criterion: The Experience Unit provides many opportunities for creative activities. Special interests and talents are developed. Defense of crlterlon. This criterion Is justified on the following principles; 1. The elementary school should respect each personal ity and should attempt to develop each child to his maximum degree, regardless of color, belief, economic status, abil ity, intelligence, etc. (Principle B-2, pp. 48-49). 2. The elementary school should provide opportunities for the development of self-direction, resourcefulness, social sensitivity, creativeness, Initiative, adaptability, tolerance, personal responsibility, and aesthetic apprecia tion (Principle B-6, p. 49). 160 3. The elementary school child is an active being, who develops in interaction with a dynamic environment (Princi ple A-l, p. 94). 4* Learning is an active and a creative process (Prin ciple B-3, p. 95). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve .Approve Disapprove disapprove response. 29 4 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ’’Yes, but the creative impulse sometimes lives in quietness and is highly individual. The unit is perforce a group thing." "Does 'creative activities' imply that the experience unit is of most value to the bright? What about the average and dull children?" "Say that special abilities and talents are developed." Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion had the full support of the experts, being one of the most highly accepted criteria. The comments do not suggest any revision, so it is assumed that this criterion is very sound. This criterion has been combined with CRITERION VIII to form the revised criterion. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit stresses and provides for differences in pupil capacities, interests, and 161 talents . CRITERION XI Original Criterion: The Experience Unit is centered in the present. Materials from the past are utilized as they are related to present problems. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. Effective learning begins with the experiences of the learner (Principle B-7, p. 95). 2. Learning is most effective when it is vivid and dra matic, when sensory experiences are increased, and when op portunities for seeing relationships are provided (Princi ple B-9, p . 95)• Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve. Disapprove. . disapprove response 18 13 1 1 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ”l am not sure of this one. How about learning the de velopment of and adoption of the U.S. Constitution?” ”The experience unit is centered in the present as a springboard to the past and the future. Maybe the important point is that it centers in some kind of known experience of the pupils as a starting point. This is probably implied. "How do you justify units on Indians then?” 162 ’’Where are you going to draw the line? If* children are going to learn about the past in little pieces whenever this information is related to present problems, when are they going to see the continuity in the growth of our country?” ”lt should be centered in the present and the future, since it should give one better command of future experi ences . ” ”What do you mean by ’centered in the present’?” Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion was not accepted quite as well as some of the other criteria; nevertheless, it was very well accepted. There seems to be some disagreement evident in the comments, but the writer does not believe them to be significant enough to justify a change in the criterion. Revised Criterion; The Experience Unit is centered in present-day living. Materials dealing with the past are utilized as they contribute to the solution of present prob lems . CRITERION XII Original Criterion: The Experience Unit should last a minimum of three weeks. Defense of the criterion. The writer realized that this criterion was arbitrary when it was formulated. The length of the Experience Unit depends, of course, upon several fac tors, making it impossible to set a time limit on it. The writer believes, however, that units are very often too brief. There are many so-called Experience Units which are 163 no more than units of experience, lasting from a few min utes to a few hours. Such short units cannot provide the comprehensiveness which Is characteristic of a good unit. Burr, Karding, and Jacobs recommend that a unit should "ord inarily occupy a classroom group for several weeks or more and in some cases as long as an entire school term."^ Since a learner responds to a whole situation (Principle B-14, p. 96), the Experience Unit should last long enough to provide for unity, oneness, or wholeness. Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 2 5 15 5 6 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts MI would suggest three weeks for the early elementary grades and six weeks for the later elementary grades ,fI believe the minimum should be at least three weeks. How can one begin to evaluate the results and outcomes of some of the criteria set up (e.g., emotional and social growth) in less time?” ’’Probably, but why? X suppose you do not Include a unit of experience in your definition of an experience unit.” ~ 3" James ST Burr, Lowry W. Harding, and Leland B. Jacobs, Student Teaching in the Elementary School (New York: Apple ton -Century-Crofts , Inc 1950")", p. 86. 164 "No arbitrary limlta, but true in general." "The length of time depends upon the continuing needs, Interests, and purposes of the pupils." "If needs and Interests are bases of experience, there can be no set minimum of -weeks." "Yv'hy three weeks? Why not two or four?" "The learnings in terms of ability, age level, Interests and needs of children should determine the time spent on the unit, rather than a unit of time." "I would delete this. The time depends upon too many variables. This criterion is out of harmony with the other criteria." "No beginning first grade can sustain a unit for that long. There are experience units which can take just a day. Most of them will be longer." "I would hesitate to put any time limit on an experi ence. This would vary with age, Interest, community re sources , etc ." "A unit on Thanksgiving may be worth while, even if shorter than three weeks. I don’t know the best way of wording this. I know that you want to eliminate just hop ping from one thing to another." Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion re ceived the approval of only 7 of the 35 curriculum experts. Six of them chose not to respond, while 20 of them disap proved of the criterion. The comments reveal a definite ob- objectlon to the arbitrary designation of the length of the 165 unit. An analysis of the comments also indicates an objec tion to the very short unit of work. The revised criterion is stated in such a way as to eliminate these objections. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit is comprehensive and extends over a considerable period of time, the length being dependent upon the plans which have been adopted by the group. CRITERION XIII Original Criterion: The Experience Unit activities should occupy a minimum of 100 minutes of the elementary school day. Defense of criterion. This criterion is also arbitrary, and it is probably contrary to the philosophy of the Experi ence Unit. However, it was included in an attempt to focus attention upon the need for providing a large block of time for the unit within the daily program. If a learner responds to a whole situation (Principle B-14, p. 96) rather than to fragmentary parts of it, there should be a large block of time in the daily schedule. There are still many class schedules made up of several short periods of time. Neither integration of the individual nor unity of subject matter and experiences can be accomplished effectively in such a schedule. Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 1 9 12 4 7 166 Slgniflcant Comments Made by the Jury of* Expert 3 ”l don’t like rigid apecifications . It might last 96-g- minutes and still be an experience unit.'* "Too arbitrary. I don’t know how one could say 100 minutes. The ’minimum’ in terms of what? I think it should be higher.” ”This is a violation of the whole spirit of the Exper ience Unit.” ”A minimum is too likely to become a standard, or even a maximum, and negate desired flexibility.” ”lf the other criteria are sufficiently inclusive to give the spirit of the experience unit, the criteria on time limits will not be needed.” "Gan you justify 100 minutes, in contrast to 60, 75, or 90 minutes?” ”l would say that 100 minutes Is the average time that should be spent each day.” ”This, too, will vary in terms of needs and Interests. I can think of certain instances when practically the entire day might be devoted to developing the unit. At other times, perhaps less than IOO minutes will be enough time. Integra tion should be in terms of a natural combination of curricu lum areas needed In the solution of a problem.” ”l do not believe that the pressure of an ever-increas ing load in the elementary school will always permit as much as 100 minutes every day.” ”That a second-year group could work effectively for 167 XOO minutes is questionable. A fifth-year group can and should do more. The time spent is dependent upon the learn ings ." Analysis of responses and comments. This criterion was not accepted by the jury; only 10 of them approved it. Seven did not respond, and 16 disapproved of the criterion. The comments indicate an objection to the arbitrary sugges tion of a specific number of minutes which the unit should occupy in the daily program. This objection is eliminated in the revised criterion. Revised Criterion t The Experience Unit utilizes a rel atively large block of time within the daily schedule, the time span being dependent upon the maturity level of the pupils and the nature and complexity of the problem. CRITERION XIV Original Criterion: The Experience Unit stresses con tinuous evaluation, with constant pupil participation, and a variety of formal and informal instruments. Defense of crit erion. This criterion is justified on the following principles: 1. Learning is most effective when children share In the selection and organization of materials and experiences, In the planning and execution of plans, and In the evaluation of progress, under the direction of adults (Principle B-8 , p. 95) . 2. One learns best when his goals are clear and ac- 168 cepted by him, when he is conscious of his progress toward them, and when he can evaluate his own achievement (Prin ciple B-10, pp. 95-96). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No opnrnv.R.. A n n - n n V A 1)1 a approve dis arm rove re anonaa 28 4 1 Si.snificant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts "The latter part of this statement may not be phrased clearly enough." "Why put in 'formal* and ’informal'?” "Perhaps it even suggests the development of these in struments as part of the unit." "The experience Unit stresses continuous evaluation, involving constant pupil participation, and utilising a variety of procedures and instruments." Analysis of responses and comments. All but one of the jury of experts approved this criterion; 28 of them strongly approved. The comments offer two suggestions for rephrasing the criterion, but there are no serious adverse criticisms in them. The criterion is merely rephrased in the revised form. Hevised Criterion i The Experience Unit provides for continuous, cooperative evaluation of group progress toward established goals, and a wide variety of practices and in struments is used for determining all-round pupil develop- 169 ment. CRITERION XV Original Criterion: The Experience Unit suggests new problems for consideration. It reveals related needs, In terests, and purposes as bases for subsequent units. Defense of criterion. This criterion is justified on the following principle: 1. Learning is a reconstruction of experience, with one experience leading to another (Principle B-l, p. 95). Summary of Jury Responses Strongly Strongly No approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response 24 9 Significant Comments Made by the Jury of Experts ,fTo whom does It reveal related needs, interests, and purposes? Perhaps this could be sharpened up a bit.M f,The experience unit requires that the entire staff co operate in developing scope and sequence of experience from year to year." Analysis of responses and comments. The jury accepted this criterion unanimously. The two comments made do not suggest any serious objection. The revised criterion is merely stated more simply. Revised Criterion: The Experience Unit provides many leads to new units. 170 t a b l e I SUMMARY OF THIRTY-THREE JURY RESPONSES ON ALL CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE EXPERIENCE UNIT Strongly Strongly No CRITERION approve Approve Disapprove disapprove response I 24 8 1 II 2 1 1 2 III 1 1 16 4 2 IV 28 5 V 26 7 VI 29 4 VII 25 7 1 VIII 24 8 1 IX 27 5 1 X 29 4 XI 18 13 1 1 XII 2 5 15 5 6 XIII 1 9 1 2 4 7 XIV 28 4 1 XV 24 9 Suggested Additional Criteria The writer has Included below what he considers to be the most significant suggestions made by the jury: nI feel strongly the need for a criterion that empha sizes the necessity for some pre-planning in large problem areas before the teacher is prepared to guide the teacher- 171 pupil planning that characterizes the experience unit. With' out such, there will never be, in my judgment, very exten sive use of the experience unit approach." "The experience unit should provide enriched opportun ities for democratic living: (a) respect for the beliefs, ideas, and opinions of others, (b) reliance upon the method of intelligence, and (c) cooperative living.,f •'The experience unit requires cooperative planning which is continuous and consistent .'1 "While it is probably a function of the school rather than the experience unit per se, effective communication be tween home and school is a vital factor in the use and ac ceptance of the experience unit as a plan of curriculum or ganization ." "The experience unit suggests the need for continuous in-service training for teachers in organizing, evaluating, and carrying through learning experiences." "I should like to see teacher evaluation stressed and total curriculum evaluation included. In many cases, things are retaught, repeated, and duplicated at several grade- levels. Too, areas of learning are completely overlooked in some instances." Analysis of the suggestions. In the opinion of the writer, the above suggestions are good ones; however, it seems to him that only the first two merit consideration as additional criteria. The first suggestion has already been incorporated in Revised Criterion III. The second suggestion 172 which calls for a criterion on democratic living, is an ex cellent one and can be defended on the following principles: 1 . A democratic society has faith in the ability of the common man and relies on him to think and act intelligently in the solution of group and individual problems (Principle A-2, p. 48) . 2. A democratic society emphasizes group consultation and cooperation, rather than force and competition (Princi ple A —4, p. 48)• 3. The elementary school should clarify the meaning of and further the cause of democracy by being the best possible example of democratic living (Principle B-l, p. 48). 4. The elementary school should provide opportunities for the development of self-direction, resourcefulness, social sensitivity, creativeness, initiative, adaptability, personal responsibility, and aesthetic appreciation (Princi ple B- 6 , p . 49). Additional Criteria On the basis of the second suggestion above, the fol lowing criterion is added: The Experience Unit provides for the development of the characteristics of a democratic personality (e.g., critical thinking, social sensitivity, cooperation, tolerance, etc.). It seems to the writer that there is need for an addi tional criterion on sequence. It can be justified on the following principle: The most effective learning sequence 175 is determined by the learner1s interests, needs, and exper iences (Principle B-15, p. 96). The criterion on sequence is stated thus: The Experience Unit provides for a sequence of learning activities determined by the experiential background, inter ests, and needs of the pupils. THE REVISED SET OP CRITERIA An effective Experience Unit in the elementary school: I. Originates in the common needs, interests, and prob lems of the pupils as they evolve in a social matrix. II. Stresses and provides for differences in pupil ca pacities, interests, and talents. III. Is selected, developed, and directed cooperatively (pupils, teachers, parents, administrators, etc.). Pupils, under the direction of their teachers, play a major role in the selection and development of the unit. IV. Provides for the selection of materials and activi ties through teacher-peipl 1 planning as the unit progresses. This does not preclude the possibility of broad pre-planning in terms of resource units or problem areas. V. Provides for a sequence of learning activities de termined by the experiential background, Interests, and needs of the pupils. VI. Provides for the organisation of knowledge In terms of the experiential background, needs, and purposes of the pupils . 174 VII* Utilizes many sources of Information and a wide variety of learning activities based upon the direct, first hand experiences of the pupils. Pacts, information, knowl edge, skills, and understandings are taught functionally in relation to these activities. This implies that the unit cuts across subject-matter lines, drawing upon subject mat ter whenever it contributes to the solution of problems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of Interests. VIII. Is centered in present day living. Materials deal ing with the past are utilized as they contribute to the so lution of present problems. IX. Stresses the all-round development of children. It Is concerned with the emotional, mental, social, and physi cal development of each child and the inter-relatedness of these four aspects. X. Provides for the development of the characteristics of a democratic personality (e.g., critical thinking, social sensitivity, cooperation, tolerance, etc.). XI. Provides for the extensive use of community resources in carrying on pupil activities. XII. Is comprehensive and extends over a considerable period of time, the length being dependent upon the plans which have been adopted by the group. XIII. Utilizes a relatively large block of time within the daily schedule, the time span being dependent upon the ma turity level of the pupils and the nature and complexity of the problem. 175 XIV. Provides for continuous, cooperative evaluation of group progress toward established goals, and a wide variety of practices and instruments is used for determining all round pupil development. XV. Provides many leads to new units. 176 C H A P T E R VI A SURVEY OR THY CURRICULAR PRACTICES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OP ERIE COUNTY THE PROCEDURES USED TO OBTAIN THE DATA The Q,uestionnaire Method On the basis of the revised set of criteria, a Ques tionnaire on Curricular Practices was prepared. The ques tionnaire, together with a letter-** of explanation, was sent to teachers. An examination of the questionnaire reveals that it is composed of several general questions to be an swered by all teachers, with a short section of questions to be answered only by those teachers who do some kind of "unit teaching." In the case of each choice question, at least three descriptions of practices, ranging from the tra ditional to the modern, are suggested. However, the des criptions are not listed in order from traditional to modern until they appear in the tables. The questionnaire revealed the ways in which, and the extent to which, the curricular practices of the elementary teachers of Erie County are con sistent with the criteria of the Experience Unit. It also indicated the factors which stand in the way of a modern program of education. The questionnaire was sent to 6 6 of the 500 elementary city and village teachers, and to 90 of the 700 elementary 1 See the APPENDIX for the Questionnaire on Curricular Practices and for a copy of the letter sent with the ques tionnaire . 177 supervisory district teachers. A questionnaire was sent to approximately every eighth teacher, with the hope that one out of every ten teachers would be sampled. Fifty-five of the cit3^ and village teachers and 77 of the supervisory district teachers filled out and returned the questionnaire making a total return of 132 out of 156, or 84.6 per cent. The teachers to whom the questionnaire was sent were se lected at random from the lists of elementary teachers pro vided by the superintendents of schools. The two city list v/ere arranged first (alphabetical order); then the six vil lage lists (alphabetical order), foil.owed by the four super visory district lists--l, 2, 3, and 4. If a school had ap proximately 24 teachers, 3 questionnaires were sent; if it had approximately 16 teachers, 2 questionnaires were sent, etc. A first grade teacher was selected first, then a sec ond, a third, a fourth, a fifth, and a sixth grade teacher. The selection of all teachers proceeded in this order, thus assuring a reasonable number of replies from each of the six grade levels. TABLE II shows the number of responses from the various grades. An effort was also made to sample every type of elementary school represented in Erie Count y- frorn the small, one and two-teacher school to the large school of 50 teachers. The Interview and Observation Method In order to increase the reliability of the question naire data, the writer visited 48 of the 132 teachers who 178 returned the questionnaire. Twenty city and village teachers and 28 supervisory district teachers were visited. The teachers were selected at random (approximately every third one) from among the 132 teachers who returned the questionnaire. The returned questionnaires were arranged in order according to number, from lowest to highest. Y«hen the questionnaires were originally sent out, they were num bered from 1 through 156, in order to facilitate the selec tion of teachers for visitation. In the selection of teachers for visitation, an attempt was made to choose an equal number from each grade level and to sample every type of elementary school. TABLX VIII shows the distribution of grades visited by the writer. The writer spent approximately 75 minutes per visita tion. In some instances the time extended as long as two hours. In each case the teacher was Interviewed, and many times the teacher was observed at work. The writer also ob tained much valuable assistance from the superintendents, supervisors, and principals. During the interviews with teachers, the observations, and the talks with the adminis trators, the writer kept careful written and mental notes. As soon as he felt he had enough information about a teacher, he responded to items III through XIV on the questionnaire. At the time of the visits, in no case was the writer aware of how the teachers had previously marked the questionnaire. The responses of the 48 teachers visited are compared with those of the writer in TABLZS IX through XX. 179 INTERPRETATIONS OF THE DATA This section presents interpretations of* the data obtained by the questionnaire method and by the interview and observation method. The introductory tables furnish background material pertaining to the teachers and the schools which participated in the study. The remaining tables provide data regarding the implementation of the Experience Unit in the elementary schools of Erie County. The order of tables follows that of the questionnaire items, which were suggested by the revised set of criteria estab lished in the preceding chapter. DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES TAUGHT In an effort to obtain a reliable sampling of the curricular practices in the Erie County schools, an effort was made to secure, as nearly as possible, an equal num ber of questionnaire replies from each of the six grade levels. TABLE II shows the distribution of grades taught by the teachers who responded to the questionnaire. 180 TABLE II DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES TAUGHT BY THE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE Grades Number of teachers 17 17 19 20 17 20 K-3 ID-6 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 2-3 3-4 3-5 4-6 5-6 6-7 Total number of teachers 132 The grades taught by the 132 teachers who returned the questionnaire were distributed in this way: Grade 1, 17; Grade 2, 17; Grade 3, 19; Grade 4, 20; Grade 5, 17; Grade 6 , 20. The following grade combinations were also represented: K-3, 1 ; K-6 , 1 ; 1 - 2 , 2 ; 1-3, 1 ; 1-4, 4; 1-5, 1 ; 1 - 6 , 1 ; 2-3, 1; 3-4, 2; 3-5, 1 ; 4-6, 2; 5-6, 4; 6-7, 1. Each grade was well represented by the group of teachers v/ho returned the questionnaire. 181 YEARS OR COLLEGE PREPARATION In order to find out the qualifications of the elemen tary teachers of Erie County, the respondents to the ques tionnaire were asked to indicate the number of years which they have attended college. TABLE III summarizes the re sponses of the teachers who returned the questionnaire. TABLE III YEARS OF COLLEGE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHERS HHO R3H?URNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE Years of Number of preparation teachers 2 8 3 24 4 72 5 27 6 1 Total number of teachers 132 Mean number of years 5.9 Median num ber of years 4 The mean number of years of college preparation of the elementary teachers of Erie County is 3.9, while the median number of years of preparation is 4. Seventy-two of the 132 teachers sampled have had 4 years of preparation; 27 of them have had 5 years of preparation. Only 32 of the teachers have completed less than 4 years of college work, 24 of whom have attended college 3 years. 182 The elementary teachers of Erie County are well Qualified so far as college preparation is concerned. YEARS OF LAST SCHOOL ATTENDANCE To find out the extent to which the elementary teachers are keeping abreast of the latest trends in teaching, they were asked to indicate the dates of their last school attend ance. Those dates are shown in TABLE IV. TABLE IV YEARS OE L a s t s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e o e t h e TEACHERS 7VH0 RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE Years of Number of attendance teachers 1922-1926 3 1927-1931 2 1932-1936 8 1937-1941 1 2 1942-1946 15 1947-1951 92 Total number of teachers 132 Ninety-two of the 132 teachers who responded to the questionnaire have attended school within the past 5 years. Vfithin the past 1 0 years 107 of them have attended school, and within the past 15 years 119 have been in school. The record of recent school attendance among the ele mentary teachers of Erie County is very commendable. 183 TSARS OF ELU11HNTARY TEACHING EXPERIENCE In order to detenrdne further the qualifications of the teachers, and their familiarity with the elementary school, they were asked to indicate their years of elementary teach ing experience. The results are summarized in TABLE V. TABLE V YEARS OF ELEMENTARY TEACHING EXPERIENCE OF THE TEACHERS VII0 RETURNED THE’ QUESTIONNAIRE Years of Number of Experience teachers 1-5 41 6 - 1 0 34 11-15 15 16-20 2 0 21-25 1 2 26-30 4 31-55 5 36-40 41-45 1 Total number of teachers 132 Mean number of years 11.7 Median number of years 9 The mean number of years of elementary teaching ex perience is 11.7, and the median number of years is 9. Forty-one, or approximately one-third of the 132 teachers, have taught 5 or fewer 37-ears in the elementary school; 75 of them have taught there fewer than 1 0 years. Fifty-six, or 42.4 per cent, of the teachers have had between 11 and 184 35 years of elementary teaching eiperienee. The elementary teachers have had considerable experi ence in elementary school teaching and should be very familiar with the elementary school. SIZE OF SCHOOLS To secure a reliable sampling, an attempt was made to sample all sizes of schools--from the small rural schools to the large city schools. TABLE VI reveals the enrollments of the schools which participated in this study. TABLE VI NUMBER OF PUPILS 117 THE SCHOOLS WHICH PARTICIPATED IN THE STUDY Number of Number of pupils schools 1-25 3 26-50 8 51-75 4 76-100 3 101-150 4 151-200 9 201-250 7 251-300 8 301-550 9 351-400 6 401-450 1 451-500 6 501-600 13 601-700 5 701-800 9 801-900 6 901-1000 14 1 0 0 1 - 1 1 0 0 14 1 1 0 1 - 1 2 0 0 1 1201-1300 2 Total number of schools 132 Mean number of pupils 549 . 2 Median number ____ of_ pupils___ 500 185 TABLE VI shows that replies were received from all sizes of schools, ranging in enrollment from fewer than 25 to as man?/- as 1300 pupils. The table also reveals that there are many large elementarjr schools in Erie County. Sixty-eight, or 51.5 per cent, of the teachers who returned the questionnaire teach in schools with enrollments of 500 or more. The mean number of pupils is 549.2, while the median number of pupils is 500. All sizes of schools participated in the study, thus assuring a good sampling. NUMBER 0E PUPILS PER ROOM Most educators agree that small classes are necessary for most effective teaching, and teachers often blame large classes for the lack of improvement in their teaching. Since class size seems to be such an important factor, the teachers were asked for the number of pupils in their class rooms. The replies are tabulated in TABLE VII. 186 TABLE VII HUMBER OE PUPILS PUR ROOM OE THE TEACHERS WHO RETURNED THE QUESTIONNAIRE Number of Number PUT) il s __ of rooms____ 6 - 1 0 11-15 3 16-20 4 21-25 27 26-30 32 31-35 42 36-40 17 4-1-45 4 46-50 2 Totai number of rooms i 132 Mean number of pupils 29 .9 Median number of pupils ___ J50______ The mean number of pupils per room is 29.9; the median number of pupils is 30. Forty-two, or approximately one- third, of the rooms have between 31 and 35 pupils in them. Twenty-three, or slightly over one-sixth, of the rooms have enro 1 lment s of mo re than 35. The classroom enrollments are neither unusually high nor low. In most cases they are not too high for effective teaching. DISTRIBUTION OE GRADES VISITED BY THE WRITER In order to insure a reliable sampling of the curricular practices, the writer tried to visit each grade an equal num.- ber of times, as nearly as possible. The distribution of the 48 visits is shown in TABLE VIII. TABLE VIII DISTRIBUTION OF GRADES VISITED BY THE Y/RITBR Grades Number visited t + 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 8 6 7 K-3 1 1 - 2 2 1-3 1 1-4 1 3-4 1 3-5 1 4-6 1 6-7 1 Total number | visited j 48 1 The above table shows that the grades visited by the writer were distributed in the following manner: Grade 1, 6 ; Grade 2, 6 ; Grade 3, 6 ; Grade 4, 6 ; G-rade 5, 8 ; Grade 5, 7. The following grade combinations were also 1 8 8 visited: K-3, 1; 1-2, 2; 1-5, 1 ; 1-4, 1; 3-4, 1; 3-5, 1; 4 -6 , 1; 6-7, 1. The visits were distributed among the six grade levels very equally. TYPES OE CURRICULAR ORGANIZATIONS Item III of the questionnaire presents six curricular organizations, ranging from the traditional, independent subject curriculum to the most modern curriculum with em phasis upon unit teaching. This item was included in the questionnaire because it summarizes the progress toward unit teaching, and reveals the extent to which the criterion on the origin of units (Criterion, l) is being implemented. TABLE IX summarizes the types of curricular organizations "being used in the elementary schools of Erie County. t a b l e IX SUwiiARY OF ALL TEACHERS1 riESPOKSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS1 AND WRITER'S RESPONSES OK ITEM III— TYPES OF CURRICULAR ORGANIZATIONS All Teachers1 Interviewed Writer1s Curricular Organizations Responses Teachers1 Responses Responses i I T t----- A The curriculum consists of a number i t » of logically organized subjects or t i fields of knowledge, each one of » i » which is taught independently . . . 24 1 18.2# 9 1 18.7$ 14 1 29.$ i 1 » B The curriculum consists of a number i » i of logically organized subjects or i 1 i fields of knowledge, some or all i t t of which are correlated ...... 54 1 40.9# 14 1 29.2# 29 1 60.$ t 1 C The curriculum consists of broad ! ! t problems, units of work, or uni 1 ! t fying themes, which provide the > t i means for teaching effectively the » 1 t basic content of certain subjects 1 t i or fields of knowledge. The sub » ! i jects or fields retain their i- 1 1 f dentity, but the content is se 1 1 t lected and taught with special » reference to the unit ...... 23 i 17.4$ 7 14.6$ 5 | 10.$ t 1 (Continued on p. 19l) TABLE IX (continued) SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS’ RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES OH ITER III— TYPES OF CURRICULAR ORGANIZATIONS All Teachers' Interviewed Writer's Curricular Organizations Responses Teachers' Responses Responses D The curriculum consists of a number of subjects or fields of knowledge which are unified or fused. Usu ally one subject (e.g., history) serves as the unifying center . . . E The curriculum consists of broad pre-planned problem areas from which learning units in terms of the needs, problems, and interests of the pupils are selected . . . . 1 0 .6% F The curriculum consists of broad teacher-pupil planned units of work, or activities, based upon the expressed wishes or desires of the group. No basic curricular structure is set up by the school, and little or no pre-planning is done. Units are usually selected in terms of desirable criteria de termined by the teacher and pupils, 6 ' 12.5% 132 / Total number of responses 90 191 Nine, or 18.7 per cent, of the 48 teachers interviewed by the writer reported logically organized subjects taught independently of each other. The writer reported that 14, or 29.2 xDer cent, of them have a curriculum of this type. Fourteen, or 29.2 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported correlation of subjects, while 40.9 per cent of all teachers reported this. The writer reported that 29, or 60.4 per cent, of the teachers have a curriculum of this type. Seven, or 14.6 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported broad problems, units of work, or unifying themes, which provide the means for teaching the various subjects. The writer reported that 5, or 10.4 per cent, of them have a curriculum of this type. Two, or 4.2 per cent, of the teachers interviewed re ported that subjects are unified or fused, with one subject (e.g. history) serving as the unifying center. The writer reported that none of them has a curriculum of this type. Ten, or 20.8 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, but only 1 0 . 6 per cent of all teachers, reported broad, pre planned problem areas from which learning units in terms of the needs, problems, and interests of the pupils are se lected. The writer reported that none of the teachers has a curriculum of this type. Six, or 12.5 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, but only 6 . 8 per cent of all teachers, reported broad, teacher- 19 2 pupil planned units of work, or activities, based upon the wishes or desires of their pupils. The writer reported that none of the teachers has a curriculum of this type. Not much progress has been made toward unit teaching. Furthermore, most of the units which are being taught originate in subject matter; seldom are they based upon the needs, problems, and interests of the pupils. Both the teachers and the writer reported correlation of subjects as being the most common type of curricular organization. There is considerable disagreement as to the extent to which the curriculum is based upon the needs, problems, and inter ests of the pupils. DBTERI'.'TTNATION OF SEQUENCE It em IV of the questionnaire was suggested by the cri terion on sequence (Criterion V) and was included in order to learn the extent to which this criterion is being im plemented. In the traditional school sequence is determined almost solely by the textbook or course of studjr, while In the modern school it is decided largely by the eicperiences, needs, and interests of the pupils. TABLE X reveals the ways in which sequence is determined by the teachers of Erie County. TABLE X SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS’ RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM IV— DETERMINATION OP SEQUENCE All Teachers' Interviewed W r i t e r ' s . Determination of Sequence Responses Teachers' Responses Responses r i A The textbook, or the course of study, f i determines the sequence-...... 9 1 6.8$ 3 1 6.3$ 14 2 9 . 2 $ 1 t B The sequence is determined primarily 1 ! 1 1 by the textbook, or course of study, ♦ However, the experiences, needs, and 1 i interests of the pupils play some 1 I part in determining the sequence . . . 87 ' 65.9$ 27 1 56.2 $ 34 7 0 . $ t i C Sequence is determined by the exper 1 iences, needs, and interests of 1 the p u p i l s ...... 36 ' 27.3# 18 ! 37.5$ t : i ! I t ■ 1 ! Total number of responses 132 48 ' 48 f t r 194 Three, or 6.3 per cent, of the teachers interviewed re ported that the textbook, or the course of study, determines the sequence. The writer reported that 14, or 29.2 per cent, of them determine sequence in this manner. Twenty-seven, or 56.2 per cent of the teachers inter viewed, and 65.9 per cent of all teachers reported that se quence is determined primarily by the textbook or course of study. However, the experiences, needs, and interests of their pupils help determine sequence to some extent. The writer reported that 34, or 70.8 per cent, of the teachers determine sequence in this manner. Eighteen, or 37.5 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, but only 27.3 per cent of all teachers, reported that se quence is determined by the experiences, needs, and inter ests of their pupils. The writer reported that none of the teachers visited determines sequence in this manner. Both the teachers and the writer reported that sequence is determined primarily by the textbook or course of study. There is some disagreement as to the part played by the ex periences, needs, and interests of the pupils in determining sequence. PROVISION FOR TiTDIinDUAL DIFFERENCES Item V of the questionnaire was suggested by the cri terion on the provision for individual differences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents (Criterion II) and was 195 included to find out the extent to which, this criterion is being implemented. The traditional school emphasizes the teaching of basic, minimum requirements to all children. Assignments and tests are the same for all pupils, and little time is devoted to the development of special inter ests and talents. The modern school attempts to teach chil dren on their own level, regardless of the grade. There is much opportunity for the development of special interests and talents. TABLE XL shows the attention being given to individual differences. t a b l e XI SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OP INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM V— PROVISION FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES All Teachers' Interviewed Writer1s Provision for Individual Differences Responses Teachers xtesponses Responses i A An effort is made to teach all children ! the basic, minimum requirements for f t the grade. Children are graded in 1 t terms of group or national norms. As | signments and tests are the same for | » all pupils, and little time is pro 1 1 vided for the development of special t interests and talents ...... 29 I 21.9# 11 22.9# 19 » 3 9 . $ B Some provision is made for differences i i in pupil abilities by varying the i i length of assignments. There is also i » some time devoted to the development j t of individual interests and talents t t through an activity period, dramati t sations, art work, etc...... 69 , 52.3# 2041.7# 22 r 45.£# C Children work on their own levels, re i i gardless of the grade, and assign t i ments vary in both length and diffi i i culty. Special interests and talents i i are cared for through a variety of t i t creative activities: writing, draw f T i ing, dramatization, modeling, paint j ! t ing, dancing, etc...... 34 ' 25.8# 17 t 35.4# 7 i 1 4 . $ ! t t ! i Total number of responses 132 t 48 i 48 « ! t t 19 7 Eleven, or 22.9 per cent, of the teachers Interviewed reported that little i:>rovision is made for individual dif ferences. The writer reported that 19, or 39.6 per cent, of them make .little provision for individual differences. Twenty, or 41.7 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, and 52.3 per cent of all the teachers reported that some provision is made for individual differences by varying the length of assignments and devoting some time to special in terests and talents. The writer reported that 22, or 45.8 per cent, of the teachers make some provision for individ ual differences. Seventeen, or 35.4 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, and 25.8 per cent of all teachers reported that a great deal of provision is made for individual differences. Children work on their own levels, regardless of the grade, and a variety of creative activities is provided. The writer re ported that only 7, or 14.6 per cent, of the teachers make a great deal of provision for individual differences. The teachers and the writer reported that, in most cases, provision is being made for individual differences, but there is disagreement as to the extent of it. SOURCES Of INE0R1IATION AND VARIETY OE ACTIVITIES BASED UPON DIRECT EXPERIENCE Item VI of the questionnaire was suggested by the cri terion on the sources of information and variety of activi- ties based upon direct experience (Criterion "VII) and was included to show the extent to which this criterion is being met. In the traditional school practically all of the time is devoted to the material prescribed by the basic textbooks and the course of study. Very little use is made of audio-visual aids and direct, first-hand ex perience. In the modern school many sources of information and a wide variety of activities based upon direct, first hand experiences are utilized. Information and skills are taught in relation to the activities, and subject matter is used as It helps solve the children’s problems, meet their needs, or extend their interests. TABLE H I Indicates the sources of information being used and the variety of activities based upon direct experience. TABLE XII SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM VI— SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES BASED UPON DIRECT EXPERIENCE Sources of Information and. Activities All Teachers' Interviewed Writer's Based Upon Direct Experience_____ Responses Teachers ' Responses Responses A Most of the time is devoted to cover ing the work prescribed by the text books and course of study. Subjects are taught independently of each other, and there is little use made of audio-visual aids and direct, first-hand experiences...... 8 6.1$ 4.2$ 12 25$ B Most of the time is spent in teaching the contents of the textbook or course of study. Some use is made of audio-visual aids, and some time is spent on activities based upon direct, first-hand experiences of the children. Some facts, infor mation, skills, and understandings are taught in relation to these activities ...... 82 62.1$ 24 50$ 30 62 £>% C Many sources of information and a wide variety of learning activities based upon direct, first-hand experiences are utilized. Facts, information, skills, and understandings are taught in relation to these activities, draw ing upon subject matter whenever it contributes to the solution of prob lems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of interests...... 42 31. 22 45.8$ 12.5£ Total number of responses 132 48 200 Two, or 4.2 per cent, of the teachers interviewed re ported that the sources of information and the variety of activities are limited, and that little use is made of audio-visual aids and direct, first-hand experiences. The writer reported that 12, or 25 per cent, of them provide limited sources of information, little variety of activ ity, and little use of audio-visual aids and direct, first hand experiences. Twenty-four, or 50 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed, and 62.1 per cent of all teachers reported that some use is made of audio-visual aids and that some time is spent on activities based upon direct, first-hand ex periences. The writer reported that 30, or 62.5 per cent, of the teachers make some use of audio-visual aids and that some time is spent on activities based upon direct, first hand experiences. Twenty-two, or 45.8 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed, and 31.8 per cent of all teachers reported the use of many sources of information and a wide variety of learning activities based upon direct, first-hand exper iences. The writer reported that only 6, or 12.5 per cent, of the teachers make use of many sources of information and a wide variety of learning activities based upon direct, first-hand experiences. Both the teachers and the writer reported that, in the majority of cases, most of the time is spent in teach 201 ing the contents of the textbook or course of study. There is disagreement as to the extent of the sources of infor mation and the variety of activities based upon direct experiences. DSVSL0H/I2KT OF THE DEMOCRATIC CHAHACTERISTICS Item VII of the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on democratic characteristics (Criterion X) and was included to determine the extent to which this criterion is being met. The traditional school, which emphasizes subject-matter mastery and prescribed content and procedure, offers limited opportunity for the develop ment of the democratic characteristics. The modern school emphasizes such democratic characteristics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooperation, and tolerance. It provides many opportunities for their development. TABLE XIII summarizes the extent to which the criterion on the democratic characteristics is being fulfilled. TABLE XIII SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS1 RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM VII— DEVELOPMENT OF THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTERISTICS. Development of the All Teachers' Interviewed Writer’s Democratic Characteristics Responses Teachers' Responses Resppnses A Most of the time is devoted to cov ering the work prescribed by the textbooks and course of study. Op portunities for developing such democratic characteristics as crit ical thinking, self-direction, co operation, tolerance, etc., are limited...... 21 15.9$ 14.6$ 13 27. B The importance of such democratic char acteristics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooperation, toler ance, etc., is recognized and some attention Is given to their develop ment through group projects, research activities, etc...... 56 42.4$ 18 37.5 $ 26 54.2$ C The development of such democratic characteristics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooperation, toler ance, etc., are given a great deal of attention. Many opportunities are provided for their development. . . 55 41.7$ 23 47.9$ 18.7$ Total number of responses 132 48 48 'cor 203 Seven, or 14.6 per cent, of tiie teachers interviewed reported that opportunities for developing the democratic characteristics are limited. The writer reported that 13, or 27.1 per cent, of them provide limited opportunities for developing the democratic characteristics. Eighteen, or 37.5 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed reported that some attention is given to the de velopment of the democratic characteristics through group projects, research activities, etc. The writer reported that 26, or 54.2 per cent, of them give some attention to the development of the democratic characteristics. Twenty-three, or 47.9 per cent, of the teachers in terviewed reported that many opportunities are provided for the development of the democratic characteristics. The writer reported that only 9, or 18.7 per cent, of them provide many opportunities for the development of the democratic characteristics. The teachers and the writer reported that the im portance of democratic characteristics is recognized and that attention is being given to their development. There is considerable disagreement, however, as to how effec tively the characteristics are being taught. 204 SELECTION OE MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES Item VIII of* the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on the selection of materials and activities (Criterion IV) and was Included to reveal the extent to v/liich this criterion is being implemented. In the tradi tional school most of the materials and activities are selected in advance of the teaching. The teacher selects them from the basic textbooks and course of study. In the modern school most of the materials and activities are chosen through teacher-pupil planning as there is need for them. TABLE XEV shows how materials and activities are selected. T'ABLa XIV SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM VIII— SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND ACTIVITIES All Teachers’ Interviewed Writer1s Selection of Materials and Activities Responses Teachers1 Responses Responses The teacher selects most of the mate rials and activities in advance of the teaching from the textbook or course of study ...... 25 18.9J& 18.7% 18 37.$ B Some of the materials and activities are selected cooperatively by the teacher and pupils as the work progresses and as needed. However, most of them are selected by the teacher, in advance of the teach ing...... 77 53.4$ 21 43.8$ 30 62.$ C Most of the materials and activities are selected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. This does not preclude some pre-planning on the part of the teacher...... 30 22.7$ 18 37.5$€ Total number of responses 132 48 48 ? 01 £ 206 Nine, or 18.7 per cent, of* the teachers interviewed reported that they select most of* the materials and activ ities in advance from the textbooks or courses of study. The writer reported that 18, or 37.5 per cent, of them select most of the materials and activities in advance from the textbooks or courses of study. Twenty-one, or 43.8 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed, and 58.4 per cent of all teaciiers reported that they select most of the materials and activities in ad vance, but that some of them are selected cooperatively by them and their pupils as needed. The writer reported that 30, or 62.5 per cent, of the teachers select most of the materials and activities in advance, with some of them being selected cooperatively by the teachers and pupils as needed. Sighteen, or 37.5 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, but only 22.7 per cent of all teachers, reported that most of the materials and activities are selected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. The writer reported that in no instance are most of the materials and activi ties selected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. There is agreement on the part of the teachers and the writer that roost of the materials and activities are selected by the teachers in advance of the teaching. How ever, there is a great deal of disagreement in regard to the extent to which materials and activities are selected 207 through, teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. ORGANISATION 05* STJB130T MATTER Item IX of the questionnaire w a s suggested by the criterion on organization of subject natter (Criterion VI) and was included to find out the extent to which this cri terion is being fulfilled. In the traditional school most of the subject matter is presented as it was written by the textbook writers, while in the modern school most of it is presented as it relates to the experiences, needs, and purposes of the children. Information and skills are related to the daily problems of the class whenever pos sible. TABLE XV reveals the ways in which subject matter is organized. TABLE XV SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER’S RESPONSES ON ITEM IX— ORGANIZATION 0 SUBJECT MATTER All Teachers' Interviewed Writer’s Organization of Subject Matter Responses Teachers Responses Responses A Most of the subject matter is taught in the order in which It appears in the textbooks...... 5.3# 2 .1# 12 25# B Most of the subject matter is taught in the order In which it appears in the textbooks, but some of it is organized in terms of the ex periences, needs, and purposes of the pupils ...... 84 65.6# 27 56. 36 75# C Most of the subject matter is-or ganized and taught in terms of the personal experiences, needs, and purposes of the pupils. Pacts, information, and skills are con stantly related to the daily prob lems of the class ...... 41 31.1# 20 41.7# Total number of responses 132 48 48 f r o ? 209 One, or 2.1 per cent, of the teachers interviewed re ported that most of the subject matter is taught in the order in which it appears in the textbooks. The writer reported that 12, or 25 per cent, of them teach most of the subject matter in the order in which it appears in the textbooks. Twenty-seven, or 56.2 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed, and 63.6 per cent of all teachers reported that most of the subject matter is taught in the order in which it appears in the textbooks, but that some of it is organized in terms of the experiences and needs of their pupils. The v/riter reported that 36, or 75 per cent, of the teachers teach most of the subject matter in the order in which it appears in the textbooks, with some of it being organized in terms of the experiences and needs of their pupils. Twenty, or 41.7 per cent, of the teachers interviewed, and 31.1 per cent of all teachers reported that most of the subject matter is organized and taught in terms of the experiences and needs of their pupils. The writer found no teacher who organizes most of the subject matter in terms of the experiences and needs of his pupils. It is agreed that most of the subject matter is taught in the order in which it appears in the textbooks, but there is considerable disagreement as to how much of it is organized in terms of the experiences, needs, and purposes of the pupils. 210 CURRICULUM IN RELATION TO PRESENT AND PAST Item X of the questionnaire was suggested by the cri terion on time in which the curriculum is centered (Cri terion VIII) and was included to reveal the extent to which this criterion is being met. In the traditional school the curriculum is centered in the past, with most of the problems dealing with past living. Present-day living and problems are seldom considered. In the modern school the curriculum is centered in the present, with most of the problems dealing with present-day living. Materials deal ing with the past are utilized as they contribute to the solution of those problems. TABLE XVI indicates the orien tation of the curriculum with respect to present and past. TABLE XVI SUMMARY OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OP INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM X— TIME IN WHICH CURRICULUM IS .CENTERED lime in which All teachers’ Interviewed Writer’s Curriculum is Centered Responses Teachers' Responses Responses i » t t A The curriculum is centered in the t i past. Most of the problems and t t r assignments deal with past liv- » i ing, with little regard for pres- f i ent-day living and problems .... 3 ( 2.3$ 14 » 29.2$ i i t B The curriculum is centered in the t i i past, but there is some consid- t t eration for present living. The , j ! i past is sometimes compared with , I i the present, current events are , 1 i discussed, and occasionally a t J i problem which deals with present , » living is considered...... 38, 28.8$ 16 ’ 33.3$ 20 ' 41.6$ i t \ t The curriculum is centered in pres- , ! C i ent living. Problems concerned , 1 t with life today form the basis for . , I i the curriculum. Materials dealing , 1 i t with past living are used only as , i they contribute to the solution , 1 of present-day problems...... 91 ,68.9$ 32 | 66.7$ 14 1 29.2$ i ! t CO 48 t Total number of responses 132 t N ' t 212 None of* the teachers interviewed, and only 2.5 per cent of all teachers reported that their curricula are centered in the past, with little regard for present-day living and problems. The writer reported that 14, or 29.2 per cent, of the teachers have curricula centered in the past. Sixteen, or 33.3 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that their curricula are centered in the past, but that there is some consideration for present-day living and problems. The past is sometimes compared with the present and current events are discussed. The writer re ported that 20, or 41.6 per cent, of the teachers have curricula of this type. Thirty-two, or 66.7 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed reported that their curricula are centered in present living, and that they are based upon problems con cerned with life today. Materials dealing with the past are utilized only as they contribute to the solution of present-day problems. The writer reported that only 14, or 29.2 per cent, of the teachers have curricula of this type. There is considerable disagreement in regard to the time in which curricula are centered. The writer did not find evidence that they are centered in present living to the extent indicated by the teachers. 213 EMPHASIS UPON ALL-ROUND DjSVELORfi/ESNT Item XI of the questionnaire was suggested "by the cri terion on emphasis upon all-round development (Criterion IX) and was included to measure the extent to which this criterion is being carried out. In the traditional school most of the time is devoted to mastery of the required minimum essentials; consequently, little time is left for problems related to social, emotional, and physical de velopment. In the modern school all aspects of growth are emphasized--mental, social, emotional, and physical. Prob lems which arise in any area of development are given Im mediate attention. TABLE X V I I shows the emphasis upon all round development. / t a b l e XVII SUMMARY" OP ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM XI— EMPHASIS UPON ALL-ROUND DEVELOPMENT Emphasis Upon All Teachers’ Interviewed Writer*s All-Round Development Responses Teachers' Responses Responses i » t A Most of the time is spent in teach- ' i » ing pupils the required subject ' i i matter and minimum essentials for * i » the grade. Little time is left 1 i ! for problems related to social, 1 i 1 emotional, and physical develop- f i ! m e n t ...... 6 1 4.5$ 2 ' 4.2$ 11 ' 2 2 . $ i i ! B Emphasis is placed upon mental - j 1 growth. However, problems re- 1 i I lated to social, emotional, and ’ i 1 physical development are recog- 1 ! 1 nized as important and some at- f 1 ! tention is given to them...... 33 1 25$ 11 ' 22.9# 23 ’ 4 7 . $ 1 i ! C Emphasis is upon all-round devel- T 1 opment of pupils— mental, social, 1 1 1 ! I emotional, and physical. Social ■ 1 and emotional health are con- f r sidered very important. Prob- f i t ! r lems in all areas of development 1 are given prompt attention. .... 93 ’ 70.5$ 35 1 72.9$ 14 | 2 9 . $ r _ • ! 3 r - 1 - -■ t- — --- Total number of responses 132 ' GO - 215 Two, or 4.2 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that they spend most of their time teaching the required subject matter, leaving little time for social, emotional, and physical development. The writer reported that 11, or 22.9 per cent, of them devote little time to social, emotional, and physical development. Eleven, or 22.9 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that their emphasis is upon mental growth, but some attention is given to problems related to social, emotional, and physical development. The writer reported that 23, or 47.9 per cent, of them emphasize mental growth, with some attention given to social, emotional, and physical development. Thirty-five, or 72.9 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed reported that their emphasis is upon the all-round development of pupils--mental, social, emotional, and physical. The writer reported that only 14, or 29.2 per cent, of them emphasize the all-round development of pupils. There is some disagreement between the teachers and the investigator in regard to the time spent on required subject matter and minimum essentials, and much disagree ment in regard to the emphasis upon all-round development. 216 USE OE COMMONITY RESOURCES Item XII of tlie questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on the use of community resources (Criterion XI) and was included to determine the extent to which this criterion is being attained. The traditional school re stricts its curriculum to the four walls of the classroom, seldom drawing upon community resources. The modern school makes extensive use of community resources: industries, people, history, geography, etc. TABLE XVIII reveals the use made of community resources. TABLE XVIII SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS’ RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS’ AND WRITER’S RESPONSES ON ITEM XII— USE OF COMMUNITY RESOURCES All Teachers' Interviewed Writer’s Use of Community Resources Responses Teachers’ Responses Responses t T A Community resources are seldom used \ i f to enrich the contents of the text i ! 1 books and course of study...... 28 ’ 21.2# 10 '20.8# 21 ' 43.11$ i 1 i t f B Community resources are occasionally i t I used. Some trips are taken to lo t i J cal industries and speakers with r t 1 special talents or experiences are t 1 now and then invited to speak to 1 the children...... 85 1 62.9$ 25 '52.1$ 20 ' 4 1 . $ 1 1 1 1 ! I C The curriculum is not restricted to T 1 1 the four walls of the classroom. t 1 1 Extensive use is made of local 1 1 1 industries, public services, in t 1 1 stitutions, people, history, and t 1 geography...... 21 ’ 15.9# 13 '27.1# V ' 1 4 . $ ! i 1 Total number of responses 132 ' 48 ’ 48 ' i i i urt 2 1 8 Ten, or 20.8 per cent, of the teachers Interviewed reported that they seldom use community resources to en rich the contents of the textbooks and courses of study. The writer reported that 21, or 43.8 per cent, of them seldom use community resources to enrich the curriculum. Twenty-five, or 52.1 per cent, of the teachers in terviewed, and 62.9 per cent of all teachers reported that they use cammunity resources occasionally. Some trips are taken to local industries, and speakers with special talents or experiences are occasionally invited to speak to the pupils. The writer reported that 20, or 41.6 per cent, of the teachers make occasional use of com munity resources. Thirteen, or 27.1 per cent, of the teachers inter viewed, and 15.9 per cent of all teachers reported that they make extensive use of community resources. The writer reported that only 7, or 14.6 per cent, of the teachers make extensive use of community resources. It is agreed that community resources are used by most teachers, but there is some disagreement as to the extent of their use. All teachers reported an average of 2.1 study trips per year, but the writer discovered, in his interviews, that an average of slightly over one study trip was taken during the 1950--*51 school year. 219 METHOD OH EVALUATION Item XEII of the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on evaluation (Criterion XIV) and was Included to discover the extent to which this criterion is being achieved. In the traditional school emphasis is upon teacher-made or standardized tests and upon mental growth. The teacher does all the evaluating at the end of a grading period. In the modern school evaluation is continuous, with children participating in it constantly. A wide variety of practices and instruments Is utilized to meas ure all aspects of growth, not just the mental. TABLE XIX summarizes the methods of evaluation being used. TABLE XIX SUMMARY OF ALL TEACHERS' RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM XIII— METHOD OF EVALUATION______All Teachers’ Interviewed Writer’s Method of Evaluation Responses Teachers’ Responses Responses A The teacher evaluates progress at the end of a working period, or more often, by teacher-made or standard ized tests. Occasional home visits are made and cumulative records are studied in order to evaluate pupil growth better...... 34 25.8$ 18.7$ 18 37.5$ B Evaluation of group progress is some what continuous, with occasional pupil participation. Such practices and instruments as home visitations, health data, cumulative records, ob servations and teacher-made and standardized tests are used in de termining all-round pupil develop ment...... 73 55.3$ 28 58.4$ 30 62.5$ C Evaluation of group progress is con tinuous, with constant pupil par ticipation. A wide variety of prac tices and instruments is used to measure all-round pupil development; teacher-made and standardized tests, home visits, health data, cumulative records, observations, case studies, belief tests, diaries, activities and anecdotal records, attitude and friendship tests, and sociograms . . . 25 18.9$ 11 22.9 $ Total number of responses 132 48 48 221 Nine, or 18.7 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that they evaluate progress at the end of a working period, or more often, by teacher-made or stand ardized tests. Occasional home visits are made, and cum ulative records are studied. The writer reported that in 18, or 37.5 per cent, of the cases evaluation is of this type. Twenty-eight, or 58.4 per cent, of the teachers in terviewed reported that evaluation of group progress is somewhat continuous, with occasional pupil participation. Home visitations, health data, cumulative records, obser vations, and teacher-made and standardized tests are used to determine all-round pupil development. The writer re ported that 30, or 62.5 per cent, of the teachers have an evaluation program of this kind. 31even, or 22.9 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that evaluation of group progress is continuous, with constant pupil participation. A wide variety of practices and instruments is used to measure all-round pupil development. In addition to those mentioned above, case studies, belief tests, diaries, activities and anecdotal records, attitude and friendship tests, sociograms, etc., are employed. The writer reported no instance in which he thought that evaluation is of this nature. The teachers and writer agree that, in most cases, evaluation is somewhat continuous, with occasional pupil 222 participation; and that some practices and instruments are used to measure all-round development. There is disagree ment, however, in regard to the extent of continuous eval uation, pupil participation, and variety of* practices and instruments used. SEQUSL'TCS OF UNITS Item XTV, ABC of* the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on the selection, development, and direction of units (Criterion III) and the one on sequence of units (Criterion XV). It was included to show the extent to v/hich these criteria are being met. In the traditional school specific units are prescribed by the textbook or course of study; furthermore, most of the materials, activ ities and procedures are prescribed. In the modern school one unit provides leads to subsequent units. The teacher and pupils cooperatively select the units and plan the outcomes, materials, activities, and procedures. TABLE XX indicates the extent to which Criteria III and XV are being carried out. The first column of TABLE XI presents the responses of the 95 teachers who reported unit teaching on the ques tionnaire. Column two shows the responses of the 37 unit teachers interviewed by the writer, and column three re veals the writer’s responses. TABLE XX SUMMARY OP ALL UNIT TEACHERS’ RESPONSES AND COMPARISON OF INTERVIEWED TEACHERS' AND WRITER'S RESPONSES ON ITEM XIV,ABC— SEQUENCE OF UNITS # All Unit Teachers' Interviewed Writer1s Seauence of Units Responses Teachers' Responses Responses A Specific units are suggested by the r r textbook or the course of study, r i and most of the materials, activ- i i ities, and procedures are sug- t i gested. There is little teacher- i » pupil planning...... 15 ? 15.8# 5 ' 13.5# 30 » 81.]# t i B Units are chosen from a suggested j t t ! list in the course of study, and j t ! occasionally the teacher and pu- f i 1 pils cooperatively select a unit { i based upon the needs, interests, I t » and problems of the pupils. Pu- f r ! pils make some suggestions as to t materials, activities, and pro- t t t 20 ' 54.1# 7 i 18.S# i t C One unit provides leads to new units. ? i i The sequence, or order, of units is ? » i determined by the experiences, needs, t and interests of the pupils. Pupils, f i t i under the guidance of their teachers, f t t select the unit and plan the out- ( i i comes, materials, activities, and ! procedures...... 26 f27.4/o 12 ' 52.4# > (Total number of responses 95 , 37 , 37 ’ ---- 1. . . . ^Eleven of the 48 teachers visited reported that they do no unit teaching. 224 Five, or 13.5 per cent, of the teachers Interviewed reported that they teach specific units which are sug gested by the textbooks or courses of study. Pupils play practically no part in the selection, development, and direction of units. The writer reported that 30, or 81.1 per cent, of the teachers teach prescribed units. Twenty, or 54.1 per cent, of the teachers interviewed reported that units are chosen from suggested lists In the course of study, and occasionally a unit is selected through teacher-pupil planning. Pupils play some part in the selection, development, and direction of units. The writer reported this to be true in only 7, or 18.9 per cent, of the cases. Twelve, or 3 2.4 per cent, of the teachers Interviewed, and 27.4 per cent of all unit teachers reported that one unit provides leads to new units. Units are selected, de veloped, and directed cooperatively, and there is much teacher-pupil planning. The writer found no instance in •which he thought this is true. There is considerable disagreement evident throughout TAELS XX. The writer found that units are prescribed, as well as the outcomes, materials, activities, and proce dures, much more often than reported by the teachers. He found no instance In which one unit usually provides leads to new units. 225 LENGTHS OH UNITS Item XIV, D of the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion on the lengths of units (Criterion XII) and was included to reveal the.extent to which this criterion is being iir.plemented. In the traditional school, where sub ject-matter units are emphasized, units are often too short to be most effective. In the modern school, where the Ex perience Unit is likely to be taught, units are comprehen sive and extend over a considerable period of time. TABLE XXI reveals the lengths of units as reported by the teachers who do unit teaching. TABLE XXI LENGTHS OF UNITS AS REPORTED ON ITEM XIV, D OE THE QUESTIONNAIRE* Number of Number of _ da_ys ____ _ replies 1-5 6-10 15 11-15 24 16-20 32 21-25 8 26-30 10 51-35 2 Total number of replies 95 Me di an numb e r j of days j 16-20 *In his interviews with 37 teachers who indicated unit teaching, the writer observed that most units last a median number of 11-15 days, rather than 16-20 days as shown above. 226 Ox the 95 teachers who reported unit teaching, 4 re ported that units last 1-5 days; 15 reported that they last 6-10 days; 24 reported that they last 11-15 days; 52 re ported that they last 16-20 days; 8 reported that they last 21-25 days; 10 reported that they last 26-30 days, and 2 re ported that they last 31-35 da:/s. In his interviews with 57 teachers who indicated unit teaching, the writer observed that most units last a median number of 11-15 days rather than 16-20 days, as reported on the questionnaire. Many units do not last long enough to be comprehensive and effective. They are subject-matter rather than Exper ience Units. TIME 'DEVOTED DAILY TO UNIT TEACHING Item XIV, E of the questionnaire was suggested by the criterion which deals with the amount of time devoted daily to unit teaching (Criterion XIII) and was included to de termine the extent to which this criterion is being achieved. In order to be most effective, a unit should utilize a rel atively large block of time within the daily schedule. A subject-matter unit can be taught within a short period of time, but an Experience Unit requires a large block of time. TABLE X X H indicates the amount of time devoted daily to unit teaching. 227 TAB L E XXII TIME DEVOTED DAILY TO UNIT TEACHING AS REPORTED ON ITEM XIV, E OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE* Daily number Number of of minutes replies 1-30 23 31-60 41 61-90 19 91-120 7 121-150 2 151-180 3 Total number of replies 95 Median number of minutes 31-60 *Of the 95 teachers who reported unit teaching, 46 indicated that their time is allotted in one "block. An examination of 48 daily programs by the writer revealed few blocks of time over 55 minutes in length. The median time devoted daily to unit teaching is 31-60 minutes, as reported by all 95 teachers who indi cated unit teaching. Twenty-three of the 95 teachers who do unit teaching reported that they devote 1-30 minutes daily to the unit; 41 reported that they devote 31-60 minutes daily to It; 19 228 reported that they devote 61-90 minutes daily to it; 7 re ported that they devote 91-120 minutes daily to it; 2 re ported that they devote 121-150 minutes daily to it, and 5 reported that they devote 151-180 minutes daily to it. Forty-six of the 9 5 teachers who reported unit teaching stated that their time is allotted in one block. An examination of 48 daily programs by the writer revealed few blocks of time over 35 minutes in length. In most cases there is not enough time devoted to unit teaching in the daily program. CONDITIONS WHICH INTERFERE WITH CARRYING OUT THE BEST PROGRAM Item XV was Included In the questionnaire to reveal which conditions interfere with progress in education and with the development of Experience Unit teaching. Before recommendations can be made for most effective use of the Experience Unit, it is first necessary to determine the interfering conditions. TABLE XXIII reveals those condi tions . 229 TABLE XXIII CONDITIONS WHICH INTERFERE WITH CARRYING- OUT THE BEST PROGRAM AS REPORTED ON ITEM XV" OF THE QTCJE3TI OUT AIRE Number Conditions of replies Administration too dictatorial . . . . . 7 Classroom too small ...... Ereauent interruptions ...... Inadequate materials and equipment . Inconsistent philosophy of school. . . . 4- Lack of transportation facilities for trips . .18 Lack of understanding and cooperative parent s. . . 8 Large class ...... 32 Many special teachers...... Method of reporting unsatisfactory . . . 5 Necessity to prepare for next grade. . . 3 Necessity to prepare for standardised and local tests ...... Poor job done by previous teachers . . . 7 Rigid course of* study ...... Scarcity of t i m e ...... 6 Screwed-down seats ...... 3 Several grades to teach ...... 5 Teacher’s lack of preparation and experience . . . 7 Wide mentality and age range of children . . . . .11 The twelve conditions most often reported by the teachers as interfering with their carrying out the kind of program which they believe to be best are summarized here. They are listed in order of frequency of mention: large class, small classroom, inadequate materials and equipment, lack of transportation facilities for study trips, rigid course of study, wide mentality and age range of the chil 230 dren, preparation for standardized and local tests, lack of understanding and cooperative parents, dictatorial ad ministration, inferior quality of previous teachers, lack of personal preparation and experience, and scarcity of time. In his interviews with 48 teachers, the writer found that the following seven conditions seem to interfere most of all with progress in education and the development of Experience Unit teaching: administration too dictatorial, inconsistent philosophy of school, many special teachers, necessity to prepare for next grade, necessity to prepare for standardized and local tests, rigid course of study, and teacher* s lack of preparation and experience. 231 CHAPTER Y U EVALUATION OF THE C URL IC UL AR PRACTICES IN LIGHT OF THE ESTABLISHED CRITERIA In this chapter the curricular practices summarized in the preceding pages are evaluated in light of the cri teria established in CHAPTER Y. The practices are evalu ated by applying the criteria to them and determining the extent to which each criterion is being implemented. The statement of each criterion is followed by a discussion of how well the teachers and writer think the criterion is being met. Each discussion is ended with a concluding statement. CRITERION I . THE EXPERIENCE UNIT ORIGINATES IN THE COH,UN NEEDS, INTERESTS, AMD PROBLEMS OF THE PUPILS AS THEY EVOLVE IN A SOCIAL MATRIX. The evidence presented in TABLE IX Indicates that the teachers and writer agree that most of the activities and units originate in subject matter. One-third of the inter viewed teachers reported that units, or activities, are se lected in terms of the needs, problems, Interests, or ex pressed wishes of the pupils. The writer found no instance in which this is true most of the time. Only occasionally are units suggested other than by the textbooks and courses of study. It is agreed that the most common type of curricular organization is correlation of subjects. The writer dis 232 covered, however, that very often the degree of correlation is limited (e.g., reading and art, spelling and writing). Conclusion. Criterion I is being implemented only to a very slight degree. Most units originate in subject matter. Seldom are they based upon the common needs, in terests, and problems of the children. CRITERION U . THE EXPERIENCE UNIT STRESSES AND PRO VIDES DIPPERENCZS IN PUPIL CAPACITIES,INTERESTS, AMD TALENTS. TABLE XE points out that the teachers and writer agree that, in most instances, there is some provision being made for differences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents; however, 'the writer observed this provision to be slight in some cases. The writer found that more teachers are concerned with teaching the basic, minimum requirements for their grades than reported on the questionnaire. He also noted that few teachers are genuinely concerned with providing for differ ences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents. Most of the emphasis is placed upon uniform achievement, with the same assignments and tests being given every child. There is not much provision made for individual interests and tal ents, and opportunities for creative activities are often limited. Conclusion. Criterion II is being implemented to some degree. The evidence reveals that, in most cases, some 233 provision is ‘being made for differences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents, but it is slight in some instances. The provision for individual interests and talents is often limited. CRITERION Til. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT IS SELECTED; DE VELOPED, AMD DIRECTED COOPERATIVELY (pupils, teachers, parents, administrators, etc.) PUPILS, UNDER TEE DIRECTION OP THEIR TEACHERS, PLAY A MAJOR ROLE IN THE SELECTION AND DEVELOH'/MNT OE THE UNIT . As TABLE ZCC demonstrates, there is considerable dis agreement between the responses of the teachers and those of the writer in regard to the implementation of this cri terion. Approximately one-third of the 37 teachers using the unit plan, who were visited by the writer, indicated that the pupils, under their guidance, select units and plan the outcomes, materials, activities, and procedures. The writer found that this is only occasionally true in the rooms which he visited. Contrary to the responses of the teachers, in his in terviews the writer discovered much evidence to indicate that most specific units are prescribed by the textbook or course of study. Sometimes they are chosen from a suggested list of units. Conclusion. Criterion III is being implemented only to a slight degree. Occasionally pupils, under the guidance of their teachers, select units and plan the outcomes, mater- 234 ials, activities, and procedures. Most units are prescribed by the textbooks and courses of study. CRITERION TV. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT PROVIDES If OR THE SELECTION OR MATERIALS. END ACTIVITIES THROUGH TEACHER- PUPIL PLANNING AS THE UNIT PROGRESSES. THIS DOES NOT PRE CLUDE THE POSSIBILITY OF BROAD PRE-PLANNING IN TERI,IS OF RESOURCE UNITS OR PROBLEM AREAS. TABLE XIV illustrates that there is agreement on the part of the teachers and the writer that most of the ma terials and activities are selected by the teacher, in ad vance of the teaching. There is some disagreement as to the extent to which the materials and activities are se lected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. The table shows that 37.5 per cent of the teachers visited be lieve that this is true most of the time in their rooms. After careful observation and interviews with the teachers, the writer concluded that In no case are most of the mater ials and activities selected as needs arise. He also con cluded that more teachers select the materials and activities in advance of the teaching than reported on the questionnaire. The prescribed content and procedures in many schools leave little opportunity or need for teacher-pupil planning. Both the lack of teacher-pupil planning and the prevalence of the grade standard theory interfere with the implementa tion of this criterion. Conclusion. Criterion IV is being implemented only to 235 a slight degree. Most of the materials and activities are selected by the teacher, in advance of the teaching. Few of them are selected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. CRITERION Y. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT PROVIDES FOR A SE QUENCE OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES DETERMINED BY THE EXPERIEN TIAL BACKG-ROUND, INTERESTS, AND NEEDS OF THE PUPILS. TABLE X reveals that the sequence of learning activi ties is determined primarily by the textbook and course of study. There is some disagreement as to the extent to which the experiences, needs, and interests of the pupils deter mine sequence. Eighteen, or 37.5 per cent, of the teachers visited reported that sequence is determined in this way, but the writer did not find this to be true in any instance. The experiences, needs, and interests of the pupils play some part, but a very minor one, In determining sequence. The writer1s interviews revealed that the textbook and course of study determine sequence more often than reported on the questionnaire. In most schools basic, minimum re quirements are established for each grade, and sequence Is determined by the basic textbooks and the courses of study, both of which usually suggest similar sequences. Conclusion. Criterion V is being implemented only to a slight degree. The evidence indicates that sequence of learning activities is seldom determined by the experiences, interests, and needs of the pupils. In most cases it is 236 determined by the basic textbooks and the courses of study. CRITERION VI. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT PROVIDES EOR THE ORGANIZATION OF KNORBEDGE Em TERIvlS OF THE UHPEPHENTIAL BACK GROUND, HEEDS, AND PURPOSES OF THE PUPILS. As TABLE XV" indicates, most of the subject matter is organized by the textbook writers. Contrary to the reports of several (41.7 per cent) Interviewed teachers, the writer did not find that any of them organizes and teaches most of the subject matter in terms of the experiential background, needs, and purposes of the pupils. Only now and then Is subject matter utilized in this way. Conelusion. Criterion FI is being implemented only to a slight degree. The evidence shows that most of the knowl edges organized by the textbook miters. Only occasionally is the organization suggested by the experiences, needs, and purposes of the learners. CRITERION VII . THE EXPERIENCE UNIT UTILIZES MANY SOURCES OF INFORIvLATION AND A AIDE VARIETY OF LEARNING AC- • TIVITIE3 BASED UPON THE DIRECT, FIRST-HAND EXPERIENCES OF THE PUPILS. FACTS, INFORMATION, 10m ORE EDGE, SKILLS, AND UNDERSTANDINGS ARE TAUGHT FUNCTIONALLY IN RELATION TO THESE ACTIVITIES. THIS IMPLIES THAT THE UNIT CUTS A.CROSS SUBJECT MATTER LINES, DRAWING UPON SUBJECT MATTER 7.HTNEVER IT CON TRIBUTES TO THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS, THE MEETING OF NEEDS, OR THE EXTENSION OF INTERESTS. TABLE XII shows that most of the time Is devoted to 237 teaching the contents of the basic textbooks and the courses of study. In some cases the basic textbooks and a set of encyclopedias constitute practically the only sources of information used. Some use is made of audio-visual aids, and some learning activities are based upon direct, first hand experience. Few facts, skills, and understandings are taught functionally in relation to the activities. An ex amination of 48 daily programs gave little evidence of the cutting across subject-matter lines. However, daily pro grams are not followed as rigidly as they were a few years ago. Conclusion. Criterion VII is being implemented to some degree. The sources of information often extend beyond that of the basic textbooks. In a few instances there is a wide variety of learning activities, some of which are based upon direct, first-hand experiences. furthermore, some facts, information, knowledge, skills, and understandings are taught in relation to the activities. Daily programs are more and more flexible, but there is still little cutting across of subject-matter lines. CRITERION VIII. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT IS CENTERED IN PRESENT DAY LIVING. MATERIALS DEALING WITH THE PAST ARE UTILIZED AS THEY CONTRIBUTE TO THE SOLUTION OE PRESENT PROB LEMS. There is some disagreement as to the implementation of this criterion. Many of the interviewed teachers (66.7 per 238 cent) reported that their curricula are centered in present living. The writer found this to he true in the first two grades; hut, beginning with the third grade, the emphasis seems to he upon the past, with materials of today being utilised as they relate to past living and problems. There is an increasing tendency to compare the present with the past and to consider current events. My Weekly Header is read in almost every elementary classroom in Erie County. Conclusion. Criterion VIII is being implemented to some desgree. The evidence reveals that there is a tendency to center units in modern living, particularly in grades one and two. Beginning with the third grade, most units are centered In past living, but there is a tendency to relate the present to the past and to utilize current events. CRITERION IX. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT STRESSES THE ALL- ROUND DEVELOHA'EMT OE CHILDREN. IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE EMOTIONAL, MENTAL, SOCIAL, AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OE EACH CHILD AND THE INTER-RELATEDNESS OE THESE FOUR ASPECTS. As TABLE XVII reveals, there Is disagreement in regard to how much emphasis Is placed upon the all-round development of pupils. The writer noted that many teachers are conscious of the all-round development of children, and some of them are giving attention to that development. However, the writer did not find that the attention is as great as Indi cated by the teachers. Emphasis is still upon mental devel opment, with most of the time being spent on the mastery of 239 minimum grade requirements. Many problems related to social, emotional, and physical development receive little attention. Conclusion. Criterion IX is being implemented to some degree. The writer found the social, emotional, and physi cal aspects of development hard to judge, but it is clear that the emphasis is upon mental development in most cases. Social, emotional, and physical development receive some attention. CRITERION X . TIIS EXPERT MICE UNIT PROVIDES IT OR THE DE- VELOPMEHT OE THE CHARACTERISTICS OE A DEMOCRATIC PERSONAL ITY (e.g., critical thinking, social sensitivity, coopera tion, tolerance, etc.). Host teachers realise the importance of the democratic characteristics, and many believe that they are doing a good job of developing them. Approximately half of the inter viewed teachers reported that they provide many opportunities for their development, but the writer found only a few teachers (18.7 per cent) who, he thought, do this. In his opinion, the democratic characteristics are not effectively developed by a narrow curriculum which emphasises memorisa tion; follows the single textbook; approves the teaching of abstract, isolated facts and skills; and which provides very few opportunities for teacher-pupil planning, research work, experimentation, group projects, sharing in decisions, assuming responsibilities, creative activities, etc. Conclusion. The implementation of this criterion was 240 difficult to judge in one visitation. However, the evidence indicates that Criterion X is being implemented to some degree. The writer questions some of the methods used to develop the democratic characteristics. CRITERION XI. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT PROVIDES 3?OH THE EXTENSIVE USE OF C01.MUNITY RESOURCES IN CARRYING ON PUPIL ACTIVITIES. TABLE XVIII indicates that there is some, but not enough, use made of community resoiirces. V e r y f e w teachers use them extensively. Many teachers do not take even one study trip a year, while the average for all teachers is slightly over one. A few trips are taken to local indus tries, public services, museums, and art galleries. Also, some community resources are brought into the classroom by the children: leaves, rocks, flowers, articles from distant lands, etc. Conclusion. Criterion XT is being implemented to some degree. A very small number of teachers use community re sources extensively; most teachers make some use of than. CRITERION XII. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT 13 COMPREHENSIVE AND 'EXTENDS OVER A CONSIDERABLE PERIOD OE TIME, THE LENGTH BEING DEPENDENT UPON THE PLANS WHICH HAVE BEEN ADOPTED BY THE GROUP. TABLE XXI points out that units are often too short to be comprehensive; nearly half of the teachers reported that they last 15 days or less. In his interviews with 37 teachers 241 who do unit teaching, the writer learned that few units last longer than 11-15 days. He also learned that raost units last a median number of* 11-15 days, rather than 16-20 days as reported on the questionnaire. Several units are usually taught in one school year; sometimes as many as 3 are taught simultaneously. In the majority of cases units originate within a subject or field of knowledge and are confined to it. Most units originate within the field of social studies; however, they are also found in science, arithmetic, language, reading, and health. Conclusion. Criterion XII is being implemented only to a slight degree. Many units are long enough, but seldom are they comprehensive enough. CRITERION XIII. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT UTILISES A RELA TIVELY LARGE BLOCK OE TIME YvITHIN THE DAILY SCHEDULE, THE t i m e SPAN BEING DEPENDENT UPON THE MATURITY LEVEL OE THE PUPILS AND THE NATURE AND COMPLEXITY OE THE PROBLEM. TA3LE XXII shows that the median number of minutes de voted to unit teaching daily is 31-60. However, an exami nation of 43 daily programs by the writer revealed few blocks of time over 35 minutes in length. Some teachers provide for larger blocks of time by means of a flexible program, but there are still many teachers who follow rigid schedules made up of several short periods. Conclusion. Criterion XIII is being implemented only to a slight degree. There is definite need for larger blocks 242 of time in most of the daily schedules. CRITERION XIV. THE EXPERTEMCB UNIT PROVIDES FOR CON TINUOUS, COOPERATIVE EVALUATION OP GROUP PROGRESS TOY/ARD ESTABLISHED GOALS, AND A WIDE VARIETY OP PRACTICES AND IN- STRIM'tNTS IS USED POR DETSRICENING ALL-ROUND PUPIL DEVELOP MENT . As TABLE XIX reveals, evaluation of group progress is somewhat continuous, with occasional pupil participation. Also, somewhat of a variety of practices and instruments is used to measure all-round pupil development. The writer did not visit any teacher whose evaluation program is as good as it might be. He found that teachers measure most of the progress by means of teacher-made tests, which are given just before report cards are sent home. Several teachers use the numerical marks obtained on the tests as the report card marks. In some schools tests are prepared by the super visors; in many they are prepared by committees of teachers representing the various grades. There is limited pupil participation In evaluation, and it is only occasionally a continuous process. Furthermore, few practices and instru ments are employed to measure all-round pupil development. The emphasis in home reports is usually upon mental devel opment . Conclusion. The evidence points to the fact that Cri terion XIV is being implemented only to a slight degree. Evaluation is occasionally a continuous process; pupil par 243 ticipation is often limited. Few practices and instruments are utilized to measure all-round development. Tills is another criterion the implementation of which the writer found difficult to judge in one visit. CRITERION XV. THE EXPERIENCE UNIT PROVIDES MANY LEADS TO NEW DIBITS. There is considerable disagreement in regard to the implementation of this criterion, as seen in TABLE EX. In his interviews and observations the writer noted that many more units are prescribed by textbooks and courses of stud:/- than reported on the questionnaire. Also, he failed to discover any instance in which one unit provides leads to another. Of the 95 teachers employing unit teaching, 57 reported that they teach practically the same units each year. In terviews with 37 of the above teachers revealed that, in most cases, practically the same units are taught each year; furthermore, in all but few instances they are taught in the same order. In one of the school districts of Erie County the third grade social studies course of study recommends, among others, the following units, listed In the prescribed order: The Cave Man., Our Community in Indian Times, Our Community in Pioneer Days, Australia, and The Lincoln High way. Other social studies courses are typical. The writer found that most of the third grades in the above school dis trict follow the prescribed order. 244 Conclusion. Criterion XV is being implemented only to a very slight degree. The writer did not visit a room in v/Iiich one unit provides leads to another most of* the time. 245 CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSIONS AND RSCOl!.E i.UMDATIONS Tlie general conclusions and recommendations which grew out of the study are summarized in this chapter. The con clusions are stated first, followed by the list of recom mendations. The recommendations are organized into four parts, as follows: State-Wide Administration and Supervi sion, Local Administration and Supervision, Individual School Administration and Supervision, and Classroom Practices. CONCLUSIONS 1. The Experience Unit, as defined in this study, is not being used in toto by any of the elementary teachers of Erie County, New York. 2. On the v/hole, the Experience Unit is being imple mented to a slight degree In the elementary schools of Erie County. Most of the so-called "units” taught come under the classification of subject-matter units. 5. The term wunit teaching” is almost meaningless; in most cases it is restricted to a single field of knowledge and refers to a "slice” of subject matter. 4. Besides not being comprehensive enough, units are sometimes too short, and often sufficient time is not de voted to them in the daily program. 5. Rarely do learning activities and units grow out of the common needs, problems, and Interests of the pupils. Practically all of them originate In the required subject matter of the textbooks and courses of study. 246 6. Pupils play a very minor role in the selection of units, and in planning materials, activities, procedures, and outcomes. 7. One unit seldom provides leads to new ones. Spe cific units are usually prescribed by the textbooks and courses of study. Units are ordinarily repeated year after year, and in the same order. 8. Very few of the elementary teachers in Erie County have advanced beyond the stage of correlation in their teaching. In many instances the degree of correlation is limited (e.g., reading and a?ct, spelling and writing). 9. Sequence of learning activities, as well as organi zation of knowledge, are determined primarily by the text book and course of study writers. Only occasionally are they determined by the experiences, needs, purposes, and interests of the pupils. 10. The sources of information are often limited, as are the activities based upon direct, first-hand experiences. Seldom are information, skills, and understandings taught in relation to the activities. 11. There is some provision for individual differences in rates of learning., but much more attention should be give: to the differences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents. 12. Not enough attention is being given to the methods 247 "by wliich the democratic characteristics can best be developed. Many teachers believe that they are developing them effec tively even though they employ the most traditional methods of teaching. 13. Teachers select much of the materials and most of the activities in advance of the teaching, leaving very little opportunity for teacher-pupil planning. 14. Beginning with the third grade, the curriculum is usually centered in the past. Only in the first and second grades is it centered in present living. 15. Some consideration is being given to the all-round development of children, but the primary emphasis is upon mental development. 16. Community resources are being utilized very little. 17. The method of evaluation needs to be improved con siderably. 18. Most daily schedules are comprised of several short periods; and, as a rule, schedules are followed very closely. There is little cutting across subject matter lines. 19. There is still much emphasis upon formal recitation, memorization, and mastery of isolated facts and skills in the elementary schools of Erie County. 20. The elementary teachers of Erie County are well pre pared, have attended school recently, and have had broad ex perience in elementary-school teaching. 21. The conditions which seem to prevent the Experience 2 4 8 Unit from being implemented, to a greater extent are: small classrooms, inadequate materials and equipment, rigid courses of study, preparation for required tests, uncooper ative parents, dictatorial administrators, lack of proper college preparation, and lack of desirable in-service educa tion. RISC OkHvESMDATI ONS A. State-Wide Administration and Supervision 1. The teachers colleges of New York State discarded all methods courses from the curriculum, but they have not substituted anything in their place. In light of the inter views made by the writer (See TABLE XXIII), he recommends that courses on unit teaching replace the discarded methods courses. Teachers colleges should also offer courses on unit teaching in extension work and in summer sessions. 2. The Regents’ examinations should be abolished. Iven though they are not given until the eighth grade, they have a tendency to freeze the curriculum and to promote the grade standard theory in the lower grades. 3. The State Education Department should avoid state wide prescription of the curriculum. All of its curriculum guides should be interpreted as suggestive. It can serve the local districts best by providing consultant service to them when needed, by furnishing them with study guides, and by suggesting available materials and possible activities in the form of resource units. 249 The State Education Department should stimulate inter est in curriculum study at the local level and provide lead ership and assistance. It must he careful, though, not to furnish too many ready-made teaching aids, for teachers de rive much value from the experience of producing them. Per haps just one or two resource units from the State Education Department would be enough to provide the necessary stimu lation and guidance for teachers to develop their own. 3. Local Administration and Supervision 1. The teachers in the elementary schools of Erie County should teach the music, art, and physical education needed by their pupils. The work of the special teachers is often very formal and seldom relates to the rest of the school program. 2. There is need for more leadership and assistance in curriculum development. None of the four supervisory dis tricts, for example, offers this help. The money which is spent on special teachers’ salaries should be used to em ploy curriculum coordinators or elementary consultants. 3. The many required tests and prescribed courses of study should be abolished (See TABLE XXIII) , so that teachers can be relieved of pressure and find time to teach children instead of subject matter. 4. There is a great need in all the schools for a va riety of supplementary reading materials on various topics and at different reading levels. Very little effort has 250 been made, in most cases, to secure these materials. 5. Local administrators should encourage and pave the way for curriculum development. The:/- can render an impor tant service by providing the leadership and facilities necessary for curriculum work. The writer saw a great need and desire, on the part of the teachers, for workshops and meetings on unit teaching. Many teachers expressed an in terest in working on teaching aids, such as resource units. Very little effort is being made by local administrators to improve the curriculum. 6. The schools within a local district should be en couraged to develop their own programs, so that they can serve the needs of their pupils most effectively. 7. There is a need for more democratic local school ad ministration, which will enlist greater cooperation from parents and teachers. Teachers should have more to say con cerning the decisions which affect them. They should also be given more freedom in deciding what to teach and how to teach it. Very often the grade standard theory has not been replaced by the developmental approach due to an autocratic administrator who prescribes all the curriculum content and procedures. G. Individual School Administration and Supervision 1. Principals should devote less time to routine admin istrative duties, and more time to professional leadership and supervision. They hold a strategic position in super- 251 vision, so they should be available for guidance and assist ance whenever needed. The extremely large elementary schools (See TABLE VI) should employ assistant principals to be pri marily responsible for routine duties, thus freeing the principals for more supervisory functions. 2. As indicated earlier, there is a great need for in- service education to provide growth among the many teachers who sincerely desire to do a better job of teaching. Many of the elementary schools are large enough to consider cur riculum development within themselves. Much desirable growth could result, for example, from a consideration of Experience Unit teaching, in which there seems to be a real interest. The writer found that very few schools are en gaged in a curriculum improvement program. 3. The writer believes that, in order to have a good educational program, there should be a consistent philosophy of education operating within a school. Few teachers indi cated on the questionnaire (See TABLE XXIII), but many in the interviews, that the educational program is held back because of the need for a consistent philosophy of educa tion. In some instances the elementary principals them selves have inconsistent philosophies, which encourages in consistency on the part of the faculties. Few principals give teachers an opportunity to help determine the philos ophies of education which guide their teaching. This oppor tunity must be extended to teachers before they can be ex- 252 rected to understand and support the program of the school. 4. There is a real need for improved teachers1 meetings. This need was brought out in the interviews with teachers and as a result of the writer’s attendance at several meet ings. Rather than discussing routine matters in meetings, principals should direct teachers in a discussion of how best to meet their problems and improve the experiences of the children. Any school which emphasises the Experience Unit must have effective teachers’ meetings, and the staff must always work closely together. 5. If the Experience Unit is to be implemented to the greatest extent, principals, supervisors, and superintend ents must support and interpret the underlying philosophy to the public. In many instances teachers who have tried to improve their programs have been criticized by uninformed parents. D. Classroom Practices 1. Learning units should originate in the common needs, interests, and problems of children to a greater extent than at present (See TABLE IX). 2. Emphasis should shift from uniform achievement and textbook mastery to more consideration of the differences in pupil capacities, interests, and talents (See TABLE XT). 5. Pupils should play a greater role in the selection, development, and direction of units (See TABLE XL). 4. Materials and activities should be selected through 253 teacher-pupil planning as needs arise to a greater extent than at present (See TABLE XEV). 5. The experiential background, interests, and needs of the children should play a much greater part in deter mining the sequence of learning activities (See TABLE X) . The importance of teacher-pupil planning is evident here. 6. Knowledge (subject matter) should be organized in terms of the experiential background, needs, and purposes of the pupils to a greater extent (See TABLE XV). 7. There is a need for increasing the sources of in formation and the number and variety of learning activities. More activities should be based upon direct, first-hand ex perience. furthermore, more facts, information, knowledge, skills, and understandings should be taught in relation to these activities (See TABLE X C I ). 8. Units should be centered in present living to a greater extent. Materials dealing with the past should be utilized as they help solve present-day problems (See TABLE XVI). The tendency to compare the past with the pres ent and to consider current events is encouraging, but this is not good enough. 9. Less time should be devoted to mental growth, with more emphasis being given to social, emotional, and physical development. Teachers and administrators must become more cognizant of the whole child and realize the inter-related- ness of the four aspects of his development (See TABLE XVII). 254 10. A greater effort should he made by teachers and ad ministrators to discover the methods for developing the democratic characteristics most effectively (See TABLE XTTX). Many of the present methods can be questioned. 11. Community resources should be utilized more exten sively in carrying on pupil activities (See TABLE XVIII) . Learning activities should draw more upon local industries, public services, institutions, people, history, and geogra phy. Field trips should be utilized to a greater extent than at present. 12. Units should be more comprehensive and often should extend over a longer period of time (See TABLE XXI). 15. Larger blocks of time should be devoted in the daily schedule to unit teaching (See TABLE XXII). 14. Evaluation should be more continuous, and there should be more pupil participation in it. Tests ought to be prepared by each teacher, not by supervisors or committees of teachers. Numerical marks should be replaced by written reports and teacher-parent conferences; also, more attention should be given to social, emotional, and physical growth. A greater variety of practices and instruments should be utilized to measure all-round development (See TABLE XIX). 15. One unit should provide leads to new units more often (See TABLE XX). 255- bibliography A# 300KS Alberty, Harold, Reorganizing t h e High-Schoo1 Curriculum. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1S47. Bode, Boyd E., Conf lie tins Psychologies of Learning. Boston D. C. Heath and Company, 1929. , Democracy as a_ Way of Life. New York: The i.iac — millan Company, 1S37 ______, Progressive Education at the Crossroads . Chicago: !bewson arid Company, 1938. Brameld, Theodore, Patterns of Educational Philosophy. New York: World Book Company, 1950. Breckenridge, Marian E., and E. Lee Vincent, Child Develop ment . Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1949. Burr, James B., Lowry H. Harding, and Leland B. Jacobs, Student Teaching in the Elementary School. New York: Apoleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1950. Burton, William H ., The Guidanc e of Learning Activities. New York: Appleton-C'entury-C roft s , fnc ., 1944. Caswell, Hollis L., Education in the Elementary School. New York: American Book Company, 1937. , and Doak S. Campbell, Curriculum Development. New York: American Book Company, 1937. Collings, Ellsworth, An Experiment with a. Pro.j ec t Currie - ulum. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1923. Counts, George S., Education and the Promise of Amerlca. New York: The Mac millan Comp an;/, 1945. Dewey, John, Democracy and Education. New York: The Mac millan Company, 1935. , Experienc e and Educ at ion . New York: The Mac millan Company, 1938 ______, The School and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1899. Edwards, Newton, Educ at ion in a. Democ racy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1941. 256 Elsbree, Willard S., and Harold J. McNally, Elementary School Administration and Supervision. New York: The American Book Company, 1951. Gates, Arthur I., et aJL. , Educational Psychology. New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 1942. Gesell, Arnold, and Frances Ilg, The Child from Five to Ten. New Yorks Harper and Brothers, 1946. Good, Harry G. , A History of Western Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1947. Griffin, Alan F., Freedom American Style. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1940. Harap, Henry, et_ aJL., The Changing Curriculum. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1937. Hildreth, Gertrude, Chila Growth Through Educ ation. New York: The Ronald Press, 1948. Hopkins, L. Thomas, Interaction s The Democratio Proc ess. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1941. Huggett, Albert J., and Cecil V. Millard, Growth and Learning in the Elementary School. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1946. Hurlock, Elizabeth B., Child Development. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, 1942. Jenkins, Gladys G., Helen Shacter, and William W. Bauer, These Are Your Children. New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1949. Jones, A. J., E. D. Grizzell, and W. J. Grinstead, Princi ples of Unit Construction. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1939. Kilpatrick, William H., Philosophy of Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951. ______, Remaking the Curriculurn. New- York: Newson and Company, 1936. L-ashley, E. S., Brain Mechanisms and Int elligenc e. Chicago: "University of Chic ago Press, 1929. Lee, J. Murray, and Dorris May Lee, The Child and His Cur riculum. New York: Appleton-Centxiry-Croft s , Inc., 1950. 257 Leonard, J. Paul, and Alvin C. Eurich (Editors), An Evalu ation of Modern Education. New York: D. Appleton- Century Company, 1942. L'lcGaughy, J. R., An_ Evaluation of the Elementary Schoo 1. Indianapolis: The Eobbs-Merrill Company, 1937. laccmber, Freeman G-. , Guiding Child Development in the Ble- mentarv School. New York: The American Book Company, 1941. Iviehl, Marie A., Hubert H. Miles, and Earl R. Douglass, Teaching in the Elementary School. N ew York: The Ronald Press Company, 1950. Melvin, A. Cordon, The Activity Program. Nev/ York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1936. Mendenhall, Charles 3., and Kenneth J. Arisman, Secondary Educ ation. Lew York: William Sloan Associates, Inc., 1951. Meyer, Adolph E., The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century~ Sew*York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950 Millard, Cecil V., Child 3-rowth and Development in the Ele mentary School. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1951. Mitchell, Lucy Sprague, Our Children and Our Schools. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1951. Monroe, Walter S. (Editor), Encyclopedia of Educ ationa1 Research. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950. Soar, Gertrude, Freedom to Live and Learn. Philadelphia: Franklin Publishing” 'Company, 1948. Olson, Willard C., ChiId Development. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 194-9. Otto, Henry J., Princ iples of Elementary Education. New York: Rinehart and Company, 1949. Pressey, Sidney L., and Francis P. Robinson, Psychology and the New Educ ation. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944 Ragsdale, Clarence E . , Modern Psychologies and Educ ation. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932. Raup, Robert B., Complacency. the Fo~undat ion of Human Be havior . Nev/ ^ork: The Macmillan Company, 1926. 258 Reisner, Edward II., The Evolut ion of the Common School. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932. Retan, C-eorge A., management and Teaching Technique in the Elementary School. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19 33. Rugg, Harold, Foundations for American Education. Yonkers, Nev/ York: Vvorld Hook Company, 1947. ______, and Ann Shumaker, The Chi Id-Centered Schoo 1. Yonkers, New York: World Book Company, 1928. Saucier, W . A., Theory and fractice in the Elementary School Nev/ York: The Macmillan Company, 1941. Spears, Harold, Some Princ ioles of Teaching-. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1949. Stretch, Lorena B., The Curriculum and the Child. Minnea polis: Educational Publishers, Inc., 1939. Thayer, Vivian T., Americ an Education Under Fire. Nev/ York: Harper and Brothers, 1944. Thorpe, Louis P., Child Psychology and Development. New York: The Ronald' Press, 1946. Umstattd, J. G., Secondary School Teaching. New York: Ginn and Company, 1937. Wheeler, Raymond H., Scienc e of Psycho logy. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1929. ______, and Francis T. Perkins, Principles of Menta1 Development. Nev/ lork: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1932 Wrightstone, J . V/ayne, Appraisal of Newer Elementary School Practices. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938. ______, and Doak S. Campbell, Social Studies and the Americ an Way o f Life . New York: fiow"^ Peters on and Company, 1942. Yoakam, Gerald A., and Robert G. Simpson, Modern Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New York: The Macmillan Com pany, 1949. 259 B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Alberty, Harold, "A Proposal for Reorganizing the High-School CurriculiM,fl Progressive Educ at ion, 28:57-61, November, 1950. ______ejt al_. , ’’Progressive Education: Its Philosophy and Challenge,'1 Progress ive Educ at ion , 18:5-28, May, 194-1. Curtis, Francis D., "The Unit Assignment," Junior-Senior High School Clearing House, 9:543-4 6, May, 1935. Dewey, John, "Education and Social Change," Social Frontier. 3:235-33, May, 1937. Dildine, Glenn C., "Energy--Basis of Living and Learning," Journal of the Rational Education Association. 39:252- 53, April, 1950. Elsbree, V/illard S., "School Practices that Help and Hurt Personality," Teachers College Record, 43:24-34, October, 1941. Harap, Henry, "Next Steps in Curriculum Making," Elementary School Journal. 51:16-24, September, 1930. Hendrickson, Gordon, "Some Needed Research in Elementary Education," The Elementary School Journal, 51:127-35, Nov emb e r, 19 50. Hullfish, H. Gordon, "What Kind of Education?" Educational Research Bullet in, 26:113-22, May, 1947. Hunt, Herold C., "Halfway to Where?" Journa 1 of the National Education Association. 40:102-4, February, 1951. Kilpatrick, William H., "American Education and American Life," New Republic, 122:12-16, March 20, 1950. ______, "Apprentice Citizens," Saturday Review of Lit - erature. 30:12, October 22, 1949. Leonard, J. Paul, "Vvhat Is a Unit of Work?" Curriculum Journal, 8:103-6, March, 1937. McGrath, Earl J., "Some Recent Comments on Progressive Edu cation," Progressive Educ ation, 28:136, Februa ry, 1951. Melby, Ernest 0., "Democracy and Human Freedom," Educational Administration and Supervision, 33:149-51, March, 1947. 260 Olson, W. C., and B. 0. Hushes, "The Concept of Organismic Age," Journal of 3ducational Research, 56:525-2 7, March, 1942. Raths, Louis, and Lawrence Metcalf, "An Instrument for Identifying Some Reeds of Children," Educ at ional Re search Bulletin, 24:169-79, October 17, 1945. Witty, Paul A., "On This he Agree," Journal of the National Educ at ion Association, 40:18 7-88, March, 1951. C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANISATIONS Committee on the Function of Science in General Education, Science in General Educ at i on, _A Report of the Progres sive —'due at ion Association. Nev; York: D. Applet on- Century Company, Inc., 1958. Educational Policies Commission, Learning the >V ay s of Democ - racy. 'Washington, D. C.: National Education Associa tion, 1940. ______, The Puroos es of Educ at ion in Americ an Democracy. Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1958. National Society for the Study of Education, Learning and Instruetion , Forty-Ninth Yearbook, Part 1. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1950. ______, The Activity Movement, Ihirty-Third Yearbook, Part II. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Pub lishing Company, 1934. Olson, Willard C., "Concepts of Crov;th--Their Significance to Teachers," About Children--Bov; They Learn, Fee 1, and Grow. Washington, D. C.: Association for Child hood Education, 1945. Prescott, Daniel, Emotion and the Educ atlve Process . 'Wash ington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1938. Progressive Education Association, Progressive Educ ation Adv anc e s. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., l o Staff of the Division on Child Development and Teacher Per sonnel, Helping Teachers Understand Children. Wash ington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1945. 861 d . publications o p s t a t e depaktlxents o f e d u c a t i o n California Curriculum Commission, Teachers’ Guide to Child Dev e lop men t in the In t e r me d i a t e Grades » Sacramento: State Department of Education, 1936. ______, Teachers * Guide to Child Development in the Pri- marv Grades. Sacramento: State Department of Educa tion, 19 30. Indiana State Department of Public Instruction, A Good Start in School, Bulletin No. 158. Indianapolis: Department of "Public Instruction, 1944. Morrison, J. Cayce, The Activity Program: A Curriculum Ex periment . Albany: New York State Department of Educa tion-, 1541. Murphy, E. George, Currieulurn Pro iec ts and Practices, Ele mentary School^ General Curriculum Leaflet. ATbany: Division of Elementary Education, New York State Edu cation Department, 1950. Ohio State Department of Education, Living and Learning with the Children of Ohio, Curriculum Bulletin No. 6. Col umbus: F. J. Keer Printing Company, 1945. E. OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS Alberty, Harold, et_ aJL., Let * s Look at the Attacks on the Schools. Columbus: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1951. Brim, Orville G. , The Foundat ions of Progressive Educ ation. Columbus: Elementary Education Club, Ohio State Uni versity, 1937. Elemental/ School Staff of the University School, A Descrip tion of Curricular Experiences, Lower School. Columbus: College o f Educa’t'ion, Ohio State University, 1948. Faculty of the University School, How Children Develop, Uni versity School Series, No. 3. Columbus: The Ohio State University, 1946. ______, The Philosophy and Purposes of the University School. Columbus: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1948. P. NEWSPAPERS Buffalo Evening News, August 15, 1951. 262 G. IvlIS CELLANEOUS Billett, Roy 0., Provisions for Individual Differences, Marking, and Promotion, National Survey of Secondary Education, Office of Education Bulletin, 1952, No. 17, ivionograph No. 13. Washington, D. C.: Government Print ing Office, 1933. Committee on Elementary Education of the Neve iork State Council of Superintendents, Cardinal Objectives in Elementary Education. Albany: University of the Stat of New York Press, 1931. Kingsley, Clarence D., Cardinal Principles of Secondary Educ ation, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1918. APPENDIX 263 JURY OP EXPERTS WHO JUDGED THE CRITERIA Ur. Ben Ahleschwede Miss Helen Hay Heyl, Chief Curriculum Coordinator Bu. of Curriculum Development Canton Public Schools Division of Elem. .education Canton, Ohio Department of Education Albany, N ew Yo r k Dr. Genevieve Bowen Dir. of Blem. Education Dr. Ernest Hilton Bucks County Prin., Campus School Doylestown, Pennsylvania State Teachers College Fredonia, Nev/ York Dr. James B. Burr Prof. of Elem. Education Miss Mabel Holland Ohio State University Dir. of Elem. Education Columbus, Ohio Ft. Wayne Public Schools Ft. V/ayne, Indiana Ur. Lester Cofran Dir. of Elem. Education Dr. Horace Hunnicutt Board of Education Prof. of Elem. Education Jame s t own , II ew Yo rk Syracuse University Syracuse, New York Dr. Paul Hberman Prof. of Elem. Education Dr. Paul Klohr University of Wisconsin Curriculum Coordinator Madison, Wisconsin Columbus Public Schools Columbus, Ohio Dr. Harold Elsbree, Prin. School of Practice Dr. Carl Kumpf, Prin. State Teachers College Miller Street School Dew Paltz, New York Newark, New Jersey Dr. Hertha Ganey Dr. Lorraine Lange Prof. of English Prof. of Elera. Education State Teachers College State Teachers College Buffalo, New York Buffalo, New York hiss Mary Earbage Miss Hannah M. Lindahl Dir. of Elem. Education Dir. of Elem. Education Akron Public Schools Mishawaka Public Schools Akron, Ohio Mishawaka, Indiana Dr. Fred Harris Dr. Charles Long, Head Prof. of Elem. Education Department of Education University of Kentucky Pennsylvania State College Lexington, Kentucky State College, Pennsylvania 264 JURY OF EXPERTS WHO JUDGED THE CRITERIA (continued) Mr. Mark Murfin, Prin. Dr. Harry J. Steel University School Dir. of Teacher Education Indiana University State Teachers College Bloomington, Indiana Buffalo, New York Dr. Mae O ’Brien Dr. LaVerne Strong Prof. of Education Curriculum Consultant State Teachers College Dept, of Education Buffalo, New York Hartford, Connecticut Mrs. Mabel Parris Miss Josephine Stueber Dir. of Elem. Education Dir. of Elem. Education Orchard Park Public Schools Haskell County Schools Orchard Park, Nev/ York Haskell, Texas Dr. Chester Pugsley, Prin. Dr. Mildred Swearingen School of Practice Prof. of Elem. Education State Teachers College Florida State University Buffalo, New York Tallahassee, Florida Mrs. Eva Shockley, Prin. Dr. Walter Trott Westview School Elementary Principal Richmond, Indiana Garden City Public Schools Garden City, New York Dr. George Snyder Dir. of Elem. Education Dr. Lillian Wilcox Bowling Green University Dir. of Elem. Education Bowling Green, Ohio Buffalo Public Schools Buffalo, New York Mias Ruth Staninger Dir. of Elem. Education Dr. Kate Wofford, Chm. Vincennes Public Schools Dept, of Elem. Education Vincennes, Indiana University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Dr. William E. Young Dir. of Elem. Education Department of Education Albany, New York Copy of the letter sent with the criteria 265. The State University of New York NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 1300 Elmwood Avenue Buffalo 22, Nev/ York January 26, 1951 Dear The Experience Unit is gaining more and more popular ity as a form of curricular organization in the elementary school. However, even with the increasing interest in this plan of teaching, very few studies have been made to deter mine the actual extent to which it is being utilized. As one of the requirements for the Ph. D. Degree at Ohio State University, I am making a study of the use of the Experience Unit by the elementary teachers (Grades 1-S) of Erie County, New York. Before one can measure the extent to which the Experi ence Unit is being implemented by present curricular prac tices, it is necessary that appropriate criteria for evalu ating the Experience Unit be established. The enclosed cri teria are being proposed after a careful survey of the lit erature available upon this topic. They are those upon which there seems to be the greatest agreement among writers. To validate the criteria further, they are being sent to a group of selected educators (experts in the field of ele mentary education and curriculum), who are asked to pass judgment upon the validity of each criterion. You have been highly recommended as one qualified to render such service. I hope that you can find the time to do so. A stamped, self-addressed envelope is enclosed for your convenience. In the event that you are unable to assist In the validation of the criteria, please return them to me. Your participation in this study will be deeply appre ciated. I hope to hear from you at your earliest conveni- enc e. Sincerely yours, Anthony kilanovich Assistant Director of Ak/bd Teacher Education Enclosure 266 Criteria for Evaluating the Experience Unit As the enclosed letter states, you have been highly recommended as one qualified to help validate criteria for evaluating the Experience Unit. You are asked to do three things: (1) to indicate your approval or disapproval of each criterion; (2) to state modifications which you would recom mend for any of the criteria; and (3) to suggest further c riteria . (Throughout the criteria, these numbers - 1, 2_, 3, and 4_ have the following meanings: 1 - Strongly approve 2 - Approve 3 - Disapprove 4 - Strongly disapprove Indicate your opinion of the criteria, as stated, by encirc ling the appropriate number in each instance.) If you disapprove of a criterion, state your recommended changes in the space provided below each criterion. Addi tional criteria should be included under "Suggested Addi tional Criteria1' on page 3. I. The Experience Unit originates in the needs, interest and purposes of the pupils. It recommends the psychological organization of subject matter and learning experiences. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: II. The Experience Unit is selected, developed, and di rected cooperatively (pupils, teachers, parents, administra tors, etc.). Pupils, under the guidance of their teachers, however, play the greatest role in the selection and devel opment of the unit. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: III. The Experience Unit is organized and written as it develops, not in advance. Most of the materials, activities, and experiences are selected as the unit progresses. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: 267 IV, The Experience Unit provides for many sources of information and a variety of learning activities. 1 2 5 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: V. The Experience Unit emphasizes the functional learning of facts, information, knowledge, and skills. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: VI. The Experience Unit stresses the all-round growth of children. It is concerned with the emotional, mental, social, and physical growth of each child. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: VII. The Experience Unit emphasizes desirable school- community relationships and the use of community resources. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: VIII. The Experience Unit emphasizes a trend away from a fixed body of subject matter, set up In advance, and required of every pupil in the class. It stresses and provides for differences in pupil achievement. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: IX. The Experience Unit cuts across subject matter lines, drawing upon subject matter whenever and wherever needed. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes In the criterion: 268 X. The Experience Unit provides many opportunities for creative activities. Special interests and talents are de veloped. Recommended changes in the criterion: XI. The Experience Unit is centered in the present. Materials from the past are utilized as they are related to present problems. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: XII. The Experience Unit should last a minimum of three weeks . 1 2 3. 4 . Recommended changes in the criterion: XIII. The Experience Unit activities should occupy a min imum of 100 minutes of the elementary school day. Recommended changes in the criterion: XIV. The Experience Unit stresses continuous evaluation, with constant pupil participation, and a variety of formal and informal instruments. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: XV. The Experience Unit suggests new problems for con sideration. It reveals related needs, interests, and pur poses as bases for subsequent units. 1 2 3 4 Recommended changes in the criterion: Suggested Additional Criteria: Copy of the letter sent with the questionnaire £69 The State University of New York NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS 1300 Elmwood Avenue Buffalo 22, New York April 21, 1951 Dear In connection with my work toward the Ph. D. Degree at Ohio State University, I am making a survey of the curricular practices used by the elementary teachers (Grades 1-6) of Erie County, New York. This study, which is being made under the direction of Dr. Harold Alberty, has the approval of your superintendent of schools. A Questionnaire on Curricular Practices is being sent to approximately 150 elementary teachers who have been selected at random from faculty lists submitted by principals and superintendents. You are one of those to whom questionnaires are being sent. I hope that you can find time to fill out the enclosed questionnaire. Your participation In this study will be most deeply appreciated. Please answer all of the questions as accurately as you can. Select the responses on the basis of what you do in your classroom, rather than on the basis of what you believe should be done. Replies will be kept anonymous. A stamped, self-addressed envelope is enclosed for your convenience. If you possibly can, please return the ques tionnaire by May 1. Thank you again for making this study poss ib l e . Sincerely yours, Anthony Milanovich Assistant Director of AM/bd Teacher Education Enc . 270 Questionnaire on Curricular Practices A. Type of school system (check) city village suoervisory district B. Sex C. Years of college education D. Date of last school attendance E. Years of elementary teaching exnerience F. Number of teachers in your school (grades 1-6) o • Enrollment (grades 1-6) 11 • Grade(s) you are teaching I. Number of pupils in your room A. Do you teach all subjects? If not, which one a are taught by other teachers? 5. Do you have annual or semi-annual promotions? C . Is art taught to your ouoils? music? physical education? science? D. Do you consider your room, equipment, and supplies satisfactory? If not, explain the deficiencies . E. How' many study trips does your class ordinarily take in one year? F. Are there local examinations for which you must pre - care your ouoils? If so, 7/ho prepares trie examinations? G • Does the fact that your pupils must take the Re g e n t s ’ examinations in a later grade have any ef fee t upon ycur teaching? If so, to what extent? J - x J . • FOLi-G.': ±--. G ARm il.-C DEciC rt jl PTi -Jli 8 Ox' C uHxti.C"OLAxi GRGARIHA— IICNS • ENCIRCLE THE LET TEH WHICH itEPHHSEH J.E THE 01-73 THAu HOST 27EARLY DESCRIBES THE CEGANI ZA'I IGR THIGH YOU USE • A. The corriculuii consists of a number of lo.~ics.lly or ganized subjects or fields of knowledge, some or all of which are correlated. Ixarrle : Vfnen the New England States are considered, the literature of that section is studied, too. Any of the following ccnbinations of subjects might be correlated: literature, history, music, and art; English, writing, and spelling; English, social studies, and science; or health and physical educa tion. Each of the subjects usually retains its I- dentity as a separate subject with its own daily time allotment. B. The curriculum consists of bread pre-planned problem areas from which learning units in terms of the needs, problems, and interests cf the pupils are selected. 271 Example: A unit on Modern Methods of Transportation is teacher-pupll selected and planned in terms of a basic curricular structure determined by the faculty. The unit is taught in terms of a large block of the school day and a flexible program. It cuts across subject matter lines, using all pertinent resources and a wide variety of activities based upon direct, first-hand experience. Usually the unit involves all or most of the subjects ordinarily taught in the ele mentary school. Time is provided for leisure read ing, for practice in terms of demonstrated needs, and for the development of special interests and skills. C.The curriculum consists of a number of logically or ganized subjects or fields of knowledge, each one of which is taught independently. Example: English, reading, science, history, etc., are taught without any organized attempt to show re lationships, and in terms of a fixed daily schedule which is divided into several short periods. D.The curriculum consists of a number of subjects or fields of knowledge which are unified or fused. Usually one subject (e.g., history) serves as the unifying center. Example: American literature and American history are unified through series of epochs such as The Middle Ap;es , The Period of Exploration , and The Industrial Hevolution. Unification may stop with the subjects within a given field (social studies or language arts), or it may be extended to include the fields of science, the arts, mathematics, and health and physical education. The fused subjects are taught in terms of a flexible program and large blocks of time. E.The curriculum consists of broad teacher-pupil plan ned units of work, or activities, based upon the ex pressed wishes or desires of the group. No basic curricular structure Is set up by the school, and little or no pre-planning is done. Units usually are selected in terms of desirable criteria determined by the teacher and pupils. Example: The children, under the guidance of the teacher, select and plan a unit on Workers Who Pro - tect Us in Our City. The unit is taught in terms of a large block of the school day and a flexible program. Subject matter is drawn upon whenever it bears upon the problem at hand. All pertinent 272 learning resources are utilized, along with a wide variety of activities based upon direct, first-hand experience. Usually all or most of the subjects ordinarily taught in the elementary school are in volved. Time is set aside for meeting special needs, interests, and talents. P. The curriculum consists of broad problems, units of work, or unifying themes, which provide the means for teaching effectively the basic content of cer tain subjects or fields of knowledge. ^'he subjects or fields retain their identity, but the content is selected and taught with special reference to the u n i t . Example: Communication is selected as a unit of work. The unit is then organized in terms of social studies, science, art, literature, etc. Each sub ject usually has its own daily time allotment. SECTIONS IV THROUGH XIII D JSC El 3 3 DIFFERENT CLASSRGOH PR AC - • ■ TICES. IN EACH SECTION, EN^TRCL.J THE LETTER EEFOHS THE STATEMENT WHICH BEST DESCRIBES H'CUH FEACTICE. IN CASE NONE OF THE STATEiviENTS (A, B, OR C) SEE ICS TO PIT YOUR PRACTICE, DESCRIBE IT BRIEFLY IN SPACE D. IV.A Sequence (order of learning activities) is determined by the experiences, needs, and interests of the pupils E The textbook, or the course of study, determines the sequenc e• C The sequence Is determined primarily by the textbook, or course of study. However, the experiences, needs, and interests of the pupils play some part in deter mining the sequence. D V.A Some provision is made for differences in pupil abil ities by varying the length of assignments. i'here is also some time devoted to the development of indi vidual interests and talents through an activity per iod, dramatizations, art work, etc. B Children work on their own levels, regardless of the grade, and assignments vary In both length and diffi culty. Special interests and talents are cared for through a variety of creative activities: writing, drawing, dramatization, .modeling, painting, dancing, etc . C An effort Is made to teach all children the basic, minimum requirements for the grade. Children are 273 graded In terms of group or national norms. As signments and tests are the same for all pupils, and little time Is provided for the development of special Interests and talents. VI. A Most of the time is spent in teaching the contents of the textbook or course of study. Some use is made of audio-visual aids, and some time is spent on activities based upon direct, first-hand exper iences of the children. Some facts, information, skills, and understandings are taught in relation to these activities. B Most of the time is devoted to covering the work prescribed by the textbooks and course of study. Subjects are taught independently of each other, and there is little use made of audio-visual aids and direct, first-hand experiences (trips, experimenting, etc .) . C Many sources of information and a wide variety of learning activities based upon direct, first-hand experiences (trips, growing plants, experimenting, preparing a newspaper, etc.) are utilized. Pacts, information, skills, and understandings are taught in relation to these activities, drawing upon sub ject matter whenever it contributes to the solution of problems, the meeting of needs, or the extension of Interests. D VII. A The development of such democratic characteristics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooperation, tolerance, etc., are given a great deal of attention. Many opportunities are provided for their develop ment . B Most of the time is devoted to covering the work pre scribed by the textbooks and course of study. Op portunities for developing such democratic character istics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooper ation, tolerance, etc., are limited. C The importance of such democratic characteristics as critical thinking, self-direction, cooperation, tol erance, etc., is recognized and some attention is given to their development through group projects, research activities, etc. D 874 VIII. A Some of the materials and activities are selected cooperatively by the teacher and pupils as the work progresses and as needed. However, most of them are selected by the teacher, in advance of the teaching. B The teacher selected most of the materials and ac tivities in advance of the teaching, from the text book or course of study. C Most of the materials and activities are selected through teacher-pupil planning as needs arise. This does not preclude some pre-planning on the part of the teacher. IX. A Most of the subject matter Is organised and taught in terms of the personal experiences and needs of the pupils. Pacts, information, and skills are con stantly related to the daily problems of the class. B Most of the subject matter Is taught in the order in which it appears in the textbooks, but some of It is organized in terms of the experiences and needs of the pupils. C Most of the subject matter Is taught in the order in which it appears in the textbooks. X. A The curriculum is centered in the past. Most of the problems and assignments deal with past living, with little regard for present-day living and problems. B The curriculum is centered in present living. Prob lems concerned with life today form the basis for the curriculum. Materials dealing with past living are used only as they contribute to the solution of pres ent-day problems. C The curriculum Is centered in the past, but there Is some consideration for present living. The past is sometimes compared with the present, current events are discussed, and occasionally a problem which deals with present living is considered. XI. A Emphasis is placed upon mental growth. However, problems related to social, emotional, and physical development are recognized as Important and some 275 attention is given to them. B Emphasis is upon all-round development of pupils-- mental, social, emotional, and physical. Social and emotional health are considered very important. Problems in all areas of development are given prompt attention. C Most of the time is spent In teaching pupils the re quired subject matter and minimum essentials for the grade. Little time is left for problems related to social, emotional, and physical development. D XII. A The curriculum is not restricted to the four walls of the classroom. Extensive use is made of local industries, public services, institutions, people, history, and geography. B Community resources are occasionally used. Some trips are taken to local Industries, and speakers with special talents or experiences are now and then invited to speak to the children. C Community resources are seldom used to enrich the contents of the textbooks and course of study. D XIII. A The teacher evaluates progress at the end of a work ing, period, or more often, by teacher-made or stand ardized tests. Occasional home visits are made and cumulative records are studied in order to evaluate pupil growth better. B Evaluation of group progress is continuous, with con stant pupil participation. A wide variety of prac tices and instruments is used to measure all-round pupil development: teacher-made and standardized tests, home visits, health data, cumulative records, observations, case studies, belief tests, diaries, activities and anecdotal records, attitude and friend ship tests, and sociograms. Evaluation of group progress is somewhat continuous, with occasional pupil participation. Such practices and instruments as home visitations, health data, cumulative records, observations, ana teacher-made and standardized tests are used in determining all round pupil development• D 276 XIV. THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ARE TO EE ANSWERED ONLY BY THOSE TEACHERS WHO DO SOLE TYPE OF "UNIT TEACHING." A Units are chosen from a suggested list in the course of study, and occasionally the teacher and pupils co operatively select a unit based upon the needs, in terests, and problems of the pupils. Pupils make some suggestions as to materials, activities, and proc edures• B Specific units are suggested by the textbook or the course of study, and most of the materials, activities and procedures are suggested. There is little teacher pupil planning. G One unit provides leads to new units. The sequence, or order, of units is determined by the experiences, needs, and interests of the pupils. Pupils, under the guidance of their teachers, select the unit and plan the outcomes, materials, activities, and pro- c edures. D Approximately how long do your units usually last? ______days. E Approximately how many minutes per day do you devote to the teaching of the unit? min . Is this time allotted in one block?______F How many different units do you usually teach at any one t ime?______ G . Qo you teach practically the same units each year?_ H List the titles of two units which you have taught recently. 1______2______XV. LIST BELOW THE CONDITIONS, IF ANY, WEIGH INTERFERE WITH YOUR CARRYING OUT THE KIND OF PROGRAM WHICH YOU BELIEVE TO BE BEST. A B C D E 277 AUTOBIOGRAPHY I, Anthony Milanovich, was born near Terre Haute, In diana, July 29, 1916. I attended the St. Bernice, Indiana, High School. My undergraduate work was obtained at Indiana State Teachers College, from which I received the degree Bachelor of Science in 1940. Prom the same school, I re ceived the degree Master of Science in 1942. In the sum mer of 1 9 4 6 I enrolled in the College of Education at Ohio State University, which I attended each summer through 1950. The residence requirement for the degree Doctor of Philoso phy was completed during the school year 1 9 4 8 - 4 9 . I acted In the capacity of graduate assistant to Dr. Ruth Streitz and Dr. Harry G. Good, of the Department of Education, dur ing the Autumn Quarter, 1949. I taught in the elementary schools of Clinton Township, Indiana, for four years. I served as principal of the Rains ville Elementary School, near Lafayette, Indiana, for one year; principal of the Central Elementary School of G'ambridg City, Indiana, for two years; and supervising principal of the Starr and Warner Elementary Schools of Richmond, Indiana for four years. For the past two years, I have been assist ant director of teacher education at the Hew York State Col lege for Teachers, at Buffalo, where I have also taught courses in elementary curriculum and supervision and acted as Director of the Summer Demonstration School.