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IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca Lucca, Italy The implementation of the European Neighbourhood Policy in Tunisia and Morocco: when domestic actors make a difference PhD Program in Institutions, Politics and Policies XXVII Cycle By Iole Pina Fontana 2015 ii The dissertation of Iole Pina Fontana is approved. Programme Coordinator: Giovanni Orsina, LUISS Guido Carli and IMT Institute of Advanced Studies Supervisor(s): Stefania Panebianco, University of Catania Tutor(s): Maria Elena Cavallaro, LUISS Guido Carli and IMT Institute of Advanced Studies The dissertation of Iole Pina Fontana has been reviewed by: Peter Seeberg, University of Southern Denmark Rosita Di Peri, University of Turin IMT Institute for Advanced Studies, Lucca 2015 iii Contents Contents i List of Acronyms v List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Acknowledgements ix Vita and Publications x Abstract xii Introduction 1 Outline of the thesis 3 Chapter I. The implementation of the ENP in the Southern neighbours: the importance of local actors and domestic conditions 4 1.1 The Research Puzzle 4 1.2 Research Questions 10 1.3 The ENP as a case of external policy’s implementation 11 1.4 Literature review 14 1.4.1 Rationale and evolution of the ENP 14 1.4.2 ENP effectiveness and implementation performance: an inside-out approach 15 1.4.3 ENP effectiveness and implementation performance: an outside-in approach 17 1.4.4 The limits of the existing literature 18 1.5 Minding the gap: the importance of local actors and domestic conditions 19 Chapter II. Explaining implementation in the neighbouring countries: explanatory variables and methodology 22 2.1 Implementation theory and EU policy making 22 2.2. Theoretical Framework for a comprehensive understanding of implementation dynamics 24 2.2.1 Dependent Variable: Implementation as a process 24 2.2.2 Explaining implementation: traditional approaches and their limits in the domain of external policies26 2.2.3 Explaining implementation in the domain of external policies: governance as a framework for implementation 28 2.3 Implementation and domestic conditions: looking for explanatory variables 31 2.3.1 The role of domestic political actors 31 2.3.2 Administration’s Capacity 32 2.3.3 The role of civil society 34 2.3.4 The Arab Spring 36 i 2.4 Hypotheses 37 2.5Case Selection 39 2.6Methodology and Data Collection 41 2.6.1 Data Collection 42 2.6.2 Data Collection in the field 43 2.6.3 Analysis 44 Chapter III. The implementation of ENP programs in Morocco and Tunisia: the role of domestic political actors 46 3.1. Tradition and State-Penetrated Pluralism: Domestic Political Actors in Morocco 47 3.1.1 The King: an institutional veto player and a policy entrepreneur between formal and informal rules47 3.1.2 Vibrant or Constrained Arena? The role of Political Parties 52 3.2 The implementation of ENP programs in Morocco: the role of domestic political actors 54 3.2.1 EU Support to the «Initiative Nationale pour le Développement Humain» (INDH). 58 3.2.2 The other big “chantiers de reforme”: the EU support to Alphabetization and Education in Morocco62 3.3 Exclusionary Politics and Myth of Reformism: Domestic Political Actors in Tunisia 66 3.4 The Implementation of ENP Programs in Tunisia: the role of domestic political actors 69 3.4.1 Tunisian reformism and the “syndrome of the bon élève”: the EU Programs to sustain economic integration and competitiveness 73 3.4.2 Reformism and Environment: the ENP Program Environment and Energy 76 Chapter IV. The Arab Spring and domestic political actors: what impact on the implementation of the ENP? 79 4.1 The effect of the Arab Spring in Morocco: change or immunity? 79 4.2 The implementation of ENP Programs in Morocco after 2011: the role of domestic political actors 82 4.2.1 When the agenda and the expertise change: the PJD and the implementation of the ENP Programs.84 4.2.2 The impact of the constitutional reform and of the cabinet reshuffle on the implementation of the ENP 87 4.2.3 The INDH: the outlier above the fray of events 90 4.2.4 Domestic contrasting interests and the implementation of the ENP 91 4.3 The Jasmine Revolution and the regime change in Tunisia 92 4.4 The implementation of ENP Programs in Tunisia after 2011: the role of domestic political actors 94 4.4.1 “Breaking with the past”: the ENP Programs PAR I, PAR II and PAR III 97 4.4.2 “Breaking with the past”: discarding old issues and reducing control 100 4.4.3 “Breaking with the past”: a new policy window to support the reform of justice 102 ii Chapter V. The implementation of ENP programs in Morocco and Tunisia: the role of administration and its capacity 103 5.1 Bottlenecks and Over-Centralization: Administration in Morocco 104 5.2 The impact of the Arab Spring on Morocco’s administration and its capacity 106 5.3 Moroccan administrative capacity and the implementation of ENP programs 107 5.3.1 When political willingness is not enough: the role of administrative capacity in the ENP Program for Alphabetization 108 5.3.2 Morocco’s weak administrative capacity and the ENP Program for the reform of the health system111 5.3.3 When administrative capacity is low and EU procedures are strict: the ENP Program IER II 113 5.3.4 When administrative capacity is good: the ENP support to the INDH, again 115 5.4 Strong Bureaucracy and Tight Top-Down Management: Administrative Capacity in Tunisia 116 5.5 The impact of the Arab Spring on Tunisian administration and its capacity 118 5.6. Tunisian administrative capacity and the implementation of ENP programs 120 5.6.1 When the program is too much ambitious, but administration is still there: the implementation of the PAGBO 120 5.6.2 Between change and momentarily instability: the implementation of the PEFESE 122 Chapter VI.The role of civil society in Morocco and Tunisia: the implementation of the ENP 126 6.1 Spaces of Freedom and Boundaries of co-optation: Civil Society in Morocco 127 6.2 The implementation of the ENP in Morocco and the role of civil society before 2011 130 6.2.1 When civil society is organizationally strong: the implementation of the ENP Program on Alphabetization 131 6.2.2 Between Participative Spaces and Boundary Setting: the implementation of the ENP Program to support the INDH 132 6.3 Tunisia: A Stifled Civil Society between Repression and Legislative Restrictions 135 6.4 The implementation of the ENP in Tunisia and the role of civil society before the Arab Spring 137 6.4.1 Between heteronomy and the”syndrome of the bon élève”: civil society and ENP implementation 138 6.5 The “Awakening” of Civil Society and the Implementation of the ENP after 2011 139 6.5.1 Civil society and the “Moroccan Spring”: increased autonomy or deeper heteronomy? 139 6.5.2 The implementation of the ENP in the post Arab Spring Morocco and the role of civil society 142 6.5.3 Civil Society and the Arab Spring: a new era of associative dynamics in Tunisia 145 6.5.4 The implementation of the ENP in Tunisia and the role of civil society after the Arab Spring 147 Conclusions 151 Do domestic actors make a difference for the implementation of the ENP on the ground? 151 iii Comparing Morocco and Tunisia: when, why and how domestic political actors make the ENP work 152 Comparing Morocco and Tunisia: when, why and how administration makes the ENP work 157 Comparing Morocco and Tunisia: when, how and why civil society can make a difference 159 What role for the EU? The explanatory power of the governance approach 161 Towards a changing topography of the ENP implementation in the Mediterranean? 163 ANNEX I 165 ANNEX II 167 ANNEX III 169 ANNEX IV 171 References 174 iv List of Acronyms AAP Annual Action Program AGR Activités Génératrices de Revenues AP Action Plan AREF Académies Régionales de l’Education et Formation CAT Centre d’Assistance Technique CCDH Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l’Homme CNDH Conseil National des Droits de l’Homme CNEF National Chart for Education and Training CPR Congress for the Republic CSE Conseil Superior de l’Enseignement CSP Country Strategy Paper DLCA Direction Lutte Contre l’Analphabétisme EEAS European External Action Service EMP Euro-Mediterranean Partnership ENI European Neighbourhood Instrument ENP European Neighbourhood Policy ENPI European Neighbourhood Partnership Instrument EU European Union GBO Gestion Budgétaire par Objectifs IER Instance d’Equité et Réconciliation INDH Initiative Nationale pour le Développement Humain MENA Middle East and North Africa MDCI Ministry of Development and International Cooperation NIP National Indicative Program PAGBO Programme d’Appui à la Gestion Budgétaire par Objectifs PAI Programme d’Appui à l’Intégration PAR Programme d’Appui à la Relance PEE Programme Environnement et Energie v PEFESE Programme d’Appui à l’Education, la Formation Professionnelle, l’Enseignement Supérieur et l’Employabilité PJD Islamist Justice and Development Party RCD Democratic Constitutional Rally RNI National Rally of Independents SANF Strategy for Alphabetization and Non-Formal Education SPRING Support for Partnership, Reforms and Inclusive Growth USFP Union Socialiste des Forces Populaires vi List of Figures Figure 1 ENP’s main implementing documents Figure 2 ENPI Payments-Commitments Gap (2007-2014) in the Southern Neighbourhood Figure 3 Hypotheses Figure 4 Tunisia and Morocco Payments to Commitments Ratio 2007-2014 (€ Mil.) Figure 5 Morocco- ENPI Payments-to-Commitments Ratio 2007-2010 (€ Mil.) Figure 6 Tunisia-ENPI Payments-to-Commitments Ratio 2007-2010 (€ Mil.) Figure 7 Morocco-ENPI Payments-to-Commitments Ratio 2007-2010 vs.