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0001Indice 14 57 IDEA Los organismos vivos como factores que contribuyen activamente al deterioro de nuestros monumentos Criterios y Métodos pesar de que, como algún autor1 señala, existen referencias de fenómenos de altera- ción de edificios provocados por organismos vivos, que datan de incluso 2500 años, la im- A portancia que a estos fenómenos se les ha dado, en el campo de la conservación, no ha sido re- IDEA S. García Murillo levante si se compara con otras causas de alteración. A. Martín Pérez Es universalmente conocido que siempre existe algún Dpto. de Química y Edafología. tipo de organismo vivo capaz de crecer y desarrollar- Facultad de Ciencias. se sobre cualquier tipo de sustrato y en cualquier tipo de clima2. También es sabido que todo ser vivo en su Universidad de Navarra metabolismo genera una serie de productos de des- hecho o, simplemente cuando muere, deja sobre el lugar donde estaba restos orgánicos. Lo que no estaba tan claro, hasta ahora, o por lo menos no se le había concedido la importancia que merece, es que un nú- mero elevado de estos organismos, que crecen sobre PH Boletín14 58 IDEA los monumentos de nuestro patrimonio artístico, son alterantes y sólo a través de los resultados derivados capaces de generar sustancias que tienen la facultad de análisis pueden ponerse en evidencia. de alterar irreversiblemente el material pétreo con la consiguiente pérdida de sus propiedades, lo que con La situación está alcanzando actualmente límites insos- el tiempo puede provocar o, por lo menos, acelerar pechados, derivados de la fuerte contaminación am- un proceso de ruina. biental de los últimos años, de forma que, monumen- tos que durante siglos han conservado un buen Una situación similar, aunque no exactamente la mis- aspecto, en las últimas décadas han evolucionado ne- ma, se da en la formación de suelos 3 . Los procesos gativamente haciéndose necesario atajar el rápido de formación de los mismos incluyen la participación proceso degradativo. de microorganismos en la alteración natural de las ro- cas, con liberación de compuestos minerales, que con- Bacterias, algas, actinomicetos, líquenes, musgos, hon- ducen a la formación de suelos fértiles. En el caso de gos, plantas superiores y animales han sido reconoci- los monumentos los organismos van a operar de la dos como organismos capaces de alterar el sustrato misma forma, es decir, a tra- sobre el que se desarrollan. vés de los mismos mecanis- mos; la diferencia clara está en el resultado obtenido, Microflora bacteriana mientras que en la formación del suelo esos procesos son La hipótesis de que la microflora bacteriana, presen- algo deseable y beneficioso, te en los monumentos, contribuye a su bioalteración en el desarrollo sobre monu- ha sido apuntada desde hace tiempo, y numerosas mentos supone una pérdida investigaciones como la del Palacio de Justicia en Mi- irreparable en el patrimonio lán 7 la Iglesia Monolítica de Aubeterre en Dronne 8 artístico de la humanidad 4, 5. la Basílica de la Puerta Mayor en Roma 9, la Portada de la Iglesia de Saint-Trophime en Arles10,o la Fuen- El problema que el desarro- te del Tritón en Roma11, han mostrado una cone- llo de los organismos puede xión entre la presencia de un elevado número de representar sobre los dife- microorganismos y la existencia de áreas altamente rentes edificios varia de una alteradas. Como corroboración a esta hipótesis construcción a otra en fun- existen ensayos de bioalteración llevados a cabo en ción de las distintas caracte- el laboratorio12, 13, 14 que muestran que estos atacan rísticas que se dan en su en- el sustrato pétreo por medio de mecanismos quími- torno, como el clima propio cos, y que los procesos de solubilización del sustrato de la zona, el tipo de piedra, siempre van acompañados de una acidificación del la misma orientación del medio. edificio, la mayor o menor contaminación atmosférica y Entre los microorganismos de este tipo que se esta- toda una serie de peculiari- blecen sobre la superficie de los monumentos, y que dades presentes en esa indiscutiblemente toman parte en sus degradación, se obra. Por todo ello, al llevar encuentran bacterias quimiolitotróficas pertenecientes a cabo un estudio de bioal- principalmente a las bacterias del ciclo del azufre y del 1. Nave lateral Sur del Templo teración se hace necesario tener en cuenta todas las nitrógeno15, y bacterias heterótrofas. de la Catedral de Pamplona. Las humedades provocadas por posibles variables constituyentes de una situación el mal estado de algunas estructu- ecológica concreta, que repercuten en el desarrollo ras, el desarrollo de plantas supe- de los organismos. Incluso, se debe tener en cuenta Bacterias del ciclo del azufre riores,… favorecen el crecimiento la posibilidad de que esos organismos presentes es- de numeroros organismos vivos (algas, líquenes, bacterias,…) tén dando una protección al material pétreo frente a Dentro del ciclo del azufre, son las bacterias sulfooxi- ataques de tipo físico y/o químico1, 6; es decir, hay dantes pertenecientes al género Thiobacillus y las bac- que ver que organismos, de todos los que proliferan terias sulforeductoras del género Desulfovibrio, las en la superficie de estos edificios, son realmente res- que principalmente representan un posible problema ponsables de un verdadero ataque biológico y cuales en la conservación de ciertos monumentos, ya que la únicamente están presentes y no causan alteración acción del ácido sulfúrico y del ácido sulfhídrico, pro- considerable. ducido por ellas, puede ejercer un efecto corrosivo sobre el sustrato. Frecuentemente, las alteraciones provocadas por los seres vivos pueden reconocerse claramente y adscri- El desarrollo y multiplicación de estas bacterias varía birlas a la presencia de organismos vivos. En otros ca- con la composición y estructura de los materiales pé- sos, sin embargo, no resulta fácil reconocer a simple treos empleados en la construcción de los monu- vista la presencia de agentes biológicos como factores mentos y con las condiciones ambientales. Aunque PH Boletín14 59 IDEA dentro de este grupo genérico, tanto el pH de creci- miento como los requerimientos nutricionales pre- sentan un amplio intervalo o variabilidad, cada espe- cie requiere, en sí misma, condiciones de crecimiento específicas16. Dada la necesidad de un aporte de compuestos del azufre y su incapacidad para obtener energía a través de la oxidación del dióxido de azufre atmosférico, su presencia es prioritaria en la base de los muros17, donde hay un aporte directo desde el suelo, y bajo cornisas o en zonas húmedas18, donde el aporte de azufre es a través de colonizaciones biológicas previas. 2. Jarrones que adornan la facha- da Oeste del Templo de la 4 El tipo de alteración a que normalmente dan lugar Catedral de Pamplona. estas bacterias es la formación de una costra oscureci- Los líquenes, organismos capaces da, algunas veces negra, que se rompe y desprende fá- de desarrollarse sobre cualquier cilmente. Con el tiempo, esa costra se hace más dura tipo de superficie, se muestran más activos en su desarrollo y sólida ofreciendo un aspecto sano hasta que no se la sobre superficies horizontales, y daña mecánicamente. Bajo esa costra hay normalmen- en exposiciones con grado de te una capa de piedra pulverulenta sin cohesión. En un humedad más elevado. estado avanzado de deterioro, la costra se desprende de la superficie. Estas bacterias nitrificantes son organismos endolíticos La actividad de estas bacterias ha sido puesta de mani- cuyo porcentaje, respecto a la microflora total, aumen- fiesto en las alteraciones presentes sobre diferentes ti- ta al hacerlo la profundidad en el sustrato, si bien el pos de sustratos pertenecientes a varios edificios en número total de microorganismos decrece en el mis- Roma y Tivoli16, 19, L´Alquila20 y Aubeterre21. mo sentido. Ese aumento de la flora nitrificante va acompañado de un aumento en el pH del sustrato22. Bacterias del ciclo del nitrógeno Aunque, como se ha dicho, el amoníaco puede deri- var directamente de una atmósfera contaminada, tam- Son dentro de este grupo las bacterias nitrificantes, y bién la ascensión capilar de aguas desde el suelo a los más concretamente las especies Nitrobacter (nitrifi- muros da lugar a un aporte importante, que estas cante) y Nitrosovibrio (nitrosante), las que se mues- bacterias aprovechan, creciendo así en los niveles infe- tran especialmente activas en los procesos de altera- riores de muros18. ción de la piedra. Estas bacterias atacan la piedra utilizándola como fuente de carbono y produciendo Aunque con menor importancia, tanto en lo que se ácidos nítrico y nitroso a partir de amoníaco, com- refiere a su presencia cuantitativa como a su actividad puesto que se encuentra comúnmente en atmósferas bioalterante, ciertas bacterias como Azotobacter y contaminadas22, 23, 24. Clostridium, presentes sobre los materiales pétreos, son capaces de fijar el nitrógeno atmosférico, contri- Los resultados de los trabajos de investigación sobre buyendo de esa forma a la formación de compuestos diferentes monumentos en Alemania han evidenciado orgánicos nitrogenados que pueden ser utilizados en correlaciones entre el contenido en nitratos y la activi- su metabolismo por organismos heterótrofos (hongos, dad de las bacterias nitrificantes, demostrando con líquenes). Estos compuestos son igualmente suscepti- ello la participación activa de estos organismos en los bles de ser descompuestos por bacterias amonifican- procesos de bioalteración25; actividad ésta que tam- tes, que los convierten en amoníaco, producto
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