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Introduction De La Culture Chinoise Dans Le Introduction de la culture chinoise dans le cursus de français destiné aux étudiants de niveau avancé : Exemple d’une réflexion sur deux titres de civilité ambigus dans la société chinoise d’aujourd’hui Keyong Li Institut des Langues étrangères du Sichuan, Chongqing Résumé : L’époque de la «révolution culturelle » a créé une rupture dans le système des appellatifs chinois, ce qui provoque des lacunes lorsque la Chine ouvre sa porte. Dans un pays en pleine mutation, l’appellation «tongzhi» (camarade), universalisée pendant un demi-siècle, perd sa place et se dote d’une nouvelle connotation spécifique ; quant à celle de « xiaojie »(mademoiselle) , à peine réapparaît-elle qu’elle prend un sens péjoratif pour devenir le synonyme de « fille » (de mauvaise vie), au point que l’on se trouve à court de formule d’adresse lorsqu’on doit s’adresser à une jeune femme inconnue. Ces lacunes dans les appellatifs chinois sont l’objet de notre étude et il nous a semblé nécessaire d’intégrer les fruits de cette étude dans l’enseignement du /en français destiné aux étudiants de niveaux avancés. Préliminaire Désireux de se spécialiser dans l’étude du français, nos étudiants apprennent cette langue tout au long d’un cycle d’enseignement de quatre ans. Durant les deux premières années (étape de base correspondant aux niveaux débutant et intermédiaire), en plus des cours en tronc commun, le français est enseigné de façon intensive à raison de 14 ou 16 heures par semaine ; pour les deux dernières années (niveau avancé : étape d’orientation et de spécialisation), les étudiants ont 8 à 10 heures hebdomadaires de cours de /en français. Cette seconde étape couvre principalement la littérature française, la grammaire française analytique et le français de spécialité : de l’hôtellerie et du tourisme, ou commercial et économique, etc. Or nous avons constaté que nos étudiants arrivant au niveau avancé maîtrisent assez aisément le français quand on aborde des sujets concernant la France, alors qu’ils éprouvent bien des difficultés quand il s’agit de sujets relatifs à la Chine, notamment la culture chinoise. Une lacune à combler donc, d’autant plus que nos étudiants, pour la plupart, travailleront comme traducteurs ou interprètes dans des secteurs en rapport avec les pays francophones, un métier qui demande non seulement des compétences linguistiques en chinois et en français, mais également celles relatives aux cultures francophones et chinoises. D’où la nécessité d’intégrer un cours de culture chinoise (dispensé en langue française bien entendu). Un vieux dicton chinois dit : C’est se connaissant soi-même et en connaissant l’autre que l’on réussira à coup sûr. Voici, à titre d’exemple, un des thèmes de ce cours, thème consacré au système des appellatifs chinois, à partir de deux titres de civilité ambigus dans une société chinoise - 163 - en pleine mutation. Introduction En France, c’est avec principalement trois titres de civilité que l’on entame le contact humain, à savoir Monsieur, Madame, Mademoiselle. Mais en Chine, c’est tout un système d’appellation qui régit le contact et les rapports sociaux, système dû aux retombées de l’héritage plusieurs fois millénaires du Confucianisme. Celui-ci préconisa la restauration des rites de la dynastie des Zhou, insistant sur le principe de distinction hiérarchique à observer « entre roi et ministres, entre père et fils, entre mari et femme, entre personnes âgées et jeunes … ». Mais ce système d’appellation chinois a été partiellement aboli à partir de la fondation de la Chine nouvelle en 1949. L’appellation «tongzhi»1, (camarade) a été sur-généralisée, voire universalisée pendant plus de trois décennies. Quand « le camarade Deng Xiaoping » (comme on l’appelait de son vivant) a lancé la réforme et l’ouverture de la Chine en 1978, le retour des « vieilles » appellations l’a emporté de plus en plus sur le « tongzhi ». Aujourd’hui, le titre de civilité «xiaojie» (mademoiselle) risque de disparaître de nouveau à cause de la nouvelle connotation péjorative qu’il a acquise. 1. Le déclin du « tongzhi » Le mot «tongzhi» qui signifie littéralement « même volonté » est traduit en français par « camarade ». Pourtant, à l’origine, ce mot ne s’employait pas comme un appellatif. C’était un nom commun qui signifiait «même intention, même vertu, et même volonté »2. C’est vers la fin de la dynastie des Qing qu’il a été utilisé comme appellatif par des associations ou groupes clandestins, politiquement opposés à la Cour impériale. Les Chinois connaissent par cœur la fameuse citation du Dr. SUN Zhongshan3 : « Camarad es : la révolution ne fait que commencer, il nous faut faire encore des efforts ! ». Après le mouvement du 4 mai 1921,4 le Guomindang et le parti communiste ont adopté le mot « tongzhi » comme l’appellation qui marque à la fois respect et les idéaux communs. Les définitions du dictionnaire encyclopédique chinois le plus prestigieux, le « Ci Hai » (littéralement la « mer des mots »), sont révélatrices. Elles témoignent de l’évolution sémantique de ce terme sur le plan dénotatif et connotatif : a. « Appellation entre personnes ayant les mêmes idéaux » (Edition 1936); b. « Appellation entre personnes ayant les mêmes idéaux politiques, ou entre membres d’un parti politique» (Edition 1965); c. « Appellation courante entre les citoyens de notre pays. »(Edition 1979); d. « Appellation courante entre les citoyens des pays socialistes. »(Edition 1989); e. « Appellation entre personnes ayant les mêmes idéaux politiques, ou entre membres d’un parti politique» (Edition 1999). On voit ainsi que l’appellatif «tongzhi» a atteint son apogée durant les années 70. Ce fut un mot passe-partout. Tout le monde s’appelait ainsi. Le terme était précédé d’un nom de famille ou du prénom, selon le degré de familiarité quand il s’agissait de connaissance. Les personnes âgées se laissaient appeler « laotongzhi »(vieux camarade) et les écoliers étaient appelés « xiaotongzhi »(petit camarade », les soldats « jiefangjuntongzhi » (camarade de l’armée de libération), les ouvriers « gongrentongzhi » (camarade ouvrier), ainsi de suite. Pendant la révolution culturelle (1966-1976), le mot « tongzhi » devint l’antonyme de l’ennemi politique. Ce fut une époque de terreur. Souvent, du jour au lendemain, une personne se voyait privée du titre de « tongzhi » à cause de son attitude ou tendance politique, ou de son origine. On lui attribuait, à la place de « tongzhi », un titre de « réactionnaire », ou « fils du capitaliste » ou d’autres titres politiquement péjoratifs, en lui mettant souvent sur la tête un haut chapeau en papier portant une étiquette de sa - 164 - nouvelle « nomination ». Cependant, un apogée marque souvent le début du déclin. Peu après la Révolution culturelle, la Chine a ouvert sa porte dans l’espoir de communiquer avec le monde extérieur et dans le but de redresser une Chine qui se trouvait au bord de l’abîme économique. C’est dans ce contexte qu’est née la politique d’ouverture et de réforme à la fin des années 1970. A la fin de l’année 1978, il y eut un grand événement : un nombre considérable de Hongkongais ont enfin pu se rendre sur le continent pour passer le Nouvel An chinois (Fête du Printemps) avec leurs parents. C’était la première fois que bon nombre de parents se retrouvaient après 30 ans de séparation ! Evidemment, l’appellation « tongzhi » ne convenait pas pour désigner nos compatriotes de Hongkong. Alors, les médias prirent initiative d’utiliser des termes « anciens » dans leurs reportages ou interviews consacrés à des personnalités de Hongkong. C’est ainsi que les Chinois du continent ré-entendirent les titres de civilité attribués pendant longtemps à la bourgeoisie de l’ancienne Chine : « xiansheng » (Monsieur), « nüshi » (Madame), « xiaojie » (Mademoiselle). Aujourd’hui, de nouveaux rapports sociaux, qui ne sont plus ceux de la simple camaraderie, ont besoin d’une appellation adéquate : entre employés et employeur, entre acheteurs et vendeur, entre patients et médecin…Heureusement, la mémoire lexicale, interrompue pendant des décennies sur le continent chinois, a perduré dans des zones sinophones comme Hongkong, Macao et Taiwan. Ces zones sont devenues un véritable trésor de vocabulaire dont le continent chinois a besoin. Dès lors, la réapparition de titres de civilité a amené d’autres appellations hiérarchiques telles que « laoban » (patron), « jingli » (directeur ou gérant), « dongshizhang »(président du conseil d’administration ), etc. Ce qui a entraîné la généralisation de l’appellation par fonction hiérarchique ou par titre de profession. 2. Les aventures de « xiaojie » Si « xiansheng » (monsieur) et « nüshi » (madame) retrouvent leur terre natale et se réacclimatent sans poser de problème, « xiaojie » a connu toutes les vicissitudes possibles. Les premières apparitions du mot « xiaojie » datent de la dynastie des Song5. A l’époque, ce mot désignait une «femme sans statut social, serveuse chez les riches, concubine et prostituée. »6 Durant la dynastie des Yuan7, le mot a complètement changé de signification et s’est coloré d’une connotation positive : il désigne alors les enfants de sexe féminin chez les nobles ou chez les dignitaires. Voici l’extrait d’une pièce de théâtre intitulée « L’histoire du Pavillon Ouest » de WANG Shipu : « Le lettré épris de xiaojie, n’arrive plus à dormir ni à manger et se trouve ainsi dans un état inquiétant. »(Histoire d’amour entre un lettré et la fille d’un dignitaire.) Sous la dynastie des Ming8, ce mot désigne également une femme mariée. Comme en témoigne cet extrait de la pièce de théâtre « Jin’anshou », Acte 1 : « Ma xiaojie est originaire de Xiagu, de la famille Tong. Son diminutif est Jiaolan (orchidée mignonne). Voilà dix ans que je l’ai épousée. Et nous menons une vie bien aisée. » Le mot « xiaojie » désigne donc à cette époque à la fois les « enfants de sexe féminin chez les nobles ou chez les dignitaires »et les femmes mariées.
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