Exclusion and Citizenship in the Arab Gulf States
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University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons CUREJ - College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal College of Arts and Sciences 5-15-2017 Crystallizing a Discourse of "Khalijiness": Exclusion and Citizenship in the Arab Gulf States Khaled A. Abdulkarim University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/curej Part of the Near Eastern Languages and Societies Commons Recommended Citation Abdulkarim, Khaled A., "Crystallizing a Discourse of "Khalijiness": Exclusion and Citizenship in the Arab Gulf States" 15 May 2017. CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal, University of Pennsylvania, https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/211. A senior thesis submitted to the Huntsman Program in Business and International Studies, the University of Pennsylvania, in partial fulfillment of the program degree requirements. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/211 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Crystallizing a Discourse of "Khalijiness": Exclusion and Citizenship in the Arab Gulf States Abstract For many of the Arab Gulf countries, non-national populations constitute the majority of the population, with the discrepancy between the size of the national and non-national populations continuing to grow. It is in this context that the role played by these non-national populations becomes critically important. In my paper, I argue that exclusion of non-national populations from state-sponsored national identities, as manifest through citizenship rights, plays a pivotal role in fostering imagined national identities and communities among the local Arab Gulf citizens. The study considers two cases in particular: the bidoon (stateless) of Kuwait and middle-class Indian migrants in Dubai. Using a variety of primary and secondary sources, I explore the ways in which the two aforementioned populations are excluded, how they contended with their exclusion, and finally attempt econciler what, in broad terms, constitutes the overarching khaleeji – Gulf – identity that this exclusion has sought to foster. On one hand, the study finds that the bidoon of Kuwait's pursuit of inclusion is rooted in their ethnic heritage as Arabs and the Kuwaiti, tribal-rooted national identity. On the other hand, the middle-class Indian migrants of Dubai embrace their exclusion because of their self-perceived temporariness in the city and instead exhibit a sense of dual- belonging. In light of this, the study considers how the resultant khaleeji identity crystalizes around its exceptions and exclusions, while highlighting the performative and nationalistic aspects of it. Keywords gulf, khaleej, citizenship, state, exclusion, khaliji, khaleeji, kuwait, dubai, united arab emirates, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Political Science, Sharkey, Heather, Heather Sharkey Disciplines Near Eastern Languages and Societies Comments A senior thesis submitted to the Huntsman Program in Business and International Studies, the University of Pennsylvania, in partial fulfillment of the program degree requirements. This article is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/211 Khaled Abdulkarim Honors Senior Thesis Huntsman Program in Business & International Studies University of Pennsylvania Spring 2017 Faculty Advisor: Professor Heather Sharkey Associate Professor Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (NELC) Crystallizing a Discourse of "Khalijiness" Exclusion and Citizenship in the Arab Gulf States Table of Contents I. Executive Summary………………………………………………………………… 3 II. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… 5 III. Background and Context …………………………………………………………. 12 IV. The “Haves and Have Nots”: The Bidoon of Kuwait …………………………...…18 V. The Middle-Class Indians of Dubai: Not too Far from Home …………………. 31 VI. Creating and Practicing the Khaleeji Identity: What it is, is what it is not …… 43 VII. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 49 VIII. Bibliography …….………………………………………………………………… 53 2 ﺧﻠق اﻟﮭوﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ: اﻹﻗﺻﺎء واﻟﻣواطﻧﺔ ﻓﻲ دول ﻣﺟﻠس اﻟﺗﻌﺎون ﻣﻠ ّﺧص ﺗﻧﻔﯾذي ﻟﻠﺑﺣث ﯾ ّﺷﻛل اﻷﺟﺎﻧب ﺟز ًءا ﻛﺑﯾراً ﻣن إﺟﻣﺎﻟﻲ ﻋدد ّﺳﻛ ﺎن اﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن دول ﻣﺟﻠس اﻟﺗﻌﺎون، أﺑرزھﺎ اﻟﺑﺣرﯾن وﻗطر واﻹﻣﺎرات واﻟﻛوﯾت. وﺗﺗﺻدّر دوﻟﺔ ﻗطر ﻓﻲ ﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﺗﻌداد اﻷﺟﺎﻧب ﺣﯾث ﺑﻠﻐت ھذه اﻟﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻘﺎرب ٩٠٪ ﻣن إﺟﻣﺎﻟﻲ ﻋدد ﺳﻛﺎن ﺗﻠك اﻟدوﻟﺔ، ﺗﻠﯾﮭﺎ اﻹﻣﺎرات ﺑﻧﺳﺑﺔ ٨٥٪. وﯾﻌﺎﻟﺞ ھذا اﻟﺑﺣث ﻣوﺿوع اﻟﻣواطﻧﺔ ﻓﻲ دول اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺞ ودورھﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺧﻠق اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ. وﻓﻲ ھذا اﻹطﺎر، ﯾﻧﺎﻗش اﻟﺑﺣث ﻗﺿﯾﺔ ﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺗﯾن: "اﻟﺑدون" ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛوﯾت واﻟﺟﺎﻟﯾﺔ اﻟﮭﻧدﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ إﻣﺎرة دﺑﻲ ﻓﻲ دوﻟﺔ اﻹﻣﺎرات اﻟﻌرﺑﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺣدة. وﺗﻘﺎرن اﻟدراﺳﺔ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺗﯾن واﻟﺗﺷﺎﺑﮭﺎت واﻻﺧﺗﻼﻓﺎت ﺑﯾﻧﮭﻣﺎ ﻟﻠﺗوﺻل إﻟﻰ اﺳﺗﻧﺗﺎﺟﺎت ﺣول ﻣﻌﻧﻰ اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ ﺑﺷﻛ ٍل ﻋﺎم. ﯾﻣﻛن ﺗﺻﻧﯾف اﻷﺟﺎﻧب ﻓﻲ دول ﻣﺟﻠس اﻟﺗﻌﺎون إﻟﻰ ﻗﺳﻣﯾن رﺋﯾﺳﯾﯾن، أﺣدھم ﻣﺎ ﯾ ّﺳﻣﻰ "اﻟﺑدون" وھم ﻓﺋﺔ ﺳﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ ﺗﻌﯾش ﻓﻲ اﻟﻛوﯾت وﻻ ﺗﺣﻣل اﻟﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ اﻟﻛوﯾﺗﯾﺔ أو أي ﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ أﺧرى. وﻗد ﻋُرف اﻟﺑدون ﺑﮭذا اﻻﺳم ﻧﺳﺑﺔ ﻟﻛوﻧﮭم "ﺑدون ﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ" ﺑﺎﻟرﻏم ﻣن إﻗﺎﻣﺗﮭم ﻓﻲ اﻟدوﻟﺔ ﻟﻣد ٍد طوﯾﻠﺔ ﻗد ﺗﺻل إﻟﻰ ﻋﺷرات اﻟﺳﻧﯾن، وﻗد ﯾﻛون اﻟﻛﺛﯾر ﻣﻧﮭم ﻣن ﻣواﻟﯾد اﻟﻛوﯾت وﻻ ﯾﻌرﻓون وطﻧﺎً آﺧر. أﻣﺎ اﻟﻘﺳم اﻵﺧر ﻓﮭم اﻟﻌﻣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟواﻓدة اﻟﺗﻲ أﺗت إﻟﻰ دول اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺞ طﻠﺑﺎً ﻟﻠرزق ﻣﻧذ ﺑداﯾﺔ اﻟطﻔرة اﻻﻗﺗﺻﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﺑدأت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺳﺑﻌﯾﻧﺎت واﻟﺛﻣﺎﻧﯾﻧﺎت ﻣن اﻟﻘرن اﻟﻣﺎﺿﻲ، وﺳﺎھﻣوا ﺑﺷﻛ ٍل ﻛﺑﯾر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻧﮭﺿﺔ اﻻﻗﺗﺻﺎدﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠك اﻟﺑﻼد. واﻟﺟدﯾر ﺑﺎﻟذﻛر أ ّن ھﺎﺗﺎن اﻟﻣﺟﻣوﻋﺗﺎن ﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺗﺎن ﺗﻣﺎﻣﺎً ﺣﯾث أن اﻟﺑدون ﯾﻌﺗﺑرون أﻧﻔﺳﮭم ﻣواطﻧﯾن اﻟدوﻟﺔ ﺣﯾث ﺗطﺑّﻌوا ﺑﻌﺎدات وﺗﻘﺎﻟﯾد اﻟﺑﻠد وﻟﻛن ﻻ ﯾﺗﻣﺗّﻌون ﺑﺎﻟﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ رﻏم ﻣطﺎﻟﺑﺗﮭم اﻟﻣﺳﺗﻣرة ﻟﻠﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﯾﮭﺎ، ﺑﯾﻧﻣﺎ ﻓﺋﺔ "اﻟﮭﻧود" ﺗرى ھﺟرﺗﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺞ ﻛﻣرﺣﻠﺔ ﻣؤﻗّﺗﺔ ﻓﻼ ﺗُطﺎﻟب ﺑﺎﻟﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ وﺗﺣﺎﻓظ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺎداﺗﮭﺎ وﺗﻘﺎﻟﯾدھﺎ وﻣﻣﺎرﺳﺎﺗﮭﺎ اﻟدﯾﻧﯾﺔ. ﯾﺗﻧﺎول ھذا اﻟﺑﺣث ﺣرﻣﺎن ھﺎﺗﯾن اﻟﻔﺋﺗﯾن ﻣن اﻟﺣﺻول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ رﻏم ﻗﺿﺎﺋﮭﻣﺎ ﻋﺷرات اﻟﺳﻧﯾن ﻓﻲ ھذه اﻟدول وﻋدم ﺣﺻوﻟﮭم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔواﺋد واﻟﻣزاﯾﺎ اﻟﺗﻲ ﯾﺗﻣﺗّﻊ ﺑﮭﺎ أﺑﻧﺎء وﻣواطﻧﻲ ﺗﻠك اﻟﺑﻼد ﻛﺎﻟﻌﻼج اﻟﺻﺣﻲ واﻟﺗﻌﻠﯾم واﻟﺧدﻣﺎت اﻹﺳﻛﺎﻧﯾﺔ وﻏﯾرھﺎ. وﯾﺧﻠق ھذا اﻟﺣرﻣﺎن ﺧ ّطﺎً ﻓﺎﺻﻼً ﺑﯾن اﻟﻣواطﻧﯾن اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﯾن ﻣن ﺟﺎﻧب وﻣﺎ ﯾ ّﺳﻣﻰ ﺑﺎﻷﺟﺎﻧب ﻣن ﺟﺎﻧ ٍب آﺧر، ﺣﯾث ﯾﺗﻧﺎول 3 ھذا اﻟﺑﺣث ﺑﺷﻛ ٍل ﺗﻔﺻﯾﻠﻲ ﻋدم اﻻﻧﻔﺗﺎح ﻣﺎ ﺑﯾن اﻟﺷطرﯾن وﻋدم اﻧدﻣﺎﺟﮭﻣﺎ. وﯾﺧﺗﻠف ھذا اﻟوﺿﻊ ﻋن دول أﺧرى ﻣﺛل أﻣرﯾﻛﺎ وأﺳﺗراﻟﯾﺎ وأوروﺑﺎ ﺣﯾث ﯾﺣﺻل اﻟﻣﮭﺎﺟر ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠك اﻟﺑﻠدان ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺟﻧﺳﯾﺔ ﺑﻌد ﺳﻧوا ٍت ﻗﻠﯾﻠﺔ ﻣن ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ھﺟرﺗﮫ إﻟﯾﮭﺎ. وﻋﻠﯾﮫ، ﺗﺻﺑﺢ اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ واﻟﮭوﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ ﺗﻌﺗﻣد ﺑﺷﻛ ٍل أﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘَﺑَﻠﯾﺔ واﻷﺻل واﻟﻧﺳب ﻣن ﻧﺎﺣﯾﺔ وﻋﻠﻰ ﻋواﻣل أﺧرى ﻣﺛل اﻟﻠﮭﺟﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ واﻟز ّي اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﻲ واﻟﺑذخ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺣﯾﺎة ﻓﯾُﺻﺑﺢ ﻣن اﻟﺻﻌب ﻟﻔﺋﺔ اﻷﺟﺎﻧب ﺗﺑﻧّﻲ ھذه اﻟﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ واﻻﻧدﻣﺎج ﻣﻊ ﺳﺎﺋر اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﯾن. وﻧظراً ﻟﻠﺗﻐﯾّرات اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻣﯾﺔ اﻟﻣﺗﺳﺎرﻋﺔ، أﺑرزھﺎ اﻻﻧﻛﻣﺎش اﻻﻗﺗﺻﺎدي ﻓﻲ ھذه اﻟدول ﺑﺳب اﻧﺧﻔﺎض أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻧﻔط، ﻓﮭذا ﯾ ّﺷﻛل ﺗﺣ ٍدّ ﻛﺑﯾر ﻟﻠﮭوﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ اﻟﺗﻲ ﻛﺎﻧت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺳﺎﺑق ﻣﺣل رﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻟدوﻟﺔ. وﯾﺑﻘﻰ اﻟﺳؤال، ھل ﻣن اﻟﻣﻣﻛن اﺳﺗداﻣﺔ ھذه اﻟﻣﺑﺎدئ وﻣﺎ ھو ﻣﺻﯾر اﻟﮭوﯾﺔ اﻟﺧﻠﯾﺟﯾﺔ؟ وﻧﺣﺎول ﻓﻲ ھذا اﻟﺑﺣث اﻹﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻛﺛﯾر ﻣن ھذه اﻟﺗﺳﺎؤﻻت وذﻟك ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺗﻌﺎﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌدﯾد ﻣن اﻟﻣراﺟﻊ واﻟﻛﺗب اﻟﺗﻲ ﺗم إﺻدارھﺎ ﺣول ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﻛوﯾت واﻹﻣﺎرات ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻣﻘﺎﺑﻼت واﻟﻣد ّوﻧﺎت اﻹﻟﻛﺗروﻧﯾﺔ. 4 II. Introduction At the center of Sophie Robehmed’s satirical graphic novel Only in Dubai: An Essential Guide to the Emirate’s Expats is Karama Kumari.1 Named after Karama, a predominantly Indian residential area in Dubai, she is the exemplar of the Indian, middle-class, expatriate community in the Emirate. Karama Kumari drives a mid-sized Japanese sedan, lives in a densely populated residential community, and sends her kids to an Indian private school. Outside the satire of Robehmed’s novel, however, the reality for Karama Kumari, the community she represents, and perhaps all non-national populations in the country, is that they are forever bound to the “alien” label they currently hold. Regardless of how long they have been – and plan to remain – in the United Arab Emirates, and regardless of whether their children were born and raised there, they will never become Emirati citizens. Their experience is, in fact, representative of many – perhaps all – non-national populations in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. For many of the Gulf countries, non-national populations constitute the majority of the population, with the discrepancy between the size of the national and non-national populations continuing to grow.2 It is in this context that the role played by these non-national populations becomes critically important. In my paper, I argue that exclusion of non-national populations from state-sponsored national identities, as manifest through citizenship rights, plays a pivotal role in fostering imagined national identities and communities among the local Gulf Arab citizens. 1 Sophie Robehmed, Only in Dubai: An Essential Guide to the Emirate's Expats (Cincinnati, OH: Turning Point, 2015). 2 Kristian Ulrichsen, The Gulf States in the International Political Economy (London: Palgrave, 2016) p. 169. 5 My study will consider two cases of exclusion: the bidoon (stateless) in Kuwait and middle- class Indian migrant workers in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and especially Dubai. The bidoon of Kuwait comprise primarily two groups. First, the bidoon include the descendants of illegal migrants or quasi-nomadic peoples of primarily Arab descent whose ancestors either failed to register as citizens when Kuwait’s Nationality Law was promulgated in 1959 or were excluded from doing so; second, they include migrants from Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab countries who abandoned their native citizenship to join the Kuwaiti armed forces between the 1960s and 1970s but were never granted Kuwaiti citizenship. Though no official figures are available, the bidoon are estimated to represent approximately a tenth of Kuwait’s total population.3 The middle-class Indians of Dubai are one important group among many in the city’s non- national population. In fact, non-nationals