STONEHENGE: ITS VISUAL FORCE

By JOHANN KRISTJAN EYFELLS

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GIV.DUATE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF FINE ARTS

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA April, 1964 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I should like to extend my sincere thanks to Professor

E. E. Grissom, Head, Department of Art, for his encouraging support given to me, particularly during the early stages of my somewhat unconventional approach to the chosen subject matter.

I am greatly indebted to Professor J. G. Naylor for the excellent photographs, which he took of Stonehenge, while on a visit to his native country, England, last summer. His many helpful suggestions, and his part in supplying the photographic material presented in this thesis were invaluable .

Thanks are due to Professors K. A. Kerslake and W. A. Carter for their suggestions and criticisms given as members of the super­ visory committee.

Finally, I should like to thank my wife, Kristin, without whose help and encouragement this work would certainly have been more difficult.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT •••••....•...... •..•..•...... ••.... ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .•..••.....•...... •.... ~ ...... • . . • . . iii

PART I •.••••••.•.•...... •..•••••.•...•...... 1

Introduction •••••.••..••.••.••••••••••.•••...•....••.• 2

PART II 13

meaning ...... 15

savage yet refined ••....•••••...•...•••..••.•.••. 17

tradi tional yet original •••••••..••..••••.•...•.. 19

assertive yet frail ••.••••.•.•.•••.•..•...... 21

heavy yet unstrained .••..••.•••.•.•••.•...... •.• 23

spontaneous yet slow in birth ..•...••...••••...•• 25

spiritual yet earthy 27

convincing yet mute .•..••..•••.••.•...•..•.•..•.. 29

direct yet complex ••.•••...•..•...•.....•..•..••• 31

intimate yet domineering 33

revealing yet mysterious 35

unique yet universal ...... 37

intui ti ve yet measured •.....•....•...... •...•. 39

mind yet matter •..••••••.•••.•.•...... •...•••... 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ..•...... •....•...... 44

iii PART I Introduction

The fundamental drives of a people often find vital outlets in the fields of visual expression. These forces become the main~ springs of the labors of craftsmen in search for forms expressive of both the implicit and explicit values of their culture.

A mature image, which is executed within the coherent frame­ work of a living spiritual view of existence, invariably shows an indissoluble union of energies, forms and meaning.

Stonehenge, in the county of Wiltshire, England, is such a visual image. It exists as a magnificient example of the fulfill­ ment of human conception and purpose. It is a powerful sculptural statement embracing fundamental characteristics of man in nature.

Although our reactions to the impact of this ancient monu­ ment are conditioned by time and place, we need not share the con­ victions of these builders in order to derive inspiration from their mental and physical achievement. Their outstanding t echnical feat and superb sculptural refinement stand as symbols of an even greater spiritual and inner strength. Milestones like these in the long evolution of manls indomitable spirit carry answers for today. Monu­ ments of the past shape the future; they are part of the common heritage of all men.

2 The purpose of this thesis is not to propound new theories nor to discover new facts, but rather to intensify our awareness and appreciation of the mysteries of living images of visual expression, of which we are heirs.

It has been rightly said that Stonehenge, the most famous prehistoric antiquity of England, suffers from TIthe disadvantage of a reputation!!. Mr. Frank Stevens, Director ot the Salisbury Mus eum, stated in his article, Stonehenge: Today and Yesterday, that TlNo prehistoric monument can boast such a bulky bibliography, which runs into thousands of books, pamphlets, and newspaper noticesTl. (Stevens,

1941, 447.) Similarly, the distinguished archaeologist, Mr. R. J. C.

Atkinson, says that the inquirer into the history of Stonehenge Tlis faced by a bulk of literature which is positively embarrassing, for no prehistoric monument in Britain, or for that matter in Europe, has been the subject of more speculation and controversyTl. (Atkinson,

1960, 182.) Early theories regarding the origin and purpose of the monument have ranged in quality from quasi-scientific conjectures to fantastic guesses. As late as the latter half of the nineteenth century the !little folk!, the Celts, the Phoenicians, the Druids , the Belgae, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and even the natives of

Atlantis have been hailed as the builders of Stonehenge. Speculations concerning the purpose of the monument have been equally many-sided.

During the ages, it has been variously called the work of the devil, a place of human sacrifice, a sun-temple, a ceremonial center of a vast necropolis, a place of great assembly and an astronomical ob­ servatory. Based on new scientific discoveries, speculations con-

3 cerning the monument are of a less spectacular nature. Modern writers generally agree that it was built during the middle of the second millennium B. C. From the contents of the Wessex Culture tombs of this period it may be inferred that the monument was erected by a rich community of mercantile aristocrats trafficking mainly in copper, tin and gold between Ireland and the Continent. However, the controversies about Stonehenge persist.

The overwhelming profuSion of theoretical and speculative writings on Stonehenge, briefly referred to above, is, in part, re­ sponsible for the eventual direction taken in this thesis, namely, its chiefly visually oriented approach.

As a comprehensive historical survey of this controversial monument is not within the scope of this paper, an attempt will be made to include herein a short descriptive account of the structural arrangement of Stonehenge, and to point out the major features per­ taining to the monument.

Stonehenge is situated on a level, slightly elevated ground amidst the undulating, rolling downs of the Salisbury Plain in the south of England. From a distance it seems minute and dejected.

The full visual impressiveness of its immense bulk does not assert itself until it is seen entire, silhouetted against the sky.

The basic design of Stonehenge is composed of various con­ centric structures, of which the outermost feature is an enclosure of circular earthwork, measuring about 320 feet in diameter, and made up of an outside ditch and a chalk rubble bank. During the course of centuries most of the bank, which once stood about six feet in

4 - - - -

o o ~ +'0 o o

5 height, has slipped back into the ditch, from which it was quarried.

This circular earthwork was unbroken except at the entrance cause- way, from which the so-called Avenue leads downhill into the valley.

The center line of the Avenue coincides approximately with the major axis of the monument, which has long been considered to be aligned on the summer solstice. The significance of this approximate alignment is not known and has been the subject of much speculation. With a particular reference to the difficulties involved in calculating the date of the monument from these alignments, Mr. Atkinson brought out the important fact that

we have no me ans of telling what the original builders regarded as 'sunrise'. Was it the first gleam of light; or when the sun's disc was exactly cut in half by the horizon; or when the whole disc was just visible, with the horizon a tangent to its lower margin? The date computed using the first of these positions differs by nearly 4,000 years from that using the last. (Atkinson, 1960, 95-96.)

The Avenue is made up of two parallel chalk banks, wh ich lie about forty seven feet apart. Its fine layout, running in a straight line for over 720 yards, is suggestive of a cer emonial use .

Within the Avenue, at a distance of about 250 f eet from the center of the monument, stands a single large sarsen stone called the Heel Stone. This huge bolder, standing about sixteen f eet above ground level, is the only unwrought sarsen stone at Stonehenge. Its lozenge form is the commonest shape of natural bolders of sars en, which were formed many millions of years ago on the ocean bed by the solidification of beds of sand. The extreme hardness and dura- bility of these rocks may be appreciated in the fact that to shape

6 their surface it T1 requires from two and a half to three times the effort necessary to produce a comparable result on granitT1 • (Atkinson,

1960, 124.) The Heel StoneTs position, slightly to the right of the center line of the fairway, has long been wrongly thought to mark the point of sunrise on midsummer day as observed from the center of the monument.

Nearer to Stonehenge proper in front of the causeway entrance is a large prostrate sarsen stone known as the Slaughter Stone. This large elongated block of sarsen is carefully dressed to shape, its cross-section being approximately a rectangle. The stone is said to have been once upright, and, together with a similar companion, formed an entrance gateway to the enclosure.

Within the circular earthwork, and concentric with it, stand the remains of the great outer circle of Stonehenge. This structure, measuring about 100 feet in diameter, consisted originally of thirty hewn sarsen uprights, spaced at equal distances apart, and supporting on their tops a continuous row of lintel stones. Of the surviving uprights, seventeen remain standing today, and only six of the original thirty lintels remain in position.

All of these sarsen stones have been dressed to shape and finish. The uprights stand about thirteen and a half feet above ground level, with an average width of seven feet and a thickness of three to four feet, with an upward taper. The sides of some of the stones are dressed to convexly curved shapes of great sculptural r e­ finement. This skill in dressing the stones is carried to a unique

7 perfection on the lintels, which are cut to a curve to fit the cir­ cumference of the circle.

Each of the thirty uprights had two tenons which fitted into corresponding mortices in the lintels with which they were capped.

This continuous row of lintel stones was further held more securely in place by dovetailing the stones into each other by toggle joints.

This hugh circular structure of sarsen stones, like the earth­ work surrounding it, is oriented towards the midsummer sunrise, the entrance uprights being spaced one foot farther apart than the average openings of about three and a half feet in width around the original circle.

About nine feet within this outer circle of sarsen stones there stood a smaller ring of upright stones, which consisted of a variety of igneous rocks, called !bluestones!. These uprights originally numbered about sixty. Their rather irregular spacing, and variations in their heights above ground level, lack the refinement and character so evident in all the other features of Stonehenge proper. None of the surviving uprights of this circle are known to have been dressed to shape. From the surviving nineteen stones it is evident, however, that the monument!s north-east and south-west orientation is given distinction by the setting of the two entrance stones back by about their own thickness inside the circle, and by placing them farther apart than their companions in a similar way as seen in the outer sarsen structure .

Within these two outer circles stand the most impressive features of the monument, taking the form of a complex of five great sarsen

8 trilithons, arranged in the shape of a horseshoe open towards the north­

east. These monoliths are the largest dressed stones in England, their

over-all heights increase towards the central trilithon, which stood twenty four feet tall. The climactic effect, inherent in this hier­ archical culmination of uncompromising forms, bears testimony to the

strength of the conception of Stonehenge.

Three of these immense sarsen structures are now standing.

Of the other two, only one of the uprights from each still stands.

Here, the dressing of the uprights exhibits an even more satisfying sculptural refinement than that seen in their smaller counterparts of the sarsen circle. The convexly curved and tapered sides of the remaining upright of the great trilithon is an excellent example. As in the sarsen circle, the uprights and their respective lintels were held together by mortice and tenon joints, the lintels being also cut to a curve on both faces. In addition they show a unique sculptural refinement, in that they are dressed to a shape that is wider at the top than at the bottom, making their sides appear vertical to the eye.

This visual refinement was not repeated on the lintels of the sarsen circle, where the illusion of recession would be much less noticeable, due to their lower height from the ground.

A few feet in front of the trilithons there stood a smaller horseshoe of tall, dressed bluestones. Originally it consisted of nineteen uprights, which like the sarsen trilithons, increased in heights from about six feet to about eight feet towards the center.

The surviving bluestones of this horseshoe show that they have been dressed to shape and finish with great care, their surfaces exhibiting a quality of workmanship, that is not matched elsewhere in the monument.

9 The last stone of Stonehenge proper, which remains to be described, is the so~called Altar Stone. This is a large elongated block of bluestone, which now lies prostrate and nearly buried beneath the fallen upright of the great sarsen trilithon. Recent excavations show that this stone, in its original state, had been dressed in the same manner as the sarsen uprights, which suggests that it, too, once stood as a pillar.

In addition to these visually prominent structures several other significant features within the Stonehenge complex may be mentioned. Closely within the inner limits of the bank of the earth~ work enclosure there is an exact circle of fifty six filled holes, known as the Aubrey Holes. The locations of about half of them are marked by patches of white chalk on the ground. These holes have not been found to have served any structural function, and even today they represent one of the most puzzling and controversial features of the monument.

Better understood and nearly on the same circle as the Aubrey

Holes are the sites of the Four Station Stones. They are located diametrically opposite each other and lie symmetrically in relation to the axis of Stonehenge. Two of the four stones, which were originally positioned on these sites, survive today. Scientific investigations have revealed their basic significance concerning the architectural procedure in laying out the exact alignments of the principal structures and orientation. It has been suggested that the surviving stones and their vanished companions fOl~ symbolic memorials of the reference points, which were used with such superb skill by the ancient surveyors. 10 Finally, two sets of roughly concentric rings of holes have been recently discovered. The Z and Y Holes consist of two irregular rings of pits, which lie outside the circular sarsen structure at a distance of about twelve feet and thirty five feet respectively.

Excavations into these holes have proved that they had been abandoned and left open. This fact is clear!!from the nature of their silting, which is entirely the product of slow natural weathering and the de­ position of fine soil by wind and rain.IT (Atkinson, 1960, 84.) Further examination of the filling of these holes may, therefore, throw some new light on the sequence of the structural activities occurring on the prehistoric site.

Another important recent discovery made during excavations within Stonehenge proper is a series of holes, named Q and R Holes.

These holes originally held two concentric circles of bluestones, which were located in the same general area, where the remains of the bluestone circle now stand. Excavations show that this earlier structure had a north-east and south-west orientation, which reveals the important fact that an axis towards the summer solstice was established on the site, before the monument, as we know it today, was erected.

The visual remains of Stonehenge today are the magnificient extant manifestations of the final stage of a unique chain of outstand­ ing human achievements. The bluestones, often called ITforeign stones!!, weighing up to four tons apiece, had to be transported from a district in the Prescelly Mountains in western Wales, a distance of over 180 miles. The colossal blocks of sarsen, weighing up to fifty tons apiece, had to be transported from the Marlborough Downs, a distance of about 11 eighteen miles. Of no less a wonder than the immense task of trans­ porting and raising the structures is the dressing of the hard rocks, using only stone mauls, to shapes that possess such unique visual power.

With the aid of carefully selected photographs of the monu­ ment this thesis attempts to embody the visual force of Stonehenge in words. The following assertions are neither in lieu of nor intended as verifiable facts; they are statements without claims to understand­ ing; they are visually stimulated and conditioned contemplations of obvious truths and seeming paradoxes; they are meant as preparations for action.

12 PART II meaning

conceptions of man synthesized in active structures of cosmic rhythms unadulterated formative forces expanding the vistas of emotional discourse convictions transformed into actions attitudes and inward visions hewn in harmonic forms and spaces conceived in the circular expanse of barren horizons rebelling against random nature symbol of cohesion heralded staunch mark of its epoch bearing meanings extracted from life affirming im plicit spiritual liberation in sky-orientated forms of living faith

15 s a vage yet refined

sculptured forms and spaces ritualized patterns of formative compulsions harmonies of energy and life visioned in bare expressions of inaudible forces pagan projects and purpose born of brute conflicts instilled in stone reaching for perfection in irrational forms of visual refinements brutish masses transformed by sensitized hands savage traits vitalized in gratifying fulness of action

17 traditional yet original

transmuted forms and spaces living in paradoxical reality of visual tensions anchored in hard-won clarity of tradition stabilized impregnated feeling into the es sentialities of nature augmenting the sensibilities of man emotions absorbed in will and thought open-minded to the undetermined evolving the road for revelation transcending ingenuity modifying mode of knowing ruthlessly beyond measure in forms of wood labored in stone

19

assertive yet frail

conceived forms and spaces bearing assertions of man's striving spirit for ces rebutting painful frustrations dominating fate affirming fulfillment in trust that soars beyond the power of reason lofty harmonies of human existence hewn in crumbling matter gnawed and weathered windswept masses destined for destruction in nature's metamorphic convulsions

21 heavy yet unstrained

harmonic forms and spaces inciting emotions of visually controlled realms sculptural paradox of ordered forces thrusting skyward rooted in earth arrested only in appearance pregnant for m s in stone adhering in harmonic fusion of opposites assertive in mass and .meaning sustained by proportions arousing man I s exuberance in nature invoking feelings of reconcilement with life's antinomies in the supramundane world of emotion

23 spontaneous yet slow in birth

intentions of man impelled by active moments of formative forces conceived in boldness sanctioned in birth by perception finding inner consum mation in pinnacled for m s of climax sustained will against random nature spirit-obsessed impulse of expression transcending the laws of organic survival forms of faith-inspired matter-of- factness belie ritual births measured and slow in irrational spontaneity of conception mastered by the whole of experience skilled intentions exist in sculptured matter

25 spiritual yet earthy

incorporeal powers ·of man infused .into earthborn masses embodied purpose and eroding structure billowing forms and surging spaces merging in rhythmic corrosion feelings of ultimate truths aroused by visual contemplations birth and death destruction growth manifest in defiant dignity of for med matter pulsating forces of faith naive uncritical profound abide in spiritualized nature

27 convincing yet .mute

experiences of man ritualized in tr ue for m s of living faith molded by innate powers of expression consummated crystallized in m ute articulation meanings couched in silent union of opposites manifesting man I s throbbing tensions of life denouncing annihilation transubstantiated masses sustain awareness of eternal existence in majestic silence

29 direct yet com plex

images of man immured in pure forms of true conception trans muted visions ingrained in spiritualized nature mind and matter merging in natural rhythm of fulfillment direct toil thought emotion wrought in stone earth-bound masses once unemblemished embrace meanings beyond the senses

31 intimate yet domineering

living forms and spaces impassioned substances of formative powers engrossed energies of indomitable wills manifest in spirit-possessed matter forms commanding finite spaces in formidable ceremonial ascendancy relentles s incarnated tension-filled expanses of visual forces in precise sculptural articulation effect an inmost conciliation with life in independent spiritual reality energies of forms and spaces merge in cos mic em ulation

33 revealing yet mysterious

simple forms and spaces arouse sensations of ultimate struggles invoking awareness of life's entries and departures inciting mysteries that hold a sens e of eternal magic .man-made enclosure allowing glimpses of barren horizons through spaces framed by forms in harmonic fusion of opposites affirming man's realness in nature finding meanings in foreboding expectations simple forms and spaces painfully shaped by heroic toil enframing the vision conditioning the mind yielding answers to the incommunicable extending avenues of emotional discourse non-symbolically

35 unique yet universal

ideals of man proclaimed intentions of high purpose battles of universal aspirations expressed in shapes of unique conceptions altering the sensibilities of man raising the spirit in awe forms of stability and change trans cending the sanctity of tradition gauging the cosmos enshrining the heritage of man in persevering boldness

37 intuitive yet measured

experiences of man shaped by active moments of intuitive insight conditioned by eye anchored by wisdom expressed by labor in stone richly developed awareness of basic forms reaching beyond barriers of understanding trustful of innate vitality and action void of consciousness of purpose answering the call of creation irrational perseverance of the giver of forms mindful lucid non- sentim ental reaffirms man's creative role and meaning

39

". mind yet matter

perceptions of man idealized in forms torn out of context arousing hidden human attributes bearing meanings trans cending intents reaching for perfe ction in unparalleled images of stone touched by the force of formative powers matter yields to mind in deceptive surrender devouring never to concede transfigured stone s replenish the spirit intensifying the mysteries of FORM

41

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkinson, R. J. C. TlNeolithic Engineering. TI Antiquity, XXXV (Dec., 1961), 192-199.

----, R. J. C. Stonehenge. London: Penguin Books, 1960. ______, R. J. C. Stonehenge and Avebury. London: Her MajestyTs Stationery Office, 1959.

Bauham, R. TlOld Number One. TI New Statesman, Vol. 64, (Aug. 3, 1962), pp. 152+.

Burrow, ED. J. Stonehenge, Past and Present. London: ED. J. Burrow and Co., LTD., 1941.

Crawford, O. G. S. TIThe Symbols carved on Stonehenge. TI Antiquity, XXVIII (1954), 25-31. Daniel, Glyn. TlEditorial. TI Antiquity, x.xx:v (Sept., 1961), 171-175. Gowland, W. TlRecent Excavations at Stonehenge. TI Archaeologia, LVIII (London, 1902), 38-119.

Hawkins, Gerald S. TlStonehenge Decoded. TI Nature, Vol. 200, (Oct. 26, 1963), pp. 306-308.

Newall, R. S. TlStonehenge. TT Antiquity, III (1929), 75-88.

, R. S. Stonehenge. London: Her MajestyTs Stationery Office, ----1959.

Piggott, S. TIRe cent Work at Stonehenge. TI Antiquity, XXVIII (1954), 221-4. Stevens, Frank. TlStonehenge : Today and Yesterday.!! The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, (1941), 447-478.

Stone, J. F. S. Wessex. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1958.

Trotter, A. P. TlStonehenge as an Astronomical Instrument. TI Antiquity, I (Mar., 1927), 42-53.

43 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Johann Kristjan Eyfells was born June 21, 1923, at Reykjavik,

Iceland. In the year 1941, he was graduated from the Commercial College of Iceland. Mr. Eyfells did undergraduate studies in art and archi­ tecture at the University of California, Berkeley, and the California

College of Arts and Crafts. In June, 1953, he received the degree of

Bachelor of Architecture from the University of Florida. After graduation, Mr. Eyfells worked as an architectural draftsman, designer and professional illustrator, as well as on various jobs in the build­ ing industry. During this period, he continued his life-long work in the graphic arts.

In September, 1960, Mr. Eyfells resumed his studies at the

University of Florida, first in the field of architecture, but later transferred his major into the field of fine arts. He worked as a teaching assistant in the Department of Art from September, 1962 until

June, 1963. In the year 1961, Mr. Eyfells took time out from his studies to prepare and present a one-man show of drawings, paintings and sculpture in Reykjavik, Iceland. In February, 1962, ten of his sculpture pieces were selected by the Icelandic government to represent him in the Icelandic

Art Exhibition, in the new Louisiana Museum, Denmark.

Mr. Eyfells has been active in the field of art in Florida. He was awarded the second prize for sculpture in the All Florida Sculpture

Show in Miami, Florida, in 1963. He has participated in several group 44 exhibitions, and in February, 1964, he presented a one-man exhibition of his sculptures in the North Wing Gallery, University of Florida.

Johann K. Eyfells is married to the former Kristin Halldorsdottir, also a native of Iceland.

45 This thesis was prepared under the directlon of the chairman

of the candidate1s supervisory committee and has been approved by all members of that committee. It was submitted to the Dean of the

College of Architecture and Fine Arts and to the Graduate Council, and was approved as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Fine Arts.

April, 1964

Dean, College of Architecture and Fine Arts

Dean, Graduate School

Supervisory Committee: