STONEHENGE: ITS VISUAL FORCE By JOHANN KRISTJAN EYFELLS A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GIV.DUATE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF FINE ARTS UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA April, 1964 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I should like to extend my sincere thanks to Professor E. E. Grissom, Head, Department of Art, for his encouraging support given to me, particularly during the early stages of my somewhat unconventional approach to the chosen subject matter. I am greatly indebted to Professor J. G. Naylor for the excellent photographs, which he took of Stonehenge, while on a visit to his native country, England, last summer. His many helpful suggestions, and his part in supplying the photographic material presented in this thesis were invaluable . Thanks are due to Professors K. A. Kerslake and W. A. Carter for their suggestions and criticisms given as members of the super­ visory committee. Finally, I should like to thank my wife, Kristin, without whose help and encouragement this work would certainly have been more difficult. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT •••••....•............•..•..•.........••.... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS .•..••.....•............•.... ~ . • . • . iii PART I •.••••••.•.•..............•..•••••.•...•............. 1 Introduction •••••.••..••.••.••••••••••.•••...•....••.• 2 PART II 13 meaning ......................................... 15 savage yet refined ••....•••••...•...•••..••.•.••. 17 tradi tional yet original •••••••..••..••••.•...•.. 19 assertive yet frail ••.••••.•.•.•••.•..•.......... 21 heavy yet unstrained .••..••.•••.•.•••.•.......•.• 23 spontaneous yet slow in birth ..•...••...••••...•• 25 spiritual yet earthy 27 convincing yet mute .•..••..•••.••.•...•..•.•..•.. 29 direct yet complex ••.•••...•..•...•.....•..•..••• 31 intimate yet domineering 33 revealing yet mysterious 35 unique yet universal ............................ 37 intui ti ve yet measured •.....•....•.........•...•. 39 mind yet matter •..••••••.•••.•.•.......•...•••... 41 BIBLIOGRAPHY 43 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ..•.................•....•.............. 44 iii PART I Introduction The fundamental drives of a people often find vital outlets in the fields of visual expression. These forces become the main~ springs of the labors of craftsmen in search for forms expressive of both the implicit and explicit values of their culture. A mature image, which is executed within the coherent frame­ work of a living spiritual view of existence, invariably shows an indissoluble union of energies, forms and meaning. Stonehenge, in the county of Wiltshire, England, is such a visual image. It exists as a magnificient example of the fulfill­ ment of human conception and purpose. It is a powerful sculptural statement embracing fundamental characteristics of man in nature. Although our reactions to the impact of this ancient monu­ ment are conditioned by time and place, we need not share the con­ victions of these builders in order to derive inspiration from their mental and physical achievement. Their outstanding t echnical feat and superb sculptural refinement stand as symbols of an even greater spiritual and inner strength. Milestones like these in the long evolution of manls indomitable spirit carry answers for today. Monu­ ments of the past shape the future; they are part of the common heritage of all men. 2 The purpose of this thesis is not to propound new theories nor to discover new facts, but rather to intensify our awareness and appreciation of the mysteries of living images of visual expression, of which we are heirs. It has been rightly said that Stonehenge, the most famous prehistoric antiquity of England, suffers from TIthe disadvantage of a reputation!!. Mr. Frank Stevens, Director ot the Salisbury Mus eum, stated in his article, Stonehenge: Today and Yesterday, that TlNo prehistoric monument can boast such a bulky bibliography, which runs into thousands of books, pamphlets, and newspaper noticesTl. (Stevens, 1941, 447.) Similarly, the distinguished archaeologist, Mr. R. J. C. Atkinson, says that the inquirer into the history of Stonehenge Tlis faced by a bulk of literature which is positively embarrassing, for no prehistoric monument in Britain, or for that matter in Europe, has been the subject of more speculation and controversyTl. (Atkinson, 1960, 182.) Early theories regarding the origin and purpose of the monument have ranged in quality from quasi-scientific conjectures to fantastic guesses. As late as the latter half of the nineteenth century the !little folk!, the Celts, the Phoenicians, the Druids , the Belgae, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons and even the natives of Atlantis have been hailed as the builders of Stonehenge. Speculations concerning the purpose of the monument have been equally many-sided. During the ages, it has been variously called the work of the devil, a place of human sacrifice, a sun-temple, a ceremonial center of a vast necropolis, a place of great assembly and an astronomical ob­ servatory. Based on new scientific discoveries, speculations con- 3 cerning the monument are of a less spectacular nature. Modern writers generally agree that it was built during the middle of the second millennium B. C. From the contents of the Wessex Culture tombs of this period it may be inferred that the monument was erected by a rich community of mercantile aristocrats trafficking mainly in copper, tin and gold between Ireland and the Continent. However, the controversies about Stonehenge persist. The overwhelming profuSion of theoretical and speculative writings on Stonehenge, briefly referred to above, is, in part, re­ sponsible for the eventual direction taken in this thesis, namely, its chiefly visually oriented approach. As a comprehensive historical survey of this controversial monument is not within the scope of this paper, an attempt will be made to include herein a short descriptive account of the structural arrangement of Stonehenge, and to point out the major features per­ taining to the monument. Stonehenge is situated on a level, slightly elevated ground amidst the undulating, rolling downs of the Salisbury Plain in the south of England. From a distance it seems minute and dejected. The full visual impressiveness of its immense bulk does not assert itself until it is seen entire, silhouetted against the sky. The basic design of Stonehenge is composed of various con­ centric structures, of which the outermost feature is an enclosure of circular earthwork, measuring about 320 feet in diameter, and made up of an outside ditch and a chalk rubble bank. During the course of centuries most of the bank, which once stood about six feet in 4 - - - - o o ~ +'0 o o 5 height, has slipped back into the ditch, from which it was quarried. This circular earthwork was unbroken except at the entrance cause- way, from which the so-called Avenue leads downhill into the valley. The center line of the Avenue coincides approximately with the major axis of the monument, which has long been considered to be aligned on the summer solstice. The significance of this approximate alignment is not known and has been the subject of much speculation. With a particular reference to the difficulties involved in calculating the date of the monument from these alignments, Mr. Atkinson brought out the important fact that we have no me ans of telling what the original builders regarded as 'sunrise'. Was it the first gleam of light; or when the sun's disc was exactly cut in half by the horizon; or when the whole disc was just visible, with the horizon a tangent to its lower margin? The date computed using the first of these positions differs by nearly 4,000 years from that using the last. (Atkinson, 1960, 95-96.) The Avenue is made up of two parallel chalk banks, wh ich lie about forty seven feet apart. Its fine layout, running in a straight line for over 720 yards, is suggestive of a cer emonial use . Within the Avenue, at a distance of about 250 f eet from the center of the monument, stands a single large sarsen stone called the Heel Stone. This huge bolder, standing about sixteen f eet above ground level, is the only unwrought sarsen stone at Stonehenge. Its lozenge form is the commonest shape of natural bolders of sars en, which were formed many millions of years ago on the ocean bed by the solidification of beds of sand. The extreme hardness and dura- bility of these rocks may be appreciated in the fact that to shape 6 their surface it T1 requires from two and a half to three times the effort necessary to produce a comparable result on granitT1 • (Atkinson, 1960, 124.) The Heel StoneTs position, slightly to the right of the center line of the fairway, has long been wrongly thought to mark the point of sunrise on midsummer day as observed from the center of the monument. Nearer to Stonehenge proper in front of the causeway entrance is a large prostrate sarsen stone known as the Slaughter Stone. This large elongated block of sarsen is carefully dressed to shape, its cross-section being approximately a rectangle. The stone is said to have been once upright, and, together with a similar companion, formed an entrance gateway to the enclosure. Within the circular earthwork, and concentric with it, stand the remains of the great outer circle of Stonehenge. This structure, measuring about 100 feet in diameter, consisted originally of thirty hewn sarsen uprights, spaced at equal distances apart, and supporting on their tops a continuous row of lintel stones. Of the surviving uprights, seventeen remain standing today, and only six of the original thirty lintels remain in position. All of these sarsen stones have been dressed to shape and finish. The uprights stand about thirteen and a half feet above ground level, with an average width of seven feet and a thickness of three to four feet, with an upward taper. The sides of some of the stones are dressed to convexly curved shapes of great sculptural r e­ finement. This skill in dressing the stones is carried to a unique 7 perfection on the lintels, which are cut to a curve to fit the cir­ cumference of the circle. Each of the thirty uprights had two tenons which fitted into corresponding mortices in the lintels with which they were capped.