Tuesday, July 7, 2009

Part IV

Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Rule to List Five Foreign Bird Species in Colombia and Ecuador, South America, Under the Endangered Species Act; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800- the list of endangered or threatened 877-8339. species has presented substantial Fish and Wildlife Service SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: information indicating that the requested action may be warranted. To 50 CFR Part 17 Public Comments the maximum extent practicable, the [FWS-R9-IA-2009-12; 96100-1671-9FLS–B6] We intend that any final action finding shall be made within 90 days resulting from this proposal will be as following receipt of the petition and RIN 1018–AV75 accurate and as effective as possible. published promptly in the Federal Therefore, we request comments or Register. If we find that the petition has Endangered and Threatened Wildlife suggestions on this proposed rule. We presented substantial information and Plants; Proposed Rule to List Five are particularly seek comments indicating that the requested action may Foreign Bird Species in Colombia and concerning: be warranted (a positive finding), Ecuador, South America, under the (1) Biological, commercial trade, or section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires us Endangered Species Act other relevant data concerning any to commence a status review of the AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, threats (or lack thereof) to these species species if one has not already been Interior. and regulations that may be addressing initiated under our internal candidate assessment process. In addition, section ACTION: Proposed rule. those threats. (2) Additional information concerning 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires us to make SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and the taxonomy, range, distribution, and a finding within 12 months following Wildlife Service (Service), propose to population size of these species, receipt of the petition on whether the list as endangered four species of birds including the locations of any requested action is warranted, not from Colombia — the blue-billed additional populations of these species. warranted, or warranted but precluded curassow (Crax alberti), the brown- (3) Any information on the biological by higher-priority listing actions (this banded antpitta (Grallaria milleri), the or ecological requirements of these finding is referred to as the ‘‘12–month Cauca guan (Penelope perspicax), and species. finding’’). Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act the gorgeted wood-quail (Odontophorus (4) Current or planned activities in the requires that a finding of warranted but strophium) — and one bird species from areas occupied by these species and precluded for petitioned species should Ecuador — the Esmeraldas woodstar possible impacts of these activities on be treated as having been resubmitted (Chaetocercus berlepschi) — as these species. on the date of the warranted-but- endangered under the Endangered (5) Any information concerning the precluded finding, and is, therefore, Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act) effects of climate change on these subject to a new finding within 1 year (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). This proposal, species or their habitats. and subsequently thereafter until we if made final, would extend the Act’s You may submit your comments and publish a proposal to list or a finding protection to these species. The Service materials concerning this proposed rule that the petitioned action is not seeks data and comments from the by one of the methods listed in the warranted. The Service publishes an public on this proposed rule. ADDRESSES section. We will not annual notice of resubmitted petition consider comments sent by e-mail or fax findings (annual notice) for all foreign DATES: We will accept comments or to an address not listed in the received or postmarked on or before species for which listings were ADDRESSES section. previously found to be warranted but September 8, 2009. We must receive If you submit a comment via http:// precluded. requests for public hearings, in writing, www.regulations.gov, your entire at the address shown in the ADDRESSES comment—including any personal Previous Federal Action section by August 21, 2009. identifying information—will be posted On November 24, 1980, we received ADDRESSES: You may submit comments on the website. If you submit a a petition (1980 petition) from Dr. by one of the following methods: hardcopy comment that includes Warren B. King, Chairman of the • Federal eRulemaking Portal: http:// personal identifying information, you International Council for Bird www.regulations.gov. Follow the may request at the top of your document Preservation (ICBP), to add 60 foreign instructions for submitting comments. bird species to the list of Threatened • that we withhold this information from U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public public review. However, we cannot and Endangered Wildlife (50 CFR Comments Processing, Attn: RIN 1018- guarantee that we will be able to do so. 17.11(h)), including two species from AV75; Division of Policy and Directives We will post all hardcopy comments on Colombia (the Cauca guan and the Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife http://www.regulations.gov. gorgeted wood-quail) that are the subject Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite Comments and materials we receive, of this proposed rule. In response to the 222; Arlington, VA 22203. as well as supporting documentation we 1980 petition, we published a positive We will post all comments on http:// used in preparing this proposed rule, 90–day finding on May 12, 1981 (46 FR www.regulations.gov . This generally will be available for public inspection 26464), to initiate a status review for 58 means that we will post any personal on http://www.regulations.gov , or by foreign species, noting that 2 of the information you provide us (see the appointment, during normal business species identified in the petition were Public Comments section below for hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife already listed under the Act. On January more information). Service, Endangered Species Program, 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485), we published a FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, 12–month finding within an annual Douglas Krofta, Chief, Branch of Listing, Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703- review on pending petitions and Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish 358-2171. description of progress on all species and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax petition findings addressed therein. In Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; Background that notice, we found that all 58 foreign telephone 703-358-2105; facsimile 703- Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires bird species from the 1980 petition were 358-1735. If you use a us to make a finding (known as a ‘‘90– warranted but precluded by higher- telecommunications device for the deaf day finding’’) on whether a petition to priority listing actions. On May 10, (TDD), you may call the Federal add, remove, or reclassify a species from 1985, we published the first annual

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notice (50 FR 19761), in which we on April 23, 2007. In that notice, the five listing factors to determine whether continued to find that listing all 58 five species included in this proposed they met the definition of endangered or foreign bird species from the 1980 rule were designated with an LPN of 2, threatened. petition was warranted but precluded. and it was determined that their listing Below is a species-by-species analysis In our next annual notice, published on continued to be warranted but of these five factors using the best January 9, 1986 (51 FR 996), we found precluded because of other listing available scientific and commercial that listing 54 species from the 1980 activity. A listing priority of 2 indicates information to determine whether the petition, including the two Colombian that the subject species face imminent species meet the definition of species mentioned above, continued to threats of high magnitude. With the endangered or threatened. The species be warranted but precluded, whereas exception of LPN 1, which addresses are considered in alphabetical order, new information caused us to find that monotypic genera that face imminent beginning with the Colombian species: listing four other species in the 1980 threats of high magnitude, category 2 blue-billed curassow, brown-banded petition was no longer warranted. We represents the Service’s highest priority. antpitta, Cauca guan, gorgeted wood- published additional annual notices on On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we quail, and followed by the Ecuadorian the remaining 54 species included in published in the Federal Register a species: the Esmeraldas woodstar. the 1980 petition on July 7, 1988 (53 FR notice announcing our annual petition Colombian Bird Species 25511); December 29, 1988 (53 FR findings for foreign species (2008 52746); and November 21, 1991 (56 FR ANOR). In that notice, we announced I. Blue-Billed Curassow (Crax alberti) 58664), in which we indicated that the that listing was warranted for 30 foreign Species Description Cauca guan and the gorgeted wood- bird species, including the five species quail, along with the remaining species that are the subject of this proposed The blue-billed curassow, endemic to in the 1980 petition, continued to be rule. The five species were selected Colombia, is a large (82-92 centimeters warranted but precluded. from the list of warranted-but-precluded (cm) (32-36 inches (in)), tree-dwelling On May 6, 1991, we received a species because of their LPN, their member of the Cracid family (Cracidae) petition (1991 petition) from Alison similarity of habitat, and the similarity (Collar et al. 1992, p. 154; del Hoyo Stattersfield, of ICBP, to add 53 species of threats to these species. Combining 1994, p. 361; Salaman et al. 2001, p. of foreign birds to the list of Endangered species that face similar threats within 183). The species is locally known as and Threatened Wildlife, including the the same general geographic area into ‘‘Paujı´l de pico azul’’ or ‘‘Pavo´ n blue-billed curassow and the brown- one proposed rule allows us to Colombiano’’ and is also referred to in banded antpitta, from Colombia, and maximize our limited staff resources, English as the blue-knobbed curassow Esmeraldas woodstar, from Ecuador. In thus increasing our ability to complete (Cuervo 2002, p. 138; United Nations response to the 1991 petition, we the listing process for warranted-but- Environment Programme – World published a positive 90–day finding on precluded species. Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP- December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all WCMC) 2008c, p. 1). In older literature, Species Information and Factors 53 species and announced the initiation the species is referred to as Prince Affecting the Species of a status review. On March 28, 1994 Albert’s curassow (Throp 1964, p. 124). (59 FR 14496), we published a 12– Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), The blue-billed curassow is described as month finding on the 1991 petition, and its implementing regulations at 50 mainly black with blue at the base of its along with a proposed rule to list 30 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures bill. The male has a white-plumaged African birds under the Act (15 each for adding species to the Federal Lists crissum (the area under the tail), from the 1980 petition and 1991 of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife whereas the female has a black and petition). In that document, we and Plants. A species may be white crest and black and white barring announced our finding that listing the determined to be an endangered or on her wings (BirdLife International remaining 38 species from the 1991 threatened species due to one or more (BLI) 2007d, p. 1; Throp 1964, p. 124). petition, including the blue-billed of the five factors described in section curassow and the brown-banded 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five factors are: Taxonomy antpitta, from Colombia, and (A) the present or threatened The species was first taxonomically Esmeraldas woodstar, from Ecuador, destruction, modification, or described by Fraser in 1852 and placed was warranted but precluded by higher- curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) in the family Cracidae. overutilization for commercial, priority listing actions. On January 12, Habitat and Life History 1995 (60 FR 2899), we reiterated the recreational, scientific, or educational warranted-but-precluded status of the purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) Blue-billed curassows prefer remaining species from the 1991 the inadequacy of existing regulatory undisturbed, heterogeneous primary petition. We made subsequent mechanisms; and (E) other natural or forests in the humid lowlands of the warranted but precluded findings for all manmade factors affecting its continued Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta outstanding foreign species from the existence. Mountains at elevations up to 1,200 1980 and 1991 petitions, including all Under the Act, we may determine a meters (m) (3,937 feet (ft)) (Collar et al. five of the Colombian and Ecuadorian species to be endangered or threatened. 1992, p. 154; del Hoyo 1994, p. 361; bird species that are the subject of this An endangered species is defined as a Salaman et al. 2001, p. 183). The blue- proposed rule, as published in our species that is in danger of extinction billed curassow requires a large home annual notices of review (ANOR) on throughout all or a significant portion of range of primary tropical forest (Cuervo May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354), and April its range. A threatened species is 2002, pp. 138-140). The species will 23, 2007 (72 FR 20184). defined as a species that is likely to rarely cross narrow deforested corridors, Per the Service’s listing priority become an endangered species within such as those caused by roads or oil guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR the foreseeable future throughout all or pipelines, and will not cross large open 43098), we identified the listing priority a significant portion of its range. areas between forest fragments (Cuervo numbers (LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) Therefore, we evaluated the best and Salaman 1999, p. 7). The species is for all outstanding foreign species in our available scientific and commercial described as being trusting of humans 2007 ANOR (72 FR 20184), published information on each species under the (del Hoyo 1994, p. 336).

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This terrestrial bird feeds mostly on Hoyo 1994, p. 361). However, a series of Population Estimates fruit and leaves, and sometimes feeds reported observations made in 1993 upon worms and carrion. It plays an were confirmed in the year 2000 There is little information on important role in dispersing seeds and (Cuervo 2002, pp. 136-137). population numbers for the various regenerating tropical forests (BLI 2007d, reported locations of the species, and p. 1; Brooks 2006, p. 17; Brooks and Current Range and Distribution political instability within the country makes it difficult to know the exact Strahl 2000, pp. 5-8; Cuervo and The current range of the blue-billed Salaman 1999, p. 8). curassow is estimated to be a 2,090-km2 population size of this species (Houston Cracids are also slow to reproduce, (807-mi2) area (BLI 2007d, p. 2) of Zoo 2008). In 2002, Cuervo (2002, p. with a replacement rate of at least 6 fragmented, disjunct, and isolated 141) considered the Serranı´a de las years (Silva and Strahl 1991, p. 50). tropical moist and humid lowlands and Quinchas and Serranı´a de San Lucas Curassows reach sexual maturity in premontane forested foothills in the Rı´o populations to be the stronghold of the their second year (Throp 1964, p. 130). species. However, surveys in 2003 led Blue-billed curassows form Magdalena and lower Cauca Valleys of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta researchers to believe that Serranı´a de monogamous pairs that share las Quinchas serves as the species’ responsibilities for young (Cuervo and Mountains. The species may be found at stronghold (BLI 2007d, pp. 2, 5-6). In Salaman 1999, p. 9; Todd et al. 2008). elevations up to 1,200 m (3,937 ft) 2003, the population at Serranı´a de las The breeding season begins in December (Collar et al. 1992, p. 154; Cuervo and ´ and goes through March (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del Hoyo 1994, p. Quinchas (Boyaca Department) location Salaman 1999, p. 8). During the mating 361; Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 29; was estimated to be between 250 and season, the male blue-billed curassows Salaman et al. 2001, p. 183), but it is 1,000 birds. The only other information makes ‘‘booming’’ calls that can be more commonly found below 600 m on the subpopulation level is a report heard 500 m (0.31 mi) away (Ochoa- (del Hoyo 1994, p. 361). Little from Strewe and Navarro (2003, p. 32), Quintero et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44). Large information is available on the size of based on field studies conducted nests made of sticks and leaves are built the forest fragments in which the between 2000 and 2001, that hunting in dense lianas (woody vines) (Cuervo species has been observed. However, had nearly extirpated the blue-billed and Salaman 1999, p. 8). The typical researchers conducting fieldwork in the curassow from a site in San Salvador (La blue-billed curassow clutch size is 1-2 Department of Antioquı´a in 1999 and Guijara) (Factor B). 2001 noted that the patch sizes varied large white eggs, which is a low clutch Using the International Union for from 3 km2 (1.2 mi2) to 10 km2 (3.9 mi2) size relative to other Galliformes (del Conservation of Nature and Natural in size (Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005, p. Hoyo 1994, p. 336; Throp 1964, p. 130), Resources (IUCN) categories, the blue- and young are hatched in July after an 46). billed curassow population was approximately 29–day incubation In 1993, sightings were reported in period (del Hoyo 1994, p. 361; Hilty and estimated according to IUCN criteria to the northern Departments of Co´rdoba (at be more than 1,000 but fewer than 2,500 Brown 1986, p. 129; Throp 1964, p. La Terretera, near Alto Sinu´ ) and 131). In captivity, curassows are long- in 1994 (BLI 2007d, p. 2). In 2001, Bolı´var (in the Serranı´a de San Jacinto Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia (2001, p. lived species (Todd et al. 2008, p.7). (San Jacinto Mountains)) (Williams, in Throp (1964, p. 132) recorded a blue- 184) estimated the total population to be litt., as cited in BLI 2007d, p. 2). much fewer than 2,000 individuals. In billed curassow still laying eggs at 20 Additional observations were made in 2002, it was estimated that the species years of age. However, in the wild, one the northernmost Department of La had lost 88 percent of its habitat and generation is considered to be 10 years Guajira in 2003 (in the Valle de San (Cuervo 2002, p. 141). half of its population within the last Salvador Valley) (Strewe and Navarro three generations, or 30 years (Cuervo Historical Range and Distribution 2003, p. 32). More recently, individuals 2002, p. 141). Local reports indicate an The blue-billed curassow historically have been observed in the tropical forests of the central Departments of overall declining trend characterized by occurred in northern Colombia, from the recent rapid declines of all base of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Antioquı´a (on the slopes of the Serranı´a de San Lucas and Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ subpopulations (BLI 2007d, p. 1; Cuervo Marta (in the northern Departments of 2002, p. 138; Strahl et al. 1995, p.25). Magdalena La Guijaira, and Cesar), west Regional Reserve area), the Departments For further information on population to the Sinu´ valley (Department of of Santander and Boyaca´ (on the slopes size, see Factor E, below. Co´rdoba), through the Rı´o Magdalena of the Serranı´a de las Quinchas), and in (through the Departments (from south to the southeastern Department of Cauca Conservation Status north) of Huila, Tolima, Caldas, (in northeastern and lower Cauca Antioquia, Santander, Bolivar, Valley) (BLI 2007d, p. 2; Cuervo 2002, The blue-billed curassow is identified Magdalena, and La Guajira) (BLI 2007a, pp. 135-138; Donegan and Huertas 2005, as a critically endangered species under p. 1; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del p. 29; Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005, p. 43- Colombian law (EcoLex 2002, p. 12). Hoyo 1994, p. 361). The species’ historic 4; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). Experts The species is considered one of the range encompassed an area of consider the most important refuges for most threatened cracids by the IUCN approximately 106,700 square this species to be: (1) Serranı´a de San Cracid Specialist Group. The species is kilometers (km2) (41,197 square miles Lucas (Antioquı´a); (2) Paramillo categorized by the IUCN as ‘Critically (mi2)) (Cuervo 2002, p. 141). There were National Park (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Endangered,’ with habitat loss as a no confirmed observations of blue-billed Departments); (3) Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ primary threat (BLI 2004b, p. 1; Cuervo curassows between 1978 and 1997 Regional Reserve (Antioquı´a and 2002, p. 141; del Hoyo 1994 p. 340; (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. Co´rdoba Departments); and, (4) Serranı´a Strahl et al. 1995, pp. 4-5; Uruen˜ a et al. 183), and surveys conducted in 1998 de las Quinchas Bird Reserve 2006, pp. 41-2). failed to locate any males (BLI 2007d, p. (Santander and Boyaca´ Departments) 3) (as detailed under Factor B, below), (BLI 2007d, p. 3; Cuervo 2002, p. 139). prompting researchers to believe the These refugia are discussed under species to be extinct in the wild (del Factor A, below.

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Summary of Factors Affecting the Blue- area increased from approximately (Melo and Ochoa 2004, as cited in Billed Curassow 50,000 to over 250,000 people during Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). In Serranı´a A. The Present or Threatened the 23–year period (Perz et al. 2005, pp. de las Quinchas, the economy is based Destruction, Modification, or 26-28). A similar phenomenon occurred principally on timber extraction, Curtailment of the Habitat or Range in the Rı´o Magdalena Valley, which agriculture, and cattle ranching (Uruen˜ a coincides with the species’ historic and Quevedo unpubl. data 2004, as The blue-billed curassow prefers range as well as its disjunct and cited in Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 47). These undisturbed, heterogeneous forests and restricted current range. The Rı´o activities contribute to further habitat is rarely found in secondary or even Magdalena runs from south to north fragmentation and reduction. In terms of slightly disturbed forests (Cuervo and approximately 1,540 km (950 mi) habitat destruction, an influx of settlers Salaman 1999, p. 7). The blue-billed through western Colombia and served as displaced from the Departments of curassow occur today in several disjunct the main waterway connecting coffee Antioquia, Tolima, and Cundinamarca, locations along a much-restricted part of (Coffea spp.) plantations to the ports on due to violence and public disorder in its historic distribution (Brooks and the Western Colombian coast in the these Departments, are the principal Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. 183; Collar et 1920s, when the river was reportedly threat to the mountainous regions in al. 1992, pp. 61-62; Cuervo and Salaman plagued by occasional droughts and these Departments (Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, 1999, p. 7). Researchers note that the erosion. In the 1930s, a railway was p. 42). blue-billed curassow requires large completed along much of the Rı´o The decline in blue-billed curassow territories, but there is little information Magdalena Valley; this infrastructural population numbers (see Population as to the actual size of the remaining improvement contributed to a growth in estimates, above) is inextricably linked forest fragments (Cuervo and Salaman several industries, including coffee to habitat loss. The blue-billed curassow 1999, p. 7). In 1999 and 2001, (throughout the Rı´o Magdalena valley), became increasingly rare during the researchers conducting fieldwork in the bananas (Musa spp.) (Magdalena 20th Century, as much of the lower- Department of Antioquia´ noted that the Department), and oil fields (Santander elevation forests in their historic range patch sizes in which the species were Department) (Ocampo and Botero 2000, of the Rı´o Magdalena and Rı´o Cauca observed or heard varied from 3 km2 pp. 76-78). Deforestation and habitat Valleys were deforested, forcing the (1.2 mi2) to 10 km2 (3.9 mi2) in size loss throughout the lowland forests blue-billed curassow to move to higher (Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005, p. 46). across northern Colombia over the past elevations (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, Since the 1990s, the species has been p. 8). By the 1980s, the species had observed in the Departments of Co´rdoba 100 years contributed to the increasing rarity of the species, and extirpated the disappeared from a large portion of its (at La Terretera, near Alto Sinu´ , 1993) previous range (Collar et al. 1992, pp. and Bolı´var (in the Serranı´a de San species from a large portion of its previous range by the 1980s (Brooks and 61-62), which historically encompassed Jacinto, 1993) (Williams in litt., as cited 2 2 Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. 183; Collar et approximately 106,700 km (41,197 mi ) in BLI 2007d, p. 2); La Guajira (in the (Cuervo 2002, p. 141). In 2002, it was Valle de San Salvador Valley, 2003) al. 1992, pp. 61-62; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7). estimated that, within the three prior (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32); generations (30 years), the species had Antioquı´a (on the slopes of the Serranı´a In a similar study specific to the lost 88 percent of its original habitat and de San Lucas and Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ western Andean Amazon area of that the remaining suitable habitat had Regional Reserve area, 1999 and 2001) Colombia (in the Departments of been reduced to 13,300 km2 (5135 m2) (Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005, p. 43-44); Arauca, Casemere, Meta, Vichada, (Cuervo 2002, p. 141). The current range Santander and Boyaca´ (on the slopes of Amazonas, Caqueta´, Guainia, Guaviare, of the blue-billed curassow is estimated the Serranı´a de las Quinchas); and Putumayo, and Vaupe´s), deforestation to be 2,090 km2 (807 mi2) (BLI 2007d, Cauca (in northeastern and lower Cauca between 1980 and 1990 totaled 52,320 p.2) (see also ‘‘Small Population Size,’’ 2 2 Valley) (BLI 2007d, p. 2; Cuervo 2002, km (20,201 mi ) (Perz et al. 2005, pp. Factor E). pp. 135-138; Donegan and Huertas 2005, 26-28). The most recent reports indicate Deforestation and fragmentation p. 29; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). that habitat loss is ongoing and may be caused by human encroachment are Deforestation rates and patterns: accelerating. Between the years 1990 ongoing throughout the blue-billed Primary forest habitats throughout and 2005, Colombia lost a total of 7,920 curassow’s range, including: Antioquı´a Colombia have undergone extensive km2 (3,058 mi2) of primary forest (Butler (on the slopes of the Serranı´a de San deforestation. Vin˜ a et al. (2004, pp. 123- 2006a, pp. 1-3; Food and Agriculture Lucas and Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ Regional 124) used satellite imagery to analyze Organization of the United Nations Reserve area); Santander and Boyaca´ deforestation rates and patterns along (FAO) 2003a, p. 1). Researchers have Departments (on the slopes of the the Colombian-Ecuadorian Border (in observed that road building and other Serranı´a de las Quinchas); and in the the Departments of Putumayo and infrastructure improvements in southeastern Department of Cauca (in Sucumbios, respectively), finding that, previously remote forested areas have northeastern and lower Cauca Valley), from 1973 to 1996, a total of 829 km2 increased accessibility and facilitated where timber extraction and mining (320 mi2) of tropical forests within the further habitat destruction, exploitation, continue (Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). study area were converted to other uses. and human settlement (A´ lvarez 2005, p. Human activities that are contributing to This corresponds to a nearly one-third 2042; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Becerra habitat loss include: forest clearing for total loss of primary forest habitat, or a 2004, pp. 125-130; Etter et al. 2006, p. subsistence agriculture, cash crops nearly 2 percent mean annual rate of 1; Hunter 1996, p. 158-159; Vin˜ a et al. (such as coffee), and grazing (A´ lvarez deforestation within the study area. 2004, pp. 118-119). In Antioquia, cattle 2005, p. 2042; BLI 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas During the study, the area within ranches are extensive in areas where the and Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, p. 355; Colombia experienced a three-times- blue-billed curassow occurs; cattle Oldham and Massey 2002, pp. 9-12; larger annual rate of loss than that in ranching is considered a less labor- Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42); habitat Ecuador, due to more intense pressures intensive land use, meaning that more alteration, human population from human colonization and illegal people need to turn to alternative displacement, and hunting as a result of crop cultivation (Vin˜ a et al. 2004, p. sources of income generation, such as armed conflict (A´ lvarez 2001, p. 305; 124). The human population within the cultivation or extractive industries A´ lvarez 2003, pp. 51-52); habitat

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destruction and alteration as a result of over more than 1,300 km2 (502 mi2) loss of habitat heterogeneity; habitat fire (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2041; Moreno et annually, peaking in 2004, when 1,360 heterogeneity is a characteristic al. 2006, p. 1); habitat loss for dams and km2 (525 mi2) of illicit crops were preferred by the blue-billed curassow reservoir development (Cuervo 2002, p. sprayed (UNODC and the Government (see Habitat and Life History, above) 139; Kreger 2005, pp.5-6); illicit crop of Colombia (GOC) 2005, p. 11). In 2006, (Kattan and A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 6). cultivation (such as the coca plant eradication efforts were undertaken on Local reports indicate an overall (Erythroxylum coca)) (A´ lvarez 2001, pp. over 2,130 km2 (822 mi2) of land, which declining trend characterized by recent 1086-1087; A´ lvarez 2007, pp. 133-135; included sraying of 1,720 km2 (664 mi2) rapid declines of all the populations of Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, and manual eradication on the blue-billed curassows (BLI 2007d, p. 1; p. 355; Oldham and Massey 2002, pp. 9- remaining land. Eradication efforts Cuervo 2002, p. 138; Strahl et al. 1995, 12); gold mining activities (Cuervo 2002, undertaken in 2006 occurred over an p. 25). Moreover, the ability of the blue- p. 139); habitat pollution due to oil area 2.7 times greater than the net billed curassow to repopulate an development and distribution (A´ lvarez cultivation area (UNODC et al. 2007, p. isolated patch of suitable habitat 2005, p. 2041; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez 8). Drug eradication efforts in Colombia following decline or extirpation is Becerra 2004, p. 355); and increased have further degraded and destroyed highly unlikely due to the species’ small access and habitat destruction resulting primary forest habitat by using overall population size, its tendency to from road development (Cuervo 2002, nonspecific aerial herbicides to destroy avoid degraded habitats, and the large pp. 139-140). Roads create barriers to illegal crops (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; BLI distances between the remaining animal movements, expose animals to 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez primary forest fragments in addition to traffic hazards, and increase human Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and the species’ reticence to cross large areas access into habitat, thus facilitating Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Herbicide of open habitat (Cuervo and Salaman further exploitation and habitat spraying has introduced harmful 1999, p. 7; Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46). destruction (Hunter 1996, 158-159). chemicals into blue-billed curassow In addition to the direct detrimental Local human populations have recently habitat and has led to further effect of habitat loss, blue-billed settled in forested areas that previously destruction of the habitat by forcing curassows and other cracids are provided habitat for blue-billed illicit growers to move to new, susceptible to indirect effects of habitat curassows. This human settlement is previously untouched forested areas disturbance and fragmentation (Brooks accelerating habitat loss and (A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1088-1093; A´ lvarez and Strahl 2000, p. 10; Silva and Strahl fragmentation with only 5 percent of the 2005, p. 2042; A´ lvarez 2007, pp. 133- 1991, p. 38). A study conducted in species’ restricted range now covered by 143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and northwestern Colombia suggests that forest (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham habitat destruction and fragmentation 2001, pp. 183-184), and is leaving only and Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Between may increase a species’ vulnerability to fragmented, disjunct, and isolated 1998 and 2002, cultivation of illicit predation (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan populations in the remaining four or crops increased by 21 percent each year, 1997, pp. 140-142) (Factor C). Habitat five patches of tropical humid and with a concomitant increase in fragmentation, in combination with premontane forests (A´ lvarez 2003, p. 51; deforestation of formerly pristine areas growing numbers of human settlements, Brooks and Strahl 2000, pp. 14-15; of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez has made the species’ habitat more Collar et al. 1994, pp. 61-62; Cuervo and 2002, pp. 1088-1093). accessible and more vulnerable to hunting (Factor B) and predation (Factor Salaman 1999, p. 7; Donegan and Effects of habitat fragmentation: A C). Habitat loss also compounds the Huertas 2005, p. 29). study conducted on the effects of habitat species’ decline in population numbers Illegal drugs and their eradication: fragmentation on Andean birds within (estimated to be between 1,000 and The cultivation of illegal crops western Colombia determined two 2,500 individuals) (BLI 2004b, p. 1) (see (including coca) poses additional threats primary conditions that increased a Factor E, Small population size). to the environment beyond encouraging species’ vulnerability to habitat Refugia: Several areas within the the destruction of montane forests fragmentation and susceptibility to local blue-billed curassow’s current range are (Balslev 1993, p. 3). Van Schoik and extirpation and extinction: (1) species designated as national parks or other Schulberg (1993, p. 21) noted that coca that were located at the upper or lower types of preserves, including Tayrona crop production destroys the soil limit of their altitudinal or geographical and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta quality by causing the soil to become distribution (as is the case for the blue- National Parks (both in Antioquı´a more acidic, which depletes the soil billed curassow, which formerly Department) (Cuervo 2002, p. 140) and nutrients and ultimately impedes the occupied the now-cleared lower the Colorados Sanctuary (Bolı´var regrowth of secondary forests in elevation forests and is relegated to Department), which protects part of the abandoned fields. Although Colombia isolated forest fragments within its Serranı´a de San Jacinto (BLI 2007d, pp. continues to be the leading coca bush current range), and (2) species that were 2-3; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). Experts producer (United Nations Office of large fruit-eating birds with limited consider the most important refuges for Drugs and Crime (UNODC) et al. 2007, distributions and narrow habitat this species, containing the largest p. 7), since 2003, cocaine cultivation has preferences (also traits of the blue-billed remaining areas of suitable habitat, to be remained stable at about 800 km2 (309 curassow) (Kattan and A´ lvarez-Lopez in the following areas (arranged mi2) of land under cultivation (UNODC 1996, pp. 5-6). The study also geographically, from north to south): (1) et al. 2007, p. 8). This stabilization of determined that 31 percent of the Serranı´a de San Lucas, (2) Paramillo production is partially attributed to historical bird populations in western National Park, (3) Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ alternative development projects that Colombia had become extinct or locally Regional Reserve, and (4) El Paujı´l Bird were implemented between 1999 and extirpated by 1990, largely as a result of Reserve (BLI 2007d, p. 3; Cuervo 2002, 2004 to encourage pursuits other than habitat fragmentation from deforestation p. 139-140; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42), illegal crop cultivation (UNODC et al. and human encroachment (Kattan and four of the five locations where the 2007, p. 77). This is also attributed to A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; Kattan et al. species has been observed in the 21st heightened eradication efforts. Between 1994, p. 141). The most direct physical Century (see Current Range, above). The 2002 and 2004, aerial spraying occurred consequence of habitat fragmentation is habitat within these refugia underserves

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the needs of the species for various Urra´ Dam was constructed on the Sinu´ Summary of Factor A reasons (including past and ongoing River between 1993 and 1998; the Sinu´ habitat destruction and incomplete River Valley was part of the blue-billed The blue-billed curassow prefers habitat inclusion), as enumerated below. curassows’ historic range (BirdLife undisturbed habitat, and the remaining In addition, inadequate regulatory International (BLI) 2007a, p. 1; Cuervo small populations are limited to four or mechanisms hamper protection of the and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del Hoyo 1994, five small, disjunct, and isolated areas species and its habitat (Factor D). p. 361). The reservoir flooded the area in seven different Departments. Within (1) Serranı´a de San Lucas (Antioquı´a) and led to displacement of human the past three generations, or 30 years, the species is estimated to have lost 88 is not a protected area, but is one of the populations and other habitat percent of its habitat and half of its largest remaining tracts of forest that is alterations, including fish kills caused the least disturbed (WWF 2001b, p. 1). population. Deforestation and by blocked spawning and migratory Even so, only a few isolated forest conversion of primary forests for human routes (NGO Working Group on Export patches survive above 1,000 m (3,280 ft) settlements and agriculture has led to Development Canada 2003, p.31). in the northern lowlands (Antioquia´ habitat fragmentation throughout the Department) (Donegan and Salaman (3) The Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ Regional species’ range and to isolation of 1999, p. 4). Ongoing pressures on this Reserve (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba remaining populations. Habitat loss and habitat include human encroachment Departments), created in 1999, is fragmentation were factors in the for natural resources, colonization, located within a large tract (450 km2 species’ historical decline (over the past ranching, logging, and crop production, (174 mi2)) of forested land at an 50 years) and caused localized as well as pollution of the Magdelena elevation of 800 m (2,625 ft). Bajo Cauca extirpations, and continue to be factors and Cauca Rivers (WWF 2001b, p. 3). In is the second most populated region in negatively affecting the blue-billed 1996, there was a gold rush that led to the Department of Antioquia. Logging is curassow in the wild. Human deforestation for logging, settlements, important in this region, and the encroachment into the species’ conversion to agriculture, and coca Reserve allows commercial exploitation preferred primary forest habitat has production (BLI 2007d, p 3). Using of wood (Fundacio´n Viztaz 2007, p. 2). resulted in habitat alteration and satellite imagery and fieldwork, Cuervo Surveys are scant in this area, which is disturbance activities that have caused (2002, p. 140) determined that believed to be home to many species as declines in the blue-billed curassow deforestation on the eastern slopes of yet unidentified by science (Cuervo population. Cultivation of illegal drug ´ the Serranıa de San Lucas was extensive 2002, p. 137; Donegan and Salaman crops, such as cocaine, leads to further between 1995 and 1996. In 2005, 1999, p. 12). Although the Reserve deforestation and alters soil highway construction was underway as provides suitable habitat for the species, compositions, hindering regeneration of part of a national plan to connect the abandoned fields. In addition, drug East Andes, the West Andes, and the and the blue-billed curassow is presumed to inhabit this area, it has not eradication programs involving the Pacific ports, including roadbuilding aerial spraying of non-specific ´ been confirmed within the Reserve (BLI through the Serranıa de San Lucas and herbicides lead to further environmental adjacent lowlands (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2007d, p. 3). degradation and destruction of primary 2042). Because the species prefers (4) El Paujı´l Bird Reserve (Santander forest habitat. Three of the four most pristine habitat, this ongoing habitat and Boyaca´ Departments) is a private important refugia continue to undergo alteration negatively impacts the reserve established in Serranı´a de las habitat destruction, and regulatory integrity of this location and the Quinchas (WorldTwitch Colombia 2004, mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate survival of the species therein. ´ p.3). In the early 1990s, the Serranıa de the primary threats to this species (2) The Paramillo National Park las Quinchas (Boyaca´ Department, (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Departments), (Factor D). A private refuge, the El Paujı´l central Colombia) was considered one of Bird Reserve, was formed to protect the created in 1977, encompasses an area the last remaining well-preserved cloud 2 2 blue-billed curassow and its habitat, 4600 km (1776 mi ) in size and forests and the largest tract of lowland includes moist and cloud forest habitats which includes a large amount of wet forest in the region, with up to 500 suitable habitat, but may be lacking in (Corantioquia 2008, p. 1). However, it km2 (193 mi2) of forest remaining. only protects the upper elevational limit its ability to adequately protect the Within a decade, the forest had species (Factors B and D). Habitat of the habitat occupied by the species, dwindled to 120 km2 (46 mi2) where the species is rarer (Cuervo 2002, fragmentation contributes to the species’ (WorldTwitch Colombia 2004, p. 3). In p. 140). This Park is inhabited by an vulnerability to hunting (discussed 2002, the largest known subpopulation indigenous community (Embera´), for under Factor B) and predation of blue-billed curassow was located in whom the Park was created. Farmers (discussed under Factor C) by increasing ´ also inhabit the interior regions of the the Serranıa de las Quinchas and human and predator access to the Park (BLI 2007a, p. 1-2). The areas to the became regarded as the stronghold of habitat. The species’ historic range, south of the Park have undergone the species (BLI 2007d, p. 2). El Paujı´l which encompassed approximately intense habitat disturbance from Bird Reserve was created in 2004 106,700 km2 (41,197 mi2), has been logging, drug crop production, and specifically to protect the blue-billed reduced to 2,090 km2 (807 mi2). Experts inundation from flooding caused by the curassow and its habitat (BLI 2007b, p. estimate that 88 percent of this habitat construction of the Urra´ Dam (Cuervo 2). Comprising 10 km2 (3.9 mi2) of loss has occurred within the last three 2002, p. 139). Deforestation has lowland tropical forest up to elevations generations, or 30 years. Habitat occurred throughout a large portion of of 700 m (2297 ft), the Reserve includes destruction and fragmentation of the the Park’s buffer zone as well as in the suitable habitat for the species. remaining primary forest habitat is extreme southern reaches within Park However, collection of eggs and chicks expected to continue, as human boundaries (Cuervo 2002, p. 140). are ongoing within the region (Cuervo encroachment and associated activities Between 2003 and 2004, cocaine 2002, p. 139; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42) continue within the blue-billed cultivation within the Paramillo (Factor B), and there are questions as to curassow’s range. Therefore, we find National Park went from 1.1km2 to 4.6 the effectiveness of this Reserve to that the present destruction, km2 (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 45). The protect the species (Factor D). modification, and curtailment of habitat

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are threats to the blue-billed curassow (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 8; Flora (CITES) (UNEP-WCMC 2008c). An throughout all of its range. Donegan and Salaman 1999, p. 21). Appendix-III listing requires that: (1) the Indigenous people also collect feathers listing range country (in this case, B. Overutilization for Commercial, and other body parts of curassows for Colombia) must issue an export permit Recreational, Scientific, or Educational rituals, ornamentation, arrowheads, and for all exports of the species; (2) Purposes for sale to tourists (Silva and Strahl specimens for these exports must be Blue-billed curassows are hunted by 1991, p. 38). legally obtained; (3) live specimens indigenous people and local residents Most hunting occurs during the must be transported such that risk of for subsistence, sport, trade, and mating season, when males are more injury, damage, and cruelty are entertainment (Brooks and Gonzalez- easily located by their booming mating minimized; (4) exports from any other Garcia 2001, p. 183; Brooks and Strahl calls (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 9; range countries require a certificate of 2000, p. 10; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, del Hoyo 1994, p. 336), which can be origin; and (5) re-exports require a re- p. 9; Throp 1964, p. 127; Uruen˜ a et al. heard from up to 500 m (0.31 mi) away export certificate issued by the country 2006, p. 42). Cracids, including the (Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44). of re-export (UNEP-WCMC 2008a). blue-billed curassow, are considered The direct take of males leads to According to the World Conservation particularly vulnerable to hunting disequilibrium of sex ratios for this Monitoring Centre (WCMC), a total of 12 pressures and are among those species species, which forms monogamous pairs live birds have been traded most rapidly depleted by hunting (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 9; Todd internationally since 1990 (UNEP- (Redford 1992, p. 419). Several factors et al. 2008), and it also leads to the WCMC 2008e). This trade included contribute to the species’ vulnerability disruption of mating activities (Cuervo imports of two individuals into the to hunting and collection: their large and Salaman 1999, p. 9; del Hoyo 1994, United States and five birds into Mexico size, ease of location during the p. 336). Researchers attribute hunting in the early 1990s. Therefore, breeding season, trusting nature, and pressure as the cause for the near commercial international trade in wild low productivity (1-2 eggs) relative to extinction of the blue-billed curassow specimens over the past 20 years has not other Galliformes (del Hoyo 1994, p. population in the San Salvador Valley been extensive. 336). Cracids are also slow to reproduce, (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32). The remaining CITES-documented with a replacement rate of at least 6 Researchers also attribute to hunting the trade has consisted of exports of years (Silva and Strahl 1991, p. 50), absence of blue-billed curassows from captive-bred specimens from the United which makes it difficult for the species parts of its historical range where States to Colombia and Belgium. The to rebound from hunting pressures. suitable habitat (primary forest) still blue-billed curassow has been collected Hunting affects the blue-billed exists to hunting (Brooks and Strahl from the wild for use in zoos and in curassow in all life stages. In 1999, 2000, p. 10). In 1998, for instance, no captive-breeding programs, both hunters in Antioquı´o (where the blue- males were observed during field domestically and abroad. A small billed curassow is known on the slopes surveys, prompting researchers to number of birds have been collected by of the Serranı´a de San Lucas and Bajo conclude that hunting continued to be the Cali Zoo and Santa Fe de Medellin Cauca-Nechı´ Regional Reserve area) a serious risk to the species (BLI 2007d, Zoo in Colombia (Cuervo 2002, p. 142), reported killing as many as 20 blue- p. 3). and small collections are held in the billed curassows within the prior 20 Habitat fragmentation and United States, including the Houston years (Donegan and Salaman 1999, p. concomitant human encroachment Zoo and San Diego Zoo, as well as in 21). In 2004, it was reported that (Factor A) have made the species’ Japan and Mexico (Brooks and Strahl hunting had abated somewhat, because habitat more accessible and more 2000, p. 15; Cuervo 2002, p. 142). The productive hunting grounds had become vulnerable to hunting. A study Cali and Houston Zoo collections are too remote from villages and because conducted in French Guiana provided a being used for captive breeding, which the communities have access to quantitative estimate of the effect of we consider vital to conserving and domestic meat (Melo and Ochoa 2004, hunting on a related cracid species, the recovering this species (Factor E). as cited in Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). black curassow (Crax alector) (del Hoyo International trade for zoos and captive- However, both eggs and chicks continue 1994, p. 336). The black curassow has breeding purposes does not contribute to be collected in some areas (such as similar habitat requirements to the endangerment of the species. We Serranı´a de las Quinchas, where El (undisturbed primary tropical to believe that this limited amount of Paujı´l Reserve is located) to be sold at subtropical humid forest at 0-1,400 m international trade, controlled via local markets (Cuervo 2002, p. 139; (0-4600 ft) elevation) as the blue-billed CITES, is not a threat to the species. Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42), despite curassow (BLI 2007e). The estimated measures to protect the species from population density of black curassows Summary of Factor B collection (Factor D). In 1999, live in non-hunted areas was between 7 and The blue-billed curassow is hunted trapped birds (typically chicks) sold for 9 birds per 1 km2 (0.4 mi2); in areas with and collected from the wild at all life up to US$100 (greater than the average intermittent hunting, the numbers fell to stages throughout its current range. monthly income) (Donegan and between 0.5 and 2.25 birds; and in areas Blue-billed curassow eggs and chicks Salaman 1999, p. 21). These birds are where hunting was regular, numbers fell are collected for food and sale in local either consumed or maintained as to between 0.5 and 0.73 birds (del Hoyo markets, or are often captured and held captive animals. The blue-billed 1994, p. 336). We believe that the effects in captivity as pets or as a future food curassow, as well as other cracids (e.g., of hunting on the blue-billed curassow source. Hunting results in the direct chachalacas (Ortalis spp.) and guans would result in similar population removal of eggs, juveniles, and adults (Penelope spp.)) serve as a major source reductions based on its similarity of from the population. Blue-billed of protein for indigenous people and habitat requirements and life history curassows are slow to reproduce, attract a great deal of ecotourism traits. produce a low clutch size, and exhibit (Brooks and Strahl 2000, p. 8). People In 1988, Colombia listed the blue- a poor replacement rate (see Habitat and colonizing forested areas capture billed curassow in Appendix III of the Life History). Hunting can destroy pair juvenile birds as pets and hold them in Convention on International Trade in bonds and remove potentially captivity in fenced yards or in cages Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and reproductive adults from the breeding

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pool. The species is particularly patch sizes caused a shift from larger to the threats to the blue-billed curassow is vulnerable to hunting and collection smaller predators, which tended to prey provided below, beginning with species- pressures due to the ease in locating this upon the eggs and juveniles of specific and followed by habitat-specific large bird during its breeding season. understory birds, rendering ground- protection mechanisms. The majority of hunting occurs during dwelling birds such as blue-billed The Colombian government has the mating season, when males are curassows particularly susceptible enacted and ratified numerous domestic heard calling for females, leading to (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, pp. 140- and international laws, decrees, and disproportionate hunting of males. 142). Other studies concerning the resolutions for managing and conserving Hunting disturbances during the effects of habitat fragmentation on avian wildlife and flora (Matallana-T. 2005, p. breeding season disrupt breeding predation show similar results (Hoover 121). Colombian Law No. 99 of 1993 activities, further compounding the et al. 1995, p. 151; Keyser 2002, p. 186; (Creating the Ministry of the threats associated with hunting Keyser et al. 1998, p. 991; Renjifo 1999, Environment and Renewable Natural mortalities. There are continued reports p. 1133; Wilcove 1985, p. 1214). Gibbs Resources and organizing the National of hunting pressures on the species; (1991, p. 157) found that a larger Environmental System (SINA)) sets out these pressures have been and continue proportion of ground-nests and elevated the principles governing environmental to be compounded by ongoing human nests were predated in patches smaller policy in Colombia, and provides that encroachment into previously than 1 km2 (0.39 mi2) and that ground- the country’s biodiversity be protected undisturbed forests (Factor A). Hunting nesting birds were predated more and used primarily in a sustainable and collection negatively affect the heavily than elevated-nesting birds. In manner (EcoLex 1993, p. 2). Resolution global population of the blue-billed addition to the importance of patch size No. 584 of 2002 (Species that are curassow, due to its small population for influencing the level of predation, endangered wildlife in the national size and fragmented distribution. the composition of the areas territory) provides a list of Colombian Hunting, combined with habitat surrounding the patch is also important wildlife and flora that are considered fragmentation (Factor A), increases the (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, p. 141). threatened. Threatened is defined as possibility of local extirpation since the For instance, in lowland Costa Rica, the those species whose natural populations blue-billed curassow is unlikely to re- edge effect (where predation is greater at are at risk of extinction, as their habitat, occupy an area that has been depleted the edge of forest patches than in the range, or ecosystems that support them through hunting because it avoids interior of the patch) was greatest in have been affected by either natural crossing large, open areas between forest patches bordered by secondary causes or human actions. Threatened habitat fragments (see Factor E, growth than by pasture (Gibbs 1991, p. species are further categorized as Likelihood to Disperse). Therefore, we 157). critically endangered, endangered, or find that hunting, collection, and vulnerable. A critically endangered Summary of Factor C associated disturbances are threats to species (CR) is one that faces a very high the blue-billed curassow. Snakes, foxes, feral cats, feral dogs, probability of extinction in the wild in and raptors are all predators of cracids. the immediate future, based on a drastic C. Disease or Predation Predation results in the direct removal reduction of its natural populations and Disease: We are unaware of of eggs, juveniles, and adults from the a severe deterioration of its range; an information regarding disease or the population. Blue-billed curassows are endangered species (EN) is one that has potential for significant disease slow to reproduce, produce a low clutch a high probability of extinction in the outbreaks in the blue-billed curassow. size, and exhibit a poor replacement rate wild in the near future, based on a As a result, we do not consider disease (see Habitat and Life History). Predation declining trend of its natural to be a threat to the species. can destroy pair bonds and remove populations and a deterioration of its Predation: According to Delacour and potentially reproductive adults from the range; and a vulnerable species (VU) is Amadon (1973), predators of cracids breeding pool. Studies on similar one that is not in imminent danger of include snakes (suborder Serpentes), species in similar Andean habitats extinction in the near future, but it foxes (family Canidae), wild cats (Felis indicate that vulnerability to predation could be if natural population trends silvestris), feral dogs (Canus lupus by generalist predators increases with continue downward and deterioration of familiaris), and raptors (order increased habitat fragmentation and its range continues (EcoLex 2002, p. 10). Falconiformes). Arango-Ve´lez and smaller patch sizes. Predation The blue-billed curassow is Kattan (1997, pp. 137-143) studied nest exacerbates the genetic complications considered a critically endangered predation rates on Andean birds within associated with the species’ small species under Colombian law pursuant fragmented forest habitats of population size (Factor E). Because of to paragraph 23 of Article 5 of Law No. northwestern Colombia. Although not the species’ small population size and 99, as outlined in Resolution No. 584 specific to the blue-billed curassow, the inability to recolonize isolated habitat (EcoLex 2002, p. 12). This status confers study focused on understory nesting fragments (Factor E), predation renders certain protections upon the species. birds with similar nesting habits and in the species vulnerable to local Resolution No. 849 of 1973 ([Laws forest fragment sizes similar to where extirpation. Therefore, we find that governing] commercial hunting of the blue-billed curassow is currently predation, compounded by ongoing saı´nos, boas, anacondas and birds found (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, habitat destruction (Factor A) and throughout the country) and Resolution p. 138). The study found that nest hunting (Factor B), is a threat to the No. 787of 1977 ([Laws governing] sport predation by generalist predators is blue-billed curassow. hunting of mammals, birds and reptiles more prevalent in smaller, isolated of wildlife), regulate and prohibit forest patches. However, in the study, D. The Inadequacy of Existing commercial and sport hunting of all increased predation in smaller habitat Regulatory Mechanisms wild bird species, respectively, except fragments could not be solely attributed Regulatory mechanisms may provide those specifically identified by the to the ‘‘edge effect,’’ whereby smaller species-specific or habitat-specific Ministry of the Environment or patch sizes facilitate predators’ access protections. An evaluation of the otherwise permitted (EcoLex 1973, p.1; and ability to capture prey throughout adequacy of regulatory mechanisms EcoLex 1977, p. 3). Because of its status the fragments. Rather, reduced habitat within Colombia to mitigate or remove as a critically endangered species, the

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Ministry of the Environment does not (Law No. 1,021, General [Forestry] Law). assessed population density and permit the blue-billed curassow to be The new law seeks to: (1) further structure (Arias 2005, as cited in Uruen˜ a hunted commercially or for sport. promote forest plantations and create et al. 2006, p. 42), studied habitat use Neither Resolution prohibits subsistence financial mechanisms for investments, and behavioral aspects in Paujı´l de Pico hunting. As discussed under Factor B, (2) provide for rigorous control and Bird Reserve (Uruen˜ a 2005, as cited in commercial and sport hunting are not expanded sustainable use of natural Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42), and promoted threats to this species, but subsistence forests, (3) and regulate and further an environmental education campaign hunting continues to threaten the develop forest concessions in the and the creation of El Paujı´l Bird species throughout its range, including country (International Tropical Timber Reserve (Uruen˜ a and Quevedo 2005, as within protected areas. Thus, these Organization (ITTO) 2006, p. 218). cited in Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). Resolutions are ineffective at reducing However, the ITTO considers the However, a national strategy for the the existing threat of subsistence Colombian forestry sector to be lacking conservation of blue-billed curassows is hunting to the blue-billed curassow. in law enforcement and on-the-ground not currently in place, and it is unclear Additional efforts to protect the control of forest resources, with no if or when it will be enacted, and species from subsistence hunting are specific standards for large-scale whether the Colombian government will inadequate. Within El Paujı´l Reserve, for forestry production, no forestry adopt the strategy. Therefore, we are instance, there are penalties for shooting concession policies, and a lack of unable to determine that this or trapping the species (BLI 2007d, p. 3). transparency in the application of the conservation strategy will mitigate However, as recently as 2006, it was various laws regulating wildlife and threats to the blue-billed curassow. reported that both chicks and eggs their habitats (ITTO 2006, p. 222). Currently there are approximately 49 continued to be collected in the Serranı´a nationally recognized protected areas in Resource management in Colombia is de las Quinchas region, where the Colombia (Matallano-T. 2005, p. 121). highly decentralized. Resources are Reserve is located, for domestic use and The five most common categories of managed within local municipalities by for sale at local markets (Cuervo 2002, habitat protection are: (1) National one of 33 Autonomous Regional p. 139; Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42) (Factor Natural Park (an area whose ecosystems Corporations known as CARs B). Thus, private efforts to protect the have not been substantially altered by (Corporaciones Auto´nomas Regionales) species from hunting appear to be human exploitation or occupation, and (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121). CARs are inadequate within a region where where plant and animal species, or corporate bodies of a public nature, national laws are ineffective at complex geomorphological landscapes protecting the species from such take. endowed with administrative and have historical, cultural, scientific, The blue-billed curassow is listed in financial autonomy to manage the educational, aesthetic, or recreational Appendix III of CITES (see Factor B). environment and renewable natural value); (2) Wildlife Sanctuary for Fauna CITES is an international treaty among resources (Law 99 of 1993). The blue- and Flora (an area dedicated to preserve 174 nations, including Colombia (which billed curassow is currently known to species or communities of wildlife, and became a Party in 1981) and the United occur within seven different to conserve genetic resources of States (which became a Party in 1975) Departments, each of which is managed wildlife); (3) National Natural Reserve (UNEP-WCMC 2008a, p. 1). In the by a separate local entity. These (an area that preserves flora and fauna United States, CITES is implemented corporations grant concessions, permits, and is established for the study of its through the U.S. Endangered Species and authorizations for forest harvesting natural wealth); (4) Panoramic Park (a Act (Act). The Act designates the (ITTO 2006, p. 219). Forty percent of parcel of land of panoramic, cultural or Secretary of the Interior as the Scientific Colombia’s public resources are natural value preserved for education and Management Authorities to managed by local municipalities, and relaxation); and (5) Unique National implement the treaty, with all functions making Colombia one of the most Area (a rare or unique ecosystem) carried out by the Service. Under this decentralized countries in terms of (Matallano-T. 2005, p. 121). Several treaty, countries work together to ensure forestry management in Latin America areas considered to be important refuges that international trade in animal and (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121). Monitoring for the blue-billed curassow are plant species is not detrimental to the of resource use and forest development protected areas and are managed by survival of wild populations, by authorized by these corporations is autonomous corporations, including: (1) regulating the import, export, re-export, conducted mostly by local The Paramillo National Natural Park and introduction from the sea of CITES- nongovernmental organizations. (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Departments) listed animal and plant species (USFWS Governmental institutions responsible and (2) The Bajo Cauca–Nechı´ Regional 2008, p. 1). As discussed under Factor for oversight appear to be Natural Reserve (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba B, we do not consider commercial underresourced and unable to maintain Departments) (BLI 2007d, p. 3; Cuervo international trade to be a threat an effective presence in the field (ITTO 2002, p. 139), both of which are impacting the blue-billed curassow. 2006, p. 222). Consequently, there is no managed by Corantioquia (Corantioquia Colombia has numerous laws and vehicle for overall coordination of 2008, p. 1). regulations pertaining to forests and species management for (1) The Paramillo National Natural forestry management, including: the multijurisdictional species such as the Park (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Forestry Law of 1959 (Law 2 – [On] blue-billed curassow. The private Departments) is a large Park, but no forest economy [of the] nation and Proaves-Colombia Foundation plans to protective measures have been conservation [of] renewable natural generate a national strategy for the implemented to curb human impacts on resources) (EcoLex 1959); the Forestry conservation of the blue-billed curassow the habitat and species by the Code of 1974 (Decree 2,811 – National through the project, ‘‘Saving the Blue- indigenous and farming residents code of renewable natural resources and billed Curassow’’ (Quevedo et al. 2005, within the park (BLI 2007a, pp. 1-2; BLI protection of the environment) (Faolex as cited in Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). In 2007d, p. 3) (Factor A). Cocaine 1974), and the forest plan of 1996 2004, this project evaluated and cultivation is occurring within the Park (Decree 1,791 – Forest Improvement prioritized threats in Serranı´a de las boundaries (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. Plan) (Faolex 1996). A new forest law Quinchas region (Machado 2004, as 45). Dam construction on the Sinı´ River, was developed and approved in 2006 cited in Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42), part of the species’ historic range (BLI

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2007a, p. 1; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, of the blue-billed curassow. As Small Population Size: Deforestation p. 7; del Hoyo 1994, p. 361), has caused discussed for Factor B, uncontrolled and habitat loss throughout the blue- ongoing flooding in the area since its hunting and commercial use of the blue- billed curassow’s historic range has completion in 1998 (Cuervo 2002, p. billed curassow are ongoing and resulted in fragmented, disjunct, and 139; NGO Working Group on Export continue to negatively affect the isolated populations in the remaining Development Canada 2003, p. 31). Thus, continued existence of the species. four or five patches of tropical humid the designation of this area as a Park has Moreover, the lack of a species and premontane forests and caused not mitigated human-induced habitat conservation strategy and the regional extirpations of the blue-billed destruction (Factor A). decentralized management of natural curassow (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia (2) The Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ Regional resources in Colombia provide no 2001, p. 183; Collar et al. 1992, pp. 61- Natural Reserve (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba overall coordination in the conservation 62; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7). It Departments) encompasses suitable for species such as the blue-billed is estimated that the largest habitat for the blue-billed curassow, but curassow, which ranges in multiple subpopulation (in the Serranı´a de las the species has not been confirmed jurisdictions. Despite ongoing work Quinchas, Boyaca´ Department) contains within the Reserve (BLI 2007d, p. 3). toward developing a national between 250 and 999 birds (BLI 2007d, Nonetheless, it is notable that this conservation strategy for the species, it p. 2), and that the total population is Reserve, which is designated to preserve has not yet been developed, it is not much fewer than 2,000 individuals and research flora and fauna, allows known whether it will be formally (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. logging (Fundacio´n Viztaz 2007, p. 2). adopted by the Government of 184). Cuervo (2002, p. 141) estimated Thus, should the species be located Colombia, and we are unable to that the species had lost more than half therein, this Reserve’s designation as a determine that the strategy will be of its population over the last three preserve would not mitigate the threat effective in reducing the threats to this generations, or 30 years. Further, it is from habitat destruction (Factor A). species on a local or rangewide basis. estimated that, at the current rate of The privately-owned El Paujı´l Bird Therefore, we find that the existing decline, the blue-billed curassow could Preserve, which was established regulatory mechanisms currently in lose up to 79 percent of its current specifically to protect the blue-billed place for the blue-billed curassow do population within the next 10 years and curassow and its habitat (BLI 2007d, p. not reduce or remove the factors could be extinct within the next three 2) (Factor A), has measures in place to threatening the species. generations, or 30 years (BLI 2007d, p. penalize shooting or trapping the 3; Cuervo 2002, p. 141). species (BLI 2007d, p. 3). However, egg E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors The blue-billed curassow’s restricted and chick collection are ongoing within Affecting the Continued Existence of the and fragmented range, combined with the Serranı´a de las Quinchas area, Species its small population size (Cuervo 2002, where the private reserve is located Three additional factors affect the p. 138; Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; (Factor B). Aside from the Paramillo del Hoyo 1994, p. 361), makes the blue-billed curassow: its limited ability National Park, which includes habitat in species particularly vulnerable to the to disperse to unoccupied habitat, the the upper elevational limit of the blue- threat of adverse genetic effects and species’ small population size and billed curassow’s preferred range susceptible to extinction through captive-breeding programs. (Cuervo 2002, p. 140), no effective natural or manmade events that destroy protective measures have been Likelihood to Disperse: The blue- individuals and their habitat (BLI undertaken (BLI 2007d, p. 2; Brooks and billed curassow exhibits several 2007d, pp. 1-2; Brooks and Gonzalez- Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. 183) such that characteristics that make it unlikely that Garcia 2001, pp. 185-190; Cuervo 2002, the regulatory mechanisms in place in the species would disperse into isolated p. 140). Meta-population analysis these protected areas do not mitigate habitat fragments to repopulate involves the study of the dynamics of an habitat destruction, which is a primary extirpated patches of suitable habitat. entire population by studying risk factor for this species (Factor A). The blue-billed curassow requires a movements within local populations Thus, these protected areas do not large home range of primary tropical (Hanski 1998, p. 41). ‘‘A meta- provide sufficient protections to forest (Cuervo 2002, pp. 138-140). The population composed of extinction- mitigate the effects from habitat loss habitat patches within the blue-billed prone local populations in a small patch (Factor A) or reduce threats from curassow’s current range are described network is necessarily more threatened hunting and collection (Factor B). by researchers as fragmented, disjunct, than are meta-populations in large and and isolated (Collar et al. 1992, p. 154; well connected networks’’ (Hanski 1998, Summary of Factor D Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del p. 42). Considering that not all blue- Colombia has numerous laws and Hoyo 1994, p. 361; Donegan and billed curassow individuals in a regulatory mechanisms intended to Huertas 2005, p. 29; Salaman et al. 2001, population are breeding at any one time, protect and manage wildlife and their p. 183). The species will rarely cross the actual number of individuals habitats. The blue-billed curassow is narrow deforested corridors, such as contributing to population growth will considered critically endangered under those caused by roads or oil pipelines, be a smaller number than the total Colombian law and lives within several and it will not cross large open areas number of individuals. managed forests or protected areas. between forest fragments (Cuervo and Small population sizes render species However, on-the-ground enforcement of Salaman 1999, p. 7). In addition to the vulnerable to any of several risks, existing wildlife protection and forestry species’ small overall population size including loss of genetic variation, laws and oversight of the local (see below), researchers believe it is inbreeding depression, and jurisdictions implementing and unlikely that the blue-billed curassow accumulation of deleterious genes. regulating activities are ineffective at would repopulate an isolated patch of Inbreeding can have individual or mitigating the primary threats to the suitable habitat following decline or population-level consequences either by blue-billed curassow. As discussed for extirpation of the species from that increasing the phenotypic expression Factor A, habitat destruction, patch (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; (the outward appearance or observable degradation, and fragmentation Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46) (see Factor E, structure, function, or behavior of a continue throughout the existing range Captive Breeding Program). living organism) of recessive,

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deleterious alleles or by reducing the because the species is not likely to indicates that the species’ population overall fitness of individuals in the disperse into or repopulate suitable was reduced by 50 percent in the 30 population (Charlesworth and habitat on its own. years prior to 2002 and that ongoing Charlesworth 1987, p. 238; Shaffer 1981, habitat destruction and degradation are Summary of Factor E p. 131). Small, isolated populations of continuing at a rate that would lead to wildlife species are also susceptible to The blue-billed curassow’s small the extinction of the blue-billed demographic problems (Shaffer 1981, p. population size increases its curassow in the next 30 years if 131), which may include reduced vulnerability to genetic risks associated measures are not taken to ameliorate the reproductive success of individuals and with small population sizes that loss of habitat. Thus, habitat loss poses chance disequilibrium of sex ratios. negatively impact the species’ long-term an imminent threat of extinction and is Chance disequilibrium of sex ratios viability and increase the possibility of a factor that currently endangers the would be further exacerbated by localized extirpations of the remaining species. preferential hunting of male birds fragmented populations. Further, the The blue-billed curassow is hunted or (Factor B). This species’ risk of species is unlikely to repopulate areas of collected, whole or in parts, in all life extinction is further compounded by suitable habitat from which a stages (eggs, juveniles, adults, feathers, ongoing collection of eggs and chicks, subpopulation has been extirpated and other body parts) throughout its and by hunting-related disturbances that because it avoids crossing the disturbed current range by both indigenous people may disrupt breeding pairs (Factor B). areas that separate the remaining and by local settlers for both sustenance Once a population is reduced below a suitable habitat for this species. Range- and sport; for domestic use in rituals; certain number of individuals, it tends country attempts at captive breeding and for sale to tourists (Factor B). to rapidly decline towards extinction have been unsuccessful, and the stock Several life-history traits of the species (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and in U.S. captive-breeding programs is contribute to its vulnerability to hunting Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. limited; therefore, the captive-breeding and collection: its large size, ease of 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p.181). program is not contributing to location during breeding season, reintroduction of the species in the wild trusting nature, low productivity (1-2 Captive-Breeding Program: A captive- and so is not currently mitigating the eggs), and a replacement rate of 6 years breeding program is being developed problem of small population size. (taking an individual of the species an within the species’ range (see Current Therefore, we believe that, in average of 6 years to replace itself). Range and Distribution, above)by combination with the risks to the Adults are hunted mainly during the ´ Fundacion Ecolombia, based at the species from habitat destruction (Factor breeding season, when males are most Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre in Los A), hunting (Factor B), and predation vulnerable and more easily located by ´ Farallones (Antioquıa Department, (Factor C), the blue-billed curassow is their loud mating calls that are audible Colombia). The captive-held population vulnerable to localized extirpation or at long distances. The direct take of includes three males and two females. extinction from which the species males disrupts sex ratios in this species, The program has met with little success would be unable to recover, due it its which forms monogamous pairs, and because attempts to breed the species in small population size and apparent this take also disrupts mating activities. captivity have been unsuccessful to date inability to repopulate fragmented, Hunting pressure has caused severe (two sterile eggs laid in 2003 and none isolated habitats such as those currently depletion or near extirpation in portions since). The species is historically known present within this species’ range. of its historical range, despite the to be a poor breeder in captivity (Throp continued availability of suitable habitat 1964, p. 127). The program is exploring Status Determination for the Blue-Billed Curassow (primary forest). The effects of hunting artificial insemination for future are exacerbated by ongoing habitat breeding (Wildlife Protection The five primary factors that threaten fragmentation (Factor A), which Foundation (WPF) 2007, p. 2). The the survival of the blue-billed curassow increases accessibility into the species’ Houston Zoo, however, which has are: (1) habitat destruction, habitat, rendering it more vulnerable to maintained cracids since the 1960s, has fragmentation, and degradation (Factor hunting. Concomitantly, increased bred the species for 30 years and has A); (2) overexploitation due to hunting conversion of primary forest habitat has successfully raised at least 10 blue- and collecting of eggs and chicks (Factor encouraged further human settlement billed curassows in captivity (Houston B); (3) predation (Factor C); (4) within the blue-billed curassow’s Zoo 2008, p. 2; Todd et al. 2008, p. 1). inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms to habitat. Hunting poses an imminent The Houston Zoo also conducts reduce the threats to the species (Factor threat of extinction and is a factor that outreach and breeding research. While D); and (5) small population size and currently endangers the species. this has resulted in limited exports of isolation of remaining populations Blue-billed curassows are vulnerable captive-bred birds for scientific (Factor E). to predation by generalist predators, purposes (i.e., to zoos; see also Factor The direct loss of habitat through including snakes, foxes, feral cats, feral B), the number of birds in captivity has widespread deforestation and dogs, and raptors (Factor C). Habitat dropped worldwide. In addition, the conversion of primary forests to human fragmentation (Factor A) contributes to number of specimens originally settlement and agricultural uses has led this vulnerability, because research imported into the United States was to the fragmentation of habitat indicates that predation increases with small (Houston Zoo 2008, p. 2), which throughout the range of the blue-billed increased habitat fragmentation and would limit their conservation value for curassow and isolation of the remaining smaller patch sizes. Predation leads to reintroduction into the wild. Thus, the populations (Factor A). The species’ the direct removal of eggs, juveniles, captive breeding program is not historic range, which encompassed and adults from the population, currently contributing to reintroduction, approximately 106,700 km2 (41,197 exacerbating risks associated with the but serves a conservation value by mi2), has been reduced to 2,090 km2 species’ small population size (see providing specimens for zoos that (807 mi2). Experts estimate that 88 below). Predation can destroy pair conduct outreach and breeding research. percent of this habitat loss has occurred bonds and remove potentially Further, reintroduction would appear to within the last three generations, or 30 reproductive adults from the breeding be important for recovery of this species years. The best available information pool. The blue-billed curassow is slow

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to reproduce and produces a low clutch II. Brown-Banded Antpitta (Grallaria except that its peak reproductive period size, and predation exacerbates this milleri) is between March and May (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, pp. 326-327) and that both species’ already poor replacement rate Species Description (see Habitat and Life History). parents feed the young (del Hoyo 2003, The brown-banded antpitta is a The threats from habitat destruction, p. 719). Drawing from studies on similar member of the Ground-Antbird Family species, including the Colombian hunting, and predation are compounded (Formicariidae), is approximately 18 cm by the species’ small population size species, scaled antpitta (Grallaria (7 in) long from bill to tail, and endemic guatimalensis) and chestnut-crowned (Factor E). The blue-billed curassow’s to the west slope of the central Andes antpitta (Grallaria ruficapilla), antpittas population has been reduced by 50 of Colombia (Krabbe and Schulenberg tend to nest on fallen logs, on the forks percent within the last 30 years. The 2003, p. 682; Fjeldsa¨ and Krabbe 1990, of tree trunks, or atop the crowns of species’ low population estimate of p. 414; Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 422). low-growing palms, situated at nearly fewer than 2,000 individuals, combined The species is locally known as groundlevel to no higher than 3 m (10 with its restricted, fragmented, and ‘‘Tororoi’’ (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002). ft) off the ground (Dobbs et al. 2001, p. isolated habitat, makes the species This bird is a uniform dark brown, with 226; Wiedenfeld 1982, p. 581). The particularly vulnerable to numerous a dingy white throat and underbelly. typical clutch size for antpittas is human factors (e.g., agricultural Taxonomy considered to be two eggs (Dobbs et al. development, armed conflict, fire, dams 2001, p. 227; Wiedenfeld 1982, p. 581). and reservoir development, increased The brown-banded antpitta was first Antpitta nests are roughly circular cups, human settlement, illicit drug taxonomically described by Chapman in loosely constructed of dead leaves that production and control, mining 1911 and placed in the Ground-Antbird are generally hard to distinguish from activities, oil development and Family (Formicariidae). The type the surroundings (Dobbs et al. 2001, p. distribution, and road development). specimen (the actual specimen that was 227; Wiedenfeld 1982, p. 581). Antpittas Further, the species’ reticence to cross first described by Chapman) was appear to rely on camouflage, both to large open areas makes it unlikely that obtained from Laguneta (Quindı´o hide the location of their nests the species would repopulate suitable Department) (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, (Wiedenfeld 1982, p. 580), as well as in habitat in remaining isolated forest p. 327). Laguneta is, therefore, referred response to disturbance, when birds patches that are separated by large to as the ‘‘type locality.’’ remain absolutely still to avoid distances, all of which put the species Habitat and Life History detection by potential predators (Dobbs at a risk of extinction. et al. 2001, p. 226). The brown-banded antpitta currently Finally, despite numerous laws and inhabits the humid understory and Historical Range and Distribution regulatory mechanisms (Factor D) to forest floor habitats of mid-montane and administer and manage wildlife and The brown-banded antpitta was cloud forests between 2,400 and 2,600 their habitats, on-the-ground historically known from a single m (7,874 and 8,530 ft) with high density enforcement of these laws and oversight location, near Laguneta in the central of herbaceous plants and shrubs (Krabbe of the local jurisdictions implementing Andes (centrally located in the and Schulenberg 2003, p. 719; Kattan ´ and regulating activities within the Department of Quindıo), which ranges and Beltra´n 1999, p. 272). The species species’ habitat are inadequate to in altitude from 1,859 m (6,100 ft) in the has been observed in older (30–year-old) mitigate the effects of habitat loss surrounding valleys to 3,140 m (10,300 secondary-growth forest habitats and (Factor A) and hunting (Factor B). ft) at its highest point (Chapman 1917, alder (Alnus acuminata) plantations Habitat destruction and hunting pp. 35-36, 396). In 1917, the valley (Cuervo 2002, pp. 326-327; Krabbe and leading to Laguneta was described as continues within the species’ range and, Schulenberg 2003, p. 719). gently rising until about 2,530 m (8,300 aside from El Paujı´l Bird Preserve, no Researchers consider antpitta life ft), when the terrain rose steeply up to other areas provide effective protective histories to be among the least known of 2,896 ft (9,500 ft). The vegetation was measures for protecting the blue-billed Neotropical bird species (Dobbs et al. described as open, with scattered palms curassow from ongoing hunting or its 2001, p. 225). The brown-banded and little other vegetation until about habitat from ongoing destruction. antpitta, as with other antpittas, is a 2,835 m (9,300 ft), where the forest We have carefully assessed the best secretive species, with a low population began (Chapman 1917, p. 36). At 3,140 available scientific and commercial density and high habitat specificity m (10,300 ft), the forest was described information regarding the past, present, (Kattan and Beltra´n 2002, p. 232). as dense with little undergrowth, except and potential future threats faced by the Antpittas are considered to be nearly in occasional clearings dominated by blue-billed curassow. We consider the flightless (Krabbe and Schulenberg dense shrubs so thick as to be ongoing threats to the blue-billed 2003, p. 698) and their dispersal impenetrable without a knife (Chapman curassow, habitat destruction (Factor A), capabilities are not well known (Cuervo 1917, p. 35). Eleven specimens were hunting (Factor B), and predation 2002, p. 327), except that one banded collected between 1911 and 1942; the (Factor C), exacerbated by the species’ individual traveled a distance of 0.041 species was last observed and small population size and limited km2 (0.02 mi2) (Kattan and Beltra´n 2002, collections were made at the type dispersal ability (Factor E), and p. 234). This ground-dwelling species locality at Laguneta in 1942 (Beltra´n and compounded by inadequate regulatory lives either singly or in pairs (Beltra´n Kattan 2002, p. 325; Collar et al. 1992, mechanisms to mitigate these threats and Kattan 2002, p. 327) and has a high p. 698). (Factor D), to be equally present and of territorial fidelity (Cuervo 2002, p. 327). Chapman (1917, p. 36) described the the same magnitude throughout the It can be seen running along the forest practice of slash-and-burn agriculture species’ entire current range. Based on floor picking up prey (Krabbe and around Laguneta in 1917, noting that this information, we determine that the Schulenberg 2003, p. 719), which much of the hillside between 2,530 and blue-billed curassow is endangered apparently consists of beetles 2,835 m (8,300-9,300 ft) was bare and throughout its range. Therefore, we are (Coleoptera spp.) and earthworms. close-cropped, having been burned and proposing to list the blue-billed Nothing is known about the brown- cleared. By 1994, the forested area curassow as an endangered species. banded antpitta’s reproductive ecology, providing habitat for the brown-banded

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antpitta in and around the type locality Blanco river basin (Caldas Department), been observed there since 1942 (Beltra´n near Laguneta had been mostly and (4) the Reserve of Can˜ on and and Kattan 2002, p. 235). destroyed (Collar et al. 1994, p. 136), Quindı´o Departments, where suitable The IUCN estimates that the largest and despite subsequent surveys (in habitat exists but the species may be subpopulation contains 424 individuals 1986, 1988, and 1991), the species was extirpated. These refugia are further (BLI 2007f, p. 4), but it is unclear as to not observed there. In 1992, researchers discussed under Factor A, below. which subpopulation this estimate considered the brown-banded antpitta Population Estimates refers. The global population of brown- to be locally extirpated, if not extinct banded antpitta is estimated by the throughout its range (Collar et al. 1992, There have been few quantitative IUCN to be larger than 250 individuals, p. 689; Cuervo 2002, pp. 326-327; surveys of the brown-banded antpitta. but not more than 999 birds (BLI 2007f, Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367-369). Available population information is p. 1), equating to approximately 338 to Although the brown-banded antpitta provided for the four areas considered 756 individuals (BLI 2007f, p. 4). It is was rediscovered in 1994 (Kattan and to be important refugia for the species estimated that the species has lost up to Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367-369), researchers (as discussed in Factor A). The 9 percent of its population in the last 10 continue to consider the species to be population located within the Ucumarı´ years, or 3 generations, and that this rate locally extinct (extirpated) from its type Regional Park has been surveyed twice. of decline will continue over the next 10 locality of Laguneta (Quindı´o In the first survey, conducted from 1994 years (BLI 2007f, p. 4). Additional Department) (Beltra´n 2002 in litt., as to 1997, 11 brown-banded antpittas information on the population size of cited in Beltra´n and Kattan, p. 327) due were captured and banded. In a this species is provided in the 2 to extensive deforestation (Beltra´n and subsequent survey of a 0.17-1-km - discussion of Factor E, below. Kattan 2002, p. 327). (0.07-0.62-mi2) area within the Ucumarı´ Regional Park during 1995-2000, Kattan Conservation Status Current Range and Distribution and Beltra´n (2002, p. 232-3) captured The brown-banded antpitta is The current range of the brown- and banded 36 brown-banded antpittas. identified as an endangered species banded antpitta is described as humid Based on these surveys, the under Colombian law pursuant to 2 understory and forest floors of mid- subpopulation within the 0.63 km (0.24 paragraph 23 of Article 5 of the Law 99 2 montane and cloud forests, preferring mi ) Park was estimated to include up of 1993, as outlined in Resolution No. altitudes between 2,400 and 2,600 m to 106 individuals, averaging to 584 of 2002 (EcoLex 2002, p. 12). The (7,874 and 8,530 ft), in areas with a high approximately 1.3 individuals per 0.01 IUCN has classified the species as 2 2 density of herbs and shrubs (Krabbe and km (0.004 mi ) (Kattan and Beltra´n ‘‘Endangered’’ since 1994 because it is Schulenberg 2003, p. 719; Kattan and 1997, pp. 367-369; Kattan and Beltra´n known from very few locations and Beltra´n 1999, p. 272). The current range 1999, p. 276). Thus, this subpopulation occupies a very small range (BLI 2004c, 2 2 is estimated to be 300 km (116 mi ) contains at least 36, and possibly as p. 1). (BLI 2007f, p. 1). The species is known many as 106 individuals. today from only three areas in the upper Qualitative surveys conducted from Summary of Factors Affecting the Rı´o Magdalena valley. The first area is 1998 to 2000 in the Rı´o Toche Valley Brown-Banded Antpitta the humid forests in the Central Andes determined that the brown-banded A. The Present or Threatened ´ of Colombia’s Ucumarı´ Regional Park antpitta is uncommon and local (Beltran Destruction, Modification, or (Risaralda Department), where it was and Kattan 2002, p. 326). One Curtailment of the Habitat or Range first sighted in 1994 (Kattan and Beltra´n individual was observed in 1999 1997, pp. 369-370) and recently (Cuervo in litt., as cited in Beltra´n (2002 The brown-banded antpitta inhabits observed in 2000 (Beltra´n and Kattan p. 326). There is no information on the the humid understory and forest floor 2002, p. 326). The site is approximately estimated population size of brown- habitats of mid-montane and cloud 44 km2 (17 mi2) in the Otu´ n River banded antpitta within the Rı´o Toche. forests between 1,800 and 2,600 m watershed (Kattan and Beltra´n 1999, p. Thus, this subpopulation contains at (5,905 and 8,530 ft) that have a high 273). The second areas is the south-east least one individual, but there is no density of herbs and shrubs (Krabbe and slope of Volca´n Tolima in the Rı´o Toche estimate of the upper limit of the Schulenberg 2003, p. 719; Kattan and Valley on private land (the house of La population. Beltra´n 1999, p. 272). The current range Carbonera) (Tolima Department), where A census of the population in the Rı´o is estimated to be 300 km2 (116 mi2) it was first observed in 1998 and Blanco river basin was undertaken in (BLI 2007f, p. 1), and the species is recently observed in 2000 (Beltra´n and June 2000, within an approximately 5- known today in only three locations: (1) Kattan 2002, p. 325). This location is km (3-mi) transect. Researchers inferred Urcumaı´ Regional Park (Kattan and 0.05 km2 (0.02 mi2) in size at elevations the presence of at least 30 individuals, Beltra´n 1997, pp. 369-370) (Risaralda ranging from 2,750 to 2,900 m (9,022 to based on vocalizations they elicited in Department), (2) the south-east slope of 9,514 ft) (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. response to recordings of the species’ Volca´n Tolima in the Rı´o Toche Valley 326). The third area is the Rı´o Blanco alarm call (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. (Tolima Department), and (3) the Rı´o river basin (Caldas Department), where 326). There is no information on the Blanco catchment (Caldas Department). it was most recently observed in 2000 estimated population size of brown- These locations are discussed further (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 326). This banded antpitta within the Rı´o Blanco under Refugia, below. site is a strip of land less than 200 linear area. Thus, this population may contain Deforestation rates and patterns: km (124 linear mi) on the Central 30 individuals, but the upper limit of Colombia has experienced extensive Cordilla, between 2,300 and 3,100 m the population estimate is unknown. deforestation in the last half of the 20th (7,546 and 10,171 ft) in elevation (BLI The species is not currently known to Century as a result of habitat conversion 2004c, p. 2; Kattan and Beltra´n 2002, p. inhabit the Reserve del Can˜ on del for human settlements, road building, 238). Experts consider the most Quindı´o. Although the species was agriculture, and timber extraction. A important refuges for this species to be: observed there in 1911 and 1942 23–year study, from 1973 to 1996, (1) the Ucumarı´ Regional Park (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 325; Collar demonstrated that these activities (Risaralda Department), (2) the Rı´o et al. 1992, p. 698) and the area contains reduced the amount of primary forest Toche Valley (Tolima), (3) the Rı´o suitable habitat, the species has not cover in Colombia by approximately

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3,605 hectares (ha) (8,908 acres (ac)) increased accessibility and facilitated The brown-banded antpitta prefers annually, representing a nearly one- further habitat destruction, exploitation, habitat within the upper range limits of third total loss of primary forest habitat and human settlement (A´ lvarez 2005, p. this Park, at altitudes between 2,400 and (Vin˜ a et al. 2004, pp. 123-124). 2042; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Becerra 2,600 m (7,874 and 8,530 ft) (Krabbe and Beginning in the 1980s, habitat loss 2004, pp. 125-130; Etter et al. 2006, p. Schulenberg 2003, p. 719; Kattan and increased dramatically as a result of 1; Hunter 1996, 158-159; Vin˜ a et al. Beltra´n 1999, p. 272). Most of the influxes of people settling in formerly 2004, pp. 118-119). forested habitat within the park was pristine areas (Perz et al. 2005, pp. 26- Illegal drugs and their eradication: cleared in the 1960s for cattle ranching, 28; Vin˜ a et al. 2004, p. 124). More recent Illegal drug crops are cultivated within leaving the remaining natural forests studies indicate that the rate of habitat the brown-banded antpitta’s range. In only on the steepest slopes (Kattan and destruction is accelerating. Between the 2003, nearly 80 percent of the heroin Beltra´n 1999, p. 273). Much of the Park years 1990 and 2005, Colombia lost entering the United States came from has been allowed to naturally approximately 52,800 ha (130,471 ac) of opium (Papaver somniferum) farms in regenerate, and plantations of alder primary forest annually (Butler 2006a, the Department of Tolima (Forero and (Alnus acuminata) and ash (Fraxinus pp. 1-3; FAO 2003a, p. 1). Human Weiner 2003, p. 1). Cocaine cultivation chinensis) are overgrown with natural activities, such as encroachment, occurs in other parts of the species’ vegetation (Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, p. cultivation, grazing, and infrastructural range. In 2003, authorities first detected 369). The Park also contains a small area development, have resulted in extensive cocaine being cultivated in Caldas, of private pasturelands (Kattan and deforestation and environmental traditionally the center of the Beltra´n 1997, p. 369), and agricultural degradation of primary forests in the Rı´o Colombian coffee-growing industry; it expansion, selective logging, and Magdalena valley, part of the brown- was estimated that less than 1 km2 of firewood collection are ongoing in the banded antpitta’s range (Cuervo and land was under cocaine cultivation region (BLI 2008a, p. 1). Salaman 1999, p. 8; Ocampo and Botero (0.54 km2 (0.21 mi2)). By 2004, (2) In Rı´o Toche Valley (Tolima 2000, pp. 76-78). These studies and cultivation had risen 563 percent, Department), on the south-east slope of activities in Colombia are described in covering a 36 km2- (14 mi2-) area Volca´n Tolima, the brown-banded greater detail above for the blue-billed (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 27). Coca antpitta is considered uncommon and curassow (Factor A, Deforestation Rates crops deplete the soil of nutrients, local (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 326; and Patterns). which hampers regeneration following BLI 2004c, p. 2; Kattan and Beltra´n A study conducted on the effects of abandonment of fields (Van Schoik and 2002, p. 238). This habitat is described habitat fragmentation on Andean birds Schulberg 1993, p. 21). Drug eradication as fragmented, and it is estimated that within western Colombia determined efforts in Colombia have further the natural cover has been reduced by that 31 percent of the historical bird degraded and destroyed primary forest 15 percent at elevations between 1,900 populations in western Colombia had habitat by using nonspecific aerial and 3,200 m (6,234 and 10,499 ft). The become extinct or locally extirpated by herbicides to destroy illegal crops majority of suitable habitat is above 1990, largely as a result of habitat (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; BLI 2007d, p. 3; 2,200 m (7,218 ft) in elevation, and fragmentation from deforestation and Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, Kattan and Beltra´n (2002, p. 238) human encroachment (Kattan and p. 355; Oldham and Massey 2002, pp. 9- consider it to be of sufficient size to A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; Kattan et al. 12). Herbicide spraying has introduced support a population of brown-banded 1994, p. 141). Deforestation has led to harmful chemicals into brown-banded antpitta, making this an important area local extirpation of the brown-banded antpitta habitat and has led to further of suitable habitat for the species (p. antpitta in its type locality, near destruction of the habitat by forcing 327). Laguneta in the central Andes (Quindı´o illicit growers to move to new, (3) Rı´o Blanco catchment (Caldas Department), where the natural previously untouched forested areas Department) comprises a strip less than vegetation has been reduced to 10 (A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1088-1093; A´ lvarez 200 km (124 mi) long on the Central percent of its former area (Beltra´n 2002 2005, p. 2042; A´ lvarez 2007, pp. 133- Cordilla, between 2,300 and 3,100 m in litt., as cited in Beltra´n and Kattan, 143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and (7,546 and 10,171 ft) (Beltra´n and Kattan p. 327). Deforestation continues in mid- Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham 2002, p. 325; BLI 2004c, p. 2; Kattan and montane and cloud forests in the and Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Between Beltra´n 2002, p. 238). The area is Departments Caldas and Risaralda, 1998 and 2002, cultivation of illicit considered to be of sufficient size to where this species has been observed crops increased by 21 percent each year, support the species (Kattan and Beltra´n (Dolphijn 2005, p. 2). Human with a concomitant increase in 2002, p. 238). However, the species has encroachment and ongoing deforestation of formerly pristine areas only been observed at this location deforestation throughout this species’ of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez once, in the year 2000 (Beltra´n and current range are discussed under 2002, pp. 1088-1093). Kattan 2002, p. 328). Refugia, below. Refugia: The most important refugia (4) Reserva Departamental del Can˜ on In addition to the direct detrimental for the brown-banded antpitta include: del Quindı´o (Quindı´o Department): The effect of habitat loss, there are several (1) Ucumarı´ Regional Park, (2) the Rı´o Department of Conservation and indirect effects of habitat disturbance Toche Valley, (3) the Rı´o Blanco Management of Alto Quindı´o owns and and fragmentation (Brooks and Strahl catchment, and (4) Reserva manages this 56-km2 (22-mi2) reserve, 2000, p. 10; Silva and Strahl 1991, p. Departamental del Can˜ on del Quindı´o. which ranges in elevation from 2,600 to 38). Roads create barriers to animal These refugia are discussed below. 4,000 m (ft) (8,530 to 13,123 ft) movement, expose animals to traffic (1) Ucumarı´ Regional Park (Risaralda (Corporacio´n Auto´noma Regional del hazards, and increase human access into Department) covers an area of Quindı´o 2008). The type locality for the habitat, facilitating further exploitation approximately 44 km2 (17 mi2) in the brown-banded antpitta (Laguneta) is and habitat destruction (Hunter 1996, Otu´ n River watershed, with elevations located in the Department of Quindı´o 158-159). Researchers have observed ranging from 1,700 to 2,600m (5,577 to (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 325). that road building and other 8,530 ft) (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, pp. Beltra´n and Kattan (2002, pp. 238, 327) infrastructure improvements in 325-326; Kattan and Beltra´n 1999, p. believe that this Reserve comprises previously remote forested areas have 273; Kattan et al. 2006, pp. 301-302). habitat suitable for the brown-banded

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antpitta (as described under Current Summary of Factor A C. Disease or Predation Range, above) and represents an The brown-banded antpitta prefers Disease: We are unaware of important habitat conservation area for the humid understory and forest floor information regarding disease or the the species (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. habitats of mid-montane and cloud potential for significant disease 327). However, the species has not been forests between 2,400 and 2,600 m outbreaks in the brown-banded antpitta. observed in Quindı´o since 1942 (Beltra´n (7,874 and 8,530 ft) and has been As a result, we do not consider disease and Kattan 2002, p. 325; Collar et al. observed in older (30–year-old) to be impacting the status of the species 1992, p. 698) and is considered to be secondary-growth forest habitats and in the wild. locally extinct there (Beltra´n 2002 in alder plantations. Habitat destruction, Predation: Both terrestrial and avian litt., as cited in Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, alteration, conversion, and predators prey upon antpittas, including p. 327). fragmentation continue to be factors the mountain coati (Nasuella olivacea), Nearly all the other forested habitat affecting the brown-banded antpitta. tayra (Eira barbara—in the weasel below 3,300 m (10,827 ft) in the Central The direct loss of habitat through family), squirrel cuckoo (Piaya cayana), Andes where the brown-banded antpitta widespread deforestation and and crimson-rumped toucanet occurred historically has been conversion of primary forests for human (Aulacorhynchus haematopygus) (Dobbs deforested and cleared for agricultural settlement and agricultural uses has led et al. 2001, p. 231). Brown-banded land use (BLI 2004c, p. 2). The to the habitat fragmentation throughout antpittas are a ground dwelling, nearly remaining forests providing suitable the brown-banded antpitta’s range. flightless species (Beltra´n and Kattan habitat for the brown-banded antpitta Cultivation of illegal drug crops, such as 2002, p. 327; Krabbe and Schulenberg have become fragmented and isolated cocaine, leads to further deforestation 2003, p. 719). Antpittas generally react and are either surrounded by or being and alters soil compositions, hindering non-confrontationally in response to converted to pasture and agricultural regeneration of abandoned fields. In potential predators, relying on crops (e.g., coffee plantations, potatoes, addition, drug eradication programs camouflage as a defense mechanism. and beans) (BLI 2004c, p. 2). involving the aerial spraying of Nesting birds rarely call from atop their Approximately 85 percent of forested nonspecific herbicides lead to further nests (Wiedenfeld 1982, p. 580); they habitat at altitudes between 1,900 m environmental degradation and rely on their cryptic plumage and (6,234 ft) and 3,200 m (10,499 ft) has destruction of primary forest habitat. remain still to avoid detection when been converted to other land uses (BLI The current populations are small, very potential predators approach (Dobbs et 2004c, p. 2; Cuervo 2002, p. 327; localized, and limited to a narrow al. 2001, pp. 226, 230). As discussed in Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 205). In 1998, elevational band that contains detail above for the blue-billed curassow forest conversion within the range of the fragmented, disjunct, and isolated (Factor C, Predation), research on brown-banded antpitta was projected to habitat. The species does not appear Andean understory nesting birds that continue (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. capable of recolonizing areas of suitable are similar to the ground-dwelling 205). Cuervo (2002, p. 328) estimated habitat that are isolated from extant brown-banded antpitta (Beltra´n and that the available suitable habitat for locations (see Factor E, Likelihood to Kattan 2002, p. 327) indicated that this species totals no more than 500 km2 Disperse). predation rates increase in isolated and (310 mi2); BirdLife International Historically, the species was known fragmented forest habitats, especially estimated that the species currently only in one location, near Laguneta, smaller forest patches that facilitate occupies an area 300 km2 (116 mi2) in which had been reduced to 10 percent predator access to the understory size (BLI 2007f, p. 1). of its original vegetative cover by 1994. (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, p. 138; Currently, the species’ range is Gibbs 1991, p. 157; Hoover et al. 1995, Deforestation has greatly affected the estimated to be 300 km2. The p. 151; Keyser et al. 1998, p. 991; Keyser current population size and destruction and fragmentation of the 2002, p. 186; Renjifo 1999, p. 1133; distributional range of the brown- remaining primary forested habitat is Wilcove 1985, p. 1214). banded antpitta (Collar et al. 1992, p. expected to continue, with ongoing Summary of Factor C 698; Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, p. 367). human encroachment bringing The species was thought to be extinct or increased population pressures and Mountain coatis, tayras, squirrel on the verge of extinction (Beltra´n and drug crop production, along with cuckoos, and crimson-rumped toucanets Kattan 2002, pp. 326-327; Collar et al. infrastructural improvements that are known antpitta predators. Predation 1992, p. 689; Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, facilitate encroachment into previously results in the direct removal of eggs, pp. 367-369), until its rediscovery in inaccessible areas. Therefore, we find juveniles, and adults from the 1994 (Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367- that the present destruction, population. The brown-banded antpitta 369). The brown-banded antpitta is now modification, and curtailment of habitat produces a low clutch size (see Habitat confirmed within three localities, are a threat to the brown-banded and Life History), and predation can including the Ucumarı´ Regional Park, antpitta throughout all of its range. remove potentially reproductive adults the Rı´o Toche Valley, and the Rı´o from the breeding pool. Moreover, Blanco basin. These habitats are B. Overutilization for Commercial, habitat fragmentation has occurred and characterized as heterogeneous and Recreational, Scientific, or Educational is ongoing throughout the brown- fragmented (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. Purposes banded antpitta’s range (Factor A). 327; Kattan and Beltra´n 2002, p. 237). We are not aware of any information Studies on similar species in similar The species is considered extirpated currently available that addresses the Andean habitats indicate that from its type locality (Beltra´n 2002 in occurrence of overutilization that may vulnerability to predation increases litt., as cited in Beltra´n and Kattan, p. be causing a decline of the brown- with increased habitat fragmentation 327), despite the existence of suitable banded antpitta. Therefore, we do not and smaller patch sizes. The brown- habitat (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. consider overutilization for commercial, banded antpitta does not have 328), suggesting that the species is recreational, scientific, or educational sophisticated anti-predator response unable to recolonize areas from which it purposes to be a threat to the brown- mechanisms, making this species has been extirpated. banded antpitta. particularly vulnerable to an increased

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risk of predation. Predation exacerbates hamper conservation of the brown- banded antpitta within this Reserve the genetic complications associated banded antpitta. The existing laws and (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 325; Collar with the species’ small population size the decentralized nature of forestry et al. 1992, p. 698). Threfore, the threat (Factor E). Because of the species’ small management are ineffective at protecting from habitat destruction (Factor A) is population size and inability to the brown-banded antpitta and its not reduced or ameliorated within this recolonize isolated habitat fragments habitat even within protected areas area. (Factor E), predation renders the species (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, p. Summary of Factor D vulnerable to local extirpation. 183). Therefore, we find that predation, Colombia has several categories of Colombia has numerous laws and exacerbated by ongoing habitat national habitat protection (Matallana-T. regulatory mechanisms to administer destruction (Factor A), is a threat to the 2005, p. 121-122), which were described and manage wildlife and their habitats. brown-banded antpitta. above, as part of the Factor D analysis The brown-banded antpitta is listed as for the blue-billed curassow (Matallana- endangered under Colombian law and D. The Inadequacy of Existing T. 2005, p. 121-122). Of the four areas lives within forested or protected areas Regulatory Mechanisms identified as refugia for the brown- that are regulated by law. However, on- Regulatory mechanisms may provide banded antpitta, two are considered the-ground enforcement of existing species-specific or habitat-specific protected areas under Colombian law: wildlife protection and forestry laws protections. An evaluation of the (1) the Ucumarı´ Regional Park and (2) and oversight of the local jurisdictions adequacy of regulatory mechanisms Reserva del Can˜ on del Quindı´o. implementing and regulating activities within Colombia to mitigate or remove (1) The Ucumarı´ Regional Park are ineffective at mitigating the primary the threats to the brown-banded antpitta (Risaralda Department) is managed by threat to the brown-banded antpitta. As is provided below, beginning with the Corporacio´n Auto´noma Regional de discussed for Factor A, habitat species-specific and followed by Risaralda (CARDER) (BLI 2008a, p. 3), destruction, degradation, and habitat-specific protection mechanisms. with the primary goals of conservation fragmentation continue throughout the Colombia has enacted numerous laws and ecotourism. The Park is managed existing range of the brown-banded to protect species and their habitats for multiple uses, including agriculture antpitta. Under Colombian law, there (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121). The brown- and cattle grazing (BLI 2008a, p. 1), and are two protected areas containing banded antpitta is listed as an includes recreation and commercial suitable habitat for the brown-banded endangered species under Colombian areas for activities such as camping and antpitta. The species is known to occur Law 99 of 1993 (EcoLex 1993, p. 2) and freshwater fishing (CARDER 1995, pp. in only one of these areas, wherein Resolution No. 584 of 2002 (EcoLex 3-4). According to the management plan resources are managed for commercial 2002, pp. 10, 12). A full description of for the Park that was instituted in 1995, and recreational uses. Conservation these laws and the categorization of recreational and commercial activities planning within both areas is lacking, so threatened species in Colombia were are permitted only when they do not that the existence of these protected provided above, as part of the Factor D significantly alter the environment areas does not mitigate the threat of analysis for the blue-billed curassow. (CARDER 1995, pp. 3-4). However, habitat loss. Therefore, we find that the This threat status confers protections according to BirdLife International existing regulatory mechanisms upon the species, including protection (2008a, p. 3), there has been little in the currently in place are inadequate to from commercial take under Resolution way of conservation planning, and the mitigate the primary threats to the No. 849 of 1973 and Resolution No. 787 habitat within the protected area brown-banded antpitta. of 1977 (EcoLex 1973, p.1; EcoLex 1977, continues to undergo pressures from E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors p. 3). Hunting is not a threat to this agricultural expansion, firewood Affecting the Continued Existence of the species. Therefore, this law is not collection, and selective cutting. Species effective at reducing the primary threat Consequently, the threat from habitat to the species—habitat destruction. destruction (Factor A) is not reduced or Two additional factors affect the Colombia has enacted numerous ameliorated. brown-banded antpitta: itslikelihood to forestry laws and forestry management (2) Reserva del Can˜ on del Quindı´o disperse and their small population practices (Law No. 2 (EcoLex 1959); (Quindı´o Department) is managed by size. Decree No. 2,811 (Faolex 1974); Decree the Corporacio´n Auto´noma Regional del Likelihood to Disperse: The brown- No. 1,791 (Faolex 1996); Law No. 1,021 Quindı´o (2008, p. 1). According to the banded antpitta exhibits several (EcoLex 2006)). Weaknesses in the management plan for the Department of characteristics indicative of its implementation of these laws and the Quindı´o , between inability to recolonize previously resource management are described in 2007 and 2009, forestry planning will inhabited locations, despite the detail above for the blue-billed curassow commence for the entire Department presence of suitable habitat. This (Factor D) (ITTO 2006, pp. 218-9, 222; with the goal of completing forest plans ground-dwelling species (Beltra´n and Matallana-T. 2005, pp. 121-122). The for four different areas within the Kattan 2002, p. 327) has a high brown-banded antpitta ranges in Department by the end of 2009. There territorial fidelity and, although multiple Departments (currently known is no information to indicate which dispersal capabilities are not well- in Risaralda, Caldas, and Tolima), all of areas will be included in this initial known (Cuervo 2002, p. 327) except which are administered by different planning development phase. Therefore, those in the banding study by Kattan autonomous Corporacio´nes. Habitat we are unable to determine what and Beltra´n (2002, p. 234), the farthest destruction, the primary threat to the protections may exist for the brown- known distance traveled by any one brown-banded antpitta, is ongoing banded antpitta within this Reserve. individual bird was 0.041 km2 (0.02 throughout the species’ range (Factor A). Moreover, as discussed under Factor A, mi2). This suggests that the brown- The lack of a national conservation although this Reserve contains suitable banded antpitta is unable to repopulate strategy for the brown-banded antpitta, habitat for the brown-banded antpitta an isolated patch of suitable habitat combined with decentralized natural (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 328), there following decline or local extirpation of resource management in Colombia, may are no known populations of the brown- that patch (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p.

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7; Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46). The local contributing to population growth will imminent risks from inbreeding. Ne extirpation of this species from its type be a smaller number than the total represents the number of animals in a locality in Laguneta, Quindı´o (Beltra´n number of individuals. In a review by population that actually contribute to and Kattan 2002, p. 327), and the lack Jetz et al. (2008, p. 110) of 1,158 well- reproduction, and is often much smaller of recolonization despite the existence studied bird species in Australia, North than the census, or total number of of suitable habitat in the Can˜ on del America, and southern Africa, Jetz et al. individuals in the population (N). Quindı´o Reserve, support the (2008, p. 115) found that most species Furthermore, the rule states that the hypothesis that the species may be occurred in only 40-70 percent of the long-term fitness of a population incapable of dispersing to suitable predicted range. They further noted that requires an Ne of at least 500 habitat fragments without human narrow-ranging species, such as the individuals, so that it will not lose its intervention. To the best of our brown-banded antpitta, are particularly genetic diversity over time and will knowledge, there are no recovery or subject to population size maintain an enhanced capacity to adapt reintroduction programs in place for overestimation, because they are to changing conditions. Therefore, an this species. unlikely to be randomly distributed analysis of the fitness of this population Small Population Size: There have within the habitat (Jetz et al. 2008, p. would be a good indicator of the been few quantitative studies of brown- 116). Moreover, at-risk species, existing species’ overall survivability. The banded antpitta populations. A total of in declining, fragmented populations (as available information for 2007 indicates 48 individuals have been directly is the case for the brown-banded that the total global population of the observed at two locations (Ucumarı´ antpitta) are often absent from suitable brown-banded antpitta may range Regional Park and Rı´o Toche) (Cuervo but suboptimal habitat, thus between 338 and 756 individuals (BLI in litt., as cited in Beltra´n 2002 p. 326; exacerbating range overestimates (Jetz et 2007f, p. 4); 338 is above the minimum Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367-369; al. 2008, p. 115). For instance, although effective population size required to Kattan and Beltra´n 1999, p. 276; Kattan suitable habitat exists in the species’ avoid risks from inbreeding (Ne = 50), and Beltra´n 2002, pp. 232-233), 30 have type locality (Laguneta) in the Can˜ on and 756 is above the upper threshold for been inferred at one location (Rı´o del Quindı´o Reserve, the species has not long-term fitness (Ne = 500). Blanco) (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. been observed there since 1942 and is Given that the global population size 326), and up to 106 have been predicted considered extirpated from this locality is a qualitative assessment that may be to occur in one subpopulation within (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 327; Collar an overestimate, that the actual number the brown-banded antpitta’s current et al. 1992, p. 698). Thus, the species of breeding pairs is unknown but range (Ucumarı´ Regional Park) (Kattan appears to be incapable of repopulating smaller than this number, and that the and Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367-369; Kattan suitable habitat on its own accord species exists in subpopulations that are and Beltra´n 1999, p. 276; Kattan and (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002, p. 328; Jetz et unlikely to disperse into other locations, Beltra´n 2002, pp. 232-233). From work al. 2008, p. 115) and the existence of it is beneficial to analyze the fitness of at Ucumarı´ Regional Park, Kattan and suitable habitat does not connote the the subpopulations that have been ´ Beltran (1997, pp. 367-369; Kattan and presence of the species. This conclusion quantitatively assessed. The best- ´ Beltran 1999, p. 276) predicted a is supported by Beltra´n and Kattan studied subpopulation is located within population density of approximately 1.3 the Ucumarı´ Regional Park. A total of 47 2 2 (2002, p. 328), who noted that, out of a individuals per .01 km (0.004 mi ). potential habitat of 855 km2 (330 mi2), individuals have been directly observed, The IUCN has estimated the brown- the species did not occupy two of the and researchers estimate that the area banded antpitta’s total population size may support as many as 106 individuals seven historical localities, prompting to be more than 250 and fewer than 999 (Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, pp. 367-369; them to reduce the estimated area of adult individuals in a 300-km2 (116-mi2) Kattan and Beltra´n 1999, p. 276; Kattan occupancy to no more than 500 km2. area (BLI 2007f, p. 1). However, this is and Beltra´n 2002, pp. 232-233). Forty- Thus, ground-truthing is essential to a categorical approximation based on seven is just below the minimum accurate population-size estimations. the following extrapolation: an expected effective population size required to The IUCN is reviewing this situation to average of 2.5 to 5.6 individuals per avoid risks from inbreeding (N = 50 improve upon conservation assessments e square kilometer multiplied by 45 individuals). Moreover, the upper (Jetz et al. 2008, p. 117), and although percent of the extent of occurrence (300 estimate of 106 individuals (not all of it may be an overestimate, the figure km2) (116 mi2) (BLI 2007f, p. 1), leading which will be reproducing) is to estimated population numbers ranging from 338 to 756 individuals approximately one-fifth of the upper represents the best information on between 338 and 756 individuals (BLI threshold (Ne = 500 individuals) 2007f, p. 4). While this density is well population size. required for long-term fitness of a within Kattan and Beltra´n’s (1997, pp. Based on genetic considerations, in population that will not lose its genetic 367-369; Kattan and Beltra´n 1999, p. the absence of quantitative studies diversity over time and will maintain an 276) predicted population density of 1.3 specific to this species, a generally enhanced capacity to adapt to changing individuals per .01 km2 (116 mi2), it accepted approximation of minimum conditions. Therefore, we currently should be noted that extrapolating viable population size is described by consider the species to be at risk due to population sizes based on the the 50/500 rule (Shaffer 1981, p. 133; the lack of near- and long-term viability. availability of suitable habitat may Soule´ 1980, pp. 160-162). According to Small population sizes render species result in an overestimate for the brown- this rule, the minimum viable vulnerable to genetic risks that can have banded antpitta for several reasons: (1) population size is defined as the individual or population-level the species may not be randomly minimum number of individuals that is consequences on the genetic level and distributed within the given habitat; (2) sufficient to respond over time to can increase the species’ susceptibility extrapolation does not take into account unexpected environmental conditions to demographic problems, as explained human-induced threats, such as within the species’ habitat (Shaffer in more detail above for the blue-billed disturbance or hunting; and (3) not all 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, pp. 160- curassow (Factor E, Small Population individuals within the population are 162). This rule states that an effective Size) (Charlesworth and Charlesworth breeding at any one time, so that the population size (Ne) of 50 individuals is 1987, p. 238; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Once actual number of individuals the minimum size required to avoid a population is reduced below a certain

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number of individuals, it tends to isolation of remaining populations extirpation, which the species has rapidly decline towards extinction (Factor E). already experienced in its type locality (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and The direct loss of habitat through due to habitat destruction. Within the Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. widespread deforestation and last three generations, or 10 years, the 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). conversion of primary forests to human brown-banded antpitta has undergone The brown-banded antpitta’s settlement and agricultural uses has led up to a 9 percent reduction in restricted range, combined with its to the fragmentation of habitat population size and, at the current level small population size (Cuervo and throughout the range of the brown- of habitat destruction, this rate of Salaman 1999, p. 7; Cuervo 2002, p. banded antpitta and isolation of the decline is projected to continue over the 138; del Hoyo 1994, p. 361) and low remaining populations. The species has next 10 years. Below a certain number, prospect for dispersal (Beltra´n and been locally extirpated in its type species are unable to recover and, given Kattan 2002, p. 326; BLI 2004c, p. 2; locality and has experienced a 55 the small number and isolated nature of Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del percent reduction of suitable habitat, existing populations, such reductions in 2 Hoyo 1994, p. 361; Kattan and Beltra´n and its range is estimated to be 300 km numbers could lead to extinction of the 2 1997, pp. 369-370; Kattan and Beltra´n (116 mi ). brown-banded antpitta. 1999, p. 273; Kattan and Beltra´n 2002, Brown-banded antpittas are Although Colombia has adopted p. 238) makes the species particularly vulnerable to predation by mountain numerous laws and regulatory vulnerable to the threat of adverse coatis, tayras, squirrel cuckoos, and mechanisms to administer and manage crimson-rumped toucanets (Factor C). natural (e.g., genetic, demographic, or wildlife and their habitats, on-the- Habitat fragmentation (Factor A) stochastic) and manmade (e.g., habitat ground enforcement of these laws and contributes to this vulnerability, alteration and destruction) events that oversight of the local jurisdictions because research indicates that destroy individuals and their habitats implementing and regulating activities predation increases with increased (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia 2001, pp. are inadequate to address the primary habitat fragmentation and smaller patch 185-190; Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; threat to this species, which is habitat sizes. Predation leads to the direct Primack 1998, pp. 279-308; Young and loss (Factor A). Several populations of removal of eggs, juveniles, and adults Clarke 2000, pp. 361-366). brown-banded antpitta are within from the population, exacerbating risks sanctuaries or preserves; however, Summary of Factor E associated with the species’ small habitat destruction and hunting population size and the risk of local continues within the areas, and The brown-banded antpitta’s small extirpation (Factor E). Brown-banded population size increases its regulations are not uniformly enforced, antpittas, as with other antpittas, monitoring is limited, and management vulnerability to genetic risks associated produce a low clutch size (see Habitat with small population sizes that plans are not developed or and Life History) and predation can implemented, resulting in ineffective negatively impact the species’ long-term destroy pair bonds and remove viability and increase the possibility of protective measures for conservation of potentially reproductive adults from the the species. localized extirpations of the remaining breeding pool. fragmented populations. Further, the We have carefully assessed the best The threats from habitat destruction available scientific and commercial species is unlikely to repopulate areas of (Factor A) and predation (Factor C) are suitable habitat from which it has been information regarding the past, present, compounded by the species’ small and potential future threats faced by the locally extirpated because it exhibits population size (Factor E). The brown- brown-banded antpitta. We consider the high territorial fidelity and has never banded antpitta has undergone a ongoing threats to the brown-banded repopulated suitable existing habitat population decline that is closely antpitta, habitat destruction (Factor A) within the Department of Quindı´o, associated with a reduction in range and predation (Factor C), exacerbated by where the species’ type locality caused by habitat destruction (Factor A). the species’ small population size and (Laguneta) is located and the species has The brown-banded antpitta’s small limited dispersal ability (Factor E), and not been observed since 1942. population size of between 338 and 756 compounded by inadequate regulatory Consequently, we believe that, in individuals is likely to be an mechanisms to mitigate these threats combination with the risks to the overestimate based on the fact that (Factor D), to be equally present and of species from habitat destruction (Factor population sizes for narrow-ranging A) and predation (Factor C), the brown- species are typically overestimated the same magnitude throughout the banded antpitta is vulnerable to when based on extent of occurrence. species’ entire current range. Based on localized extirpation or extinction from The species’ subpopulations, one of this information, we conclude that the which the species would be unable to which is estimated to include only 46 to brown-banded antpitta is in danger of recover, due it its small population size 106 individuals, are isolated from each extinction throughout all of its range. and apparent inability to repopulate other. The species’ confirmed absence Therefore, we are proposing to list the fragmented, isolated habitats such as from suitable habitat within its historic brown-banded antpitta as an that currently present within this range, combined with the species’ high endangered species. species’ range. territorial fidelity, suggests that the III. Cauca Guan (Penelope perspicax) species is incapable of repopulating Status Determination for the Brown- suitable habitat without human Species Description Banded Antpitta intervention. We are unaware of any The Cauca guan, a member of the The four primary factors that threaten reintroduction or recovery programs for Cracid family, is endemic to the central the survival of the brown-banded this species. The species’ small and western slopes of the Andes of antpitta are: (1) habitat destruction, population size increases its Colombia (Brooks and Strahl 2000, p. fragmentation, and degradation (Factor vulnerability to natural and human 13; Delacour and Amadon 2004, pp. A); (2) predation (Factor C); (3) factors (e.g., genetic isolation, 133-135; Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 125). inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms to agricultural development, increased It is a large bird, measuring reduce the threats to the species (Factor human settlement, and road approximately 76 cm (30 in) in length D); and (4) small population size and development) that could lead to local (Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 125). The

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species is locally known as ‘‘Pava which is considered low. Guans remain 301; Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-126). Since Caucana’’ (Renjifo 2002, p. 124; Rios et paired during the breeding period and 1987, most observations of this species al. 2006, p. 17). The Cauca guan is until chicks are 1 year in age; this is have been at elevations ranging from described as a ‘‘drab’’ brown-gray, with considered a long fledging period (Rios 1,400 to 2,000 m (4,593 to 6,562 ft) a chestnut-colored rear part and tail, et al. 2006, p. 17). Cracids are also slow (Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-125), with an and a bright red dewlap (a flap of skin to reproduce, with a replacement rate of occasional sighting at altitudes well hanging beneath its lower jaw) (BLI at least 6 years (Silva and Strahl 1991, below (i.e., 816 m (2,677 ft)) or well 2007h, p. 1). p. 50). above (i.e., 2,690 m (8,825 ft)) this altitudinal range (Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, p. Taxonomy Historical Range and Distribution 54; Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-125; Rios et al. The Cauca guan was first The Cauca guan’s historical 2006, p. 17). The Ucumarı´ Regional Park taxonomically described by Bangs in distribution included the east slopes of is considered the stronghold of the 1911 and placed in the Cracidae family the West Andes and the Cauca, Patı´a, species (BLI 2007h, p. 1) (see Population (BLI 2007h, p. 1). and Dagua Valleys, in the Departments Estimates). of Cauca, Quindı´o, Risaralda, and Valle Habitat and Life History The habitat consists primarily of de Cauca. The historic range is forest fragments, and although The Cauca guan has been observed in estimated to have been approximately continuous cover remains at elevations mature tropical humid forests and in 24,900 km2 (9,614 mi2) (Renjifo 2002, p. above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) (Kattan et al. fragmented secondary forests, forest 128). In the early part of the 20th 2006, p. 303), researchers have not edges, and plantations of the exotic Century, the Cauca guan inhabited the ascertained whether the species inhabits Chinese ash (Fraxinus chinensis) trees dry forests of the Cauca, Dagua, and these higher-altitude contiguous forest that are located within 1 km (0.62 mi) Patı´a Valleys (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). The areas (Renjifo 2002, p. 129). The current of primary forest (Kattan et al. 2006, p. Cauca Valley lies between the central range of the species totals less than 750 299; Renjifo 2002, p. 127; Rios et al. and western Andes and spans the km2 (290 mi2), of which only 560 km2 2006, pp. 17-18). Older reports indicate Departments of Cauca, Valle de Cauca, (216 mi2) is considered suitable habitat that the species once inhabited dry Quindı´o, and Risaralda (WWF 2001a, p. (BLI 2007h, p. 1; Kattan et al. 2006, p. forests in the Cauca, Patı´a, and Dagua 1). The Dagua Valley lies on the Pacific 299; Rios et al. 2006, p.17). River valleys (Renjifo 2002, p. 126). The side of the western Andes, in Valle de Cauca guan requires large territories for Cauca; it is described as an isolated Population Estimates foraging (Kattan 2004, p. 11), but today valley of dry forest that changes in Cauca guan populations are is relegated mostly to small forest elevation from 400 to 2,000 m (1,312 to characterized as small, ranging from fragments (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 301). 6,562 ft) and is surrounded at upper only tens of individuals or, in rare This species, as with other guans, tends elevations by humid forest to the west instances, hundreds (Renjifo 2002, p. to aggregate within its habitat, generally and cloud forest to the north, south, and 12). BirdLife International reported that based on resource availability. For east (Silva 2003, p. 4). The Patı´a Valley the largest subpopulation contained an instance, Cauca guans tend to lies between the central and western estimated 50 to 249 individuals; congregate around fruit trees at certain Andes in the Department of Cauca, in however, they do not specify to which times of year. Thus, depending on the southwestern Colombia; it has a mean population this refers, and these figures time of year, improper sampling might altitude of 600-900 m (1,969-2,953 ft) are not found in any of the other tend to overestimate or underestimate (WWF 2001c, p. 1). This area was once literature regarding population surveys the population (Kattan et al. 2006, p. covered in wetlands, humid forests, and of the Cauca guan. Ucumarı´ Regional 305). Cauca guans are reportedly timid dry forests. Today, most of the dry Park has been considered the stronghold in the presence of humans (Rios et al. forests have been eliminated and highly of the species (BLI 2007h, p. 1). Sixteen 2006, p. 21). fragmented, such that continuous forest individuals were counted in 1990, and Cauca guans feed mostly on fruit and exists only above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) the species was characterized as leaves (including those of the non- (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). ‘‘common’’ in plantations in 1994-1995 native Chinese ash trees) and From the beginning of the 20th (Wege and Long 1995, p. 141). Since occasionally on invertebrates and Century through the 1950s, the species then, there have been scant sightings of flowers (Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, p. 49; was considered common (BLI 2007h, p. Cauca guan there (Renjifo 2002, p. 125; Renjifo 2002, p. 127; Rios et al. 2006, 1; Renjifo 2002, p. 126). Between the Wege and Long 1995, p. 141), including pp. 17-18). Although primarily 1970s and 1980s, there was extensive the observation of one individual in the terrestrial, the species is occasionally deforestation in the Cauca Valley, and Park in 2004 (Scanlon 2004, pp. 1-3). found in the upper stories of forests the species went unobserved during this There have been no population surveys obtaining food. Because fruit availability time, leading researchers to suspect that within the Park to determine the within a forest is spatially and the Cauca guan was either extinct or on species’ current population size therein. temporally variable, guans must the verge of extinction (Brooks and Munchique National Natural Park undergo regional movements in pursuit Strahl 2000, p. 14; del Hoyo 1994, pp. (Cauca) is considered to be the most of fruiting plants. The species is usually 337, 349; Hilty 1985, p. 1004; Hilty and important locality for this species in the found singly, in pairs, or in groups of up Brown 1986, p. 125). The species was southern portion of its range because of to six individuals. The largest recorded rediscovered in 1987 (Renjifo 2002, p. the extensive remaining forest habitat, gathering of Cauca guans was 30 124). although habitat destruction is ongoing individuals (Rios et al. 2006, p. 16). there (see Factor A). The species was There are two breeding seasons Current Range and Distribution last recorded in Munchique in 1987, but coinciding with the rainy seasons, one Today, the Cauca guan inhabits the has not been confirmed there since at the beginning of the year and another eastern and western slopes of the West (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 305; Mun˜ oz et al. in August (Rios et al. 2006, p. 17). Nests and Central Andes Mountain ranges, in 2006, p. 54; Salaman in litt. 1999, 2000, are circular cups made of leaves and the Departments of Cauca, Quindı´o, as cited in BLI 2007h, p. 2). small branches (Renjifo 2002, p. 127), Risaralda, and Valle de Cauca (BLI Kattan et al. (2006, p. 302) conducted and the typical clutch size is two eggs, 2007h, p. 1; Kattan et al. 2006, pp. 299, the only two population surveys in 2000

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and 2001 (Mun˜ oz et al. 2006 p. 55). forest edges, and in feral plantations of fragmented forest remnants, and the They estimated population densities at the exotic Chinese ash trees that are Cauca guan is absent from most of these two locations, Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora located within 1 km (0.62 mi) of fragments (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). The and Fauna Sanctuary (Risaralda) and primary forest (Kattan et al. 2006, p. species has been extirpated from the Reserva Forestal de Yotoco (Valle de 299; Renjifo 2002, p. 127; Rios et al. Cauca and Dagua Valleys, but may still Cauca), to be 144-264 individuals and 2006, pp. 17-18). Its current range is exist in patches within the Patı´a Valley 35-61 individuals, respectively (Kattan estimated to be less than 750 km2 (290 (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). Beginning in et al. 2006, p. 304). Kattan et al. (2006, mi2), of which only 560 km2 (216 mi2) 1989, the species was observed several p. 302) also examined 10 additional is considered suitable habitat (BLI times in the Department of Risaralda, in localities, based on locality data 2007h, p. 2; Kattan et al. 2006, p. 299; an area and at elevations that were not reported by Renjifo (2002, pp. 124-125). Rios et al. 2006, p. 17). It is estimated part of the species’ historic range, but Visual confirmations were made at only that more than 30 percent of this loss of represent the extreme fringe of its 2 of the 10 localities (Reserva La Sirena habitat has occurred within the last former range (Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-5). and Chorro de Plata, both in the three generations, or 30 years (Renjifo Habitat destruction and alteration, in Department of Valle de Cauca), where 2002, p. 129). addition to shifting the species to the the extent and occurrence of the Deforestation rates and patterns: fringes of its former range, have caused populations have yet to be determined Colombia has experienced extensive the Cauca guan to shift in its altitudinal (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 303). Auditory deforestation in the last half of the 20th distribution (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, confirmations were made at 5 of the 10 Century as a result of habitat conversion p. 8). Nearly all the forested habitat for human settlements, road building, localities, including: La Zulia, Chicoral, below 3,300 m (10,827 ft) in the Central agriculture, and timber extraction. A Las Brisas, San Antonio, and Planes de Andes, where the Cauca guan occurs 23–year study, from 1973 to 1996, San Rafael (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 302). today, has been deforested and cleared demonstrated that these activities In 2006, Kattan (in litt., as cited in for agricultural land use, such as reduced the amount of primary forest Mun˜ oz et al. 2006 p. 55) estimated the pasture, coffee plantations, potatoes, cover in Colombia by approximately global population to be between 196 and and beans (BLI 2004c, p. 2). 3,605 ha (8,908 ac) annually, 342 individuals. The IUCN has placed Approximately 85 percent of forested representing a nearly one-third total loss the Cauca guan in the population habitat at altitudes between 1,900 m of primary forest habitat (Vin˜ a et al. category ranging from 250 to no more (6,234 ft) and 3,200 m (10,499 ft) has than 1,000 (BLI 2007h, pp. 1, 3). 2004, pp. 123-124). Beginning in the 1980s, habitat loss increased been converted to other land uses (BLI Overall, the population is considered to 2004c, p. 2; Cuervo 2002, p. 327; be in decline (BLI 2007h, p. 2; Kattan dramatically as a result of influxes of people settling in formerly pristine areas Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 205). By 2004, p. 6; Renjifo 2002, p. 129). ´ (Perz et al. 2005, pp. 26-28; Vin˜ a et al. 1994, in Quindıo, extensive Conservation Status 2004, p. 124). More recent studies deforestation at elevations between 1,800 and 2,600 m (5,905 and 8,530 ft) The Cauca guan is listed as indicate that the rate of habitat destruction is accelerating. During the led to the destruction of much of the endangered under Colombian law Cauca guan’s preferred habitat of mature (EcoLex 2002, p. 12). The IUCN period 1990-2005, Colombia lost approximately 52,800 ha (130,471 ac) of humid forests (Collar et al. 1994, p. categorizes the species as ‘‘Endangered’’ 136). Prior to the species’ rediscovery in due to its small, contracted range primary forest annually (Butler 2006a, pp. 1-3; FAO 2003a, p. 1). These studies 1987, its altitudinal range was between composed of widely fragmented patches 1,300 and 2,100 m (4265 and 6890 ft) of habitat (BLI 2004e, p. 1). and activities are described in greater detail above, as part of the Factor A (del Hoyo 1994, p. 349; Hilty and Brown Summary of Factors Affecting the Cauca analysis for the blue-billed curassow 1986, p. 125), with occasional sightings Guan (Deforestation Rates and Patterns). at lower elevations in the Patı´a Valley (between 642 and 650 m (2,106 and A. The Present or Threatened Human-induced deforestation and environmental degradation have caused 2,133 ft) (Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 125; Destruction, Modification, or Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-125). Since 1987, Curtailment of the Habitat or Range the Cauca guan to shift its range and elevational distribution to the few the Cauca guan has been observed only Historically, Cauca guans were remaining forest remnants. The Cauca in the remaining and much-restricted considered common (BLI 2007h, p. 1; guan was once considered to occur only forest remnants of the following Renjifo 2002, p. 126). They inhabited on the eastern slopes of the West Andes Departments: Cauca (in the years 1987, the eastern slopes of the west Andes and and Cauca, Patı´a, and Dagua Valleys 1989, and 1992), Quindı´o (1995 – 1997), the dry forests of the Cauca, Dagua, and (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). Today, the Risaralda (1989, 1995-1997, 2000, 2001), Patı´a Valleys, in the Departments of species occurs on the western slopes of and Valle de Cauca (1988, 1999, 2000) Cauca, Quindı´o, and Valle del Cauca the central and western Andes of (Delacour and Amadon 2004, p. 135; (Renjifo 2002, p. 124) (see Historical Colombia (BLI 2007h, p. 1; Delacour and Kattan et al. 2006, p. 299; Renjifo 2002, Distribution, above), in a range Amadon 2004, p. 135; Kattan et al. pp. 124-125). Renjifo (2002, pp. 124- extending over approximately 24,900 2006, p. 299; Renjifo 2002, p. 124). 125) provided detailed observation km2 (9,614 mi2). Extensive habitat During the latter half of the 20th records indicating that reports since destruction and fragmentation since the Century, much of the lower-elevation 1987 ranged in altitude between one 1950s has resulted in an estimated 95 forests in the Rı´o Cauca Valley, where sighting at 900 m (2,953 ft) in the Patı´a percent range reduction (Chapman the species was observed most often Valley in 1992, and the rest between 1917, p. 195; Collar et al. 1992, p. 126; between 1937 and 1963 (Renjifo 2002, p. 1,350 and 2,690 m (4,429 and 8,825 ft). Kattan et al. 2006, p. 299; Renjifo 2002, 124), were deforested. Habitat In 2006, Mun˜ oz et al. (2006, p. 54) pp. 126-127; Rios et al. 2006, p. 17). As destruction and alteration in the sub- reported the species’ range as being a result, although it prefers mature Andean slopes around the Cauca, Dagua between 1,200 and 2,600 m (3,937 and tropical humid forests, the Cauca guan and Patı´a Valleys has left only a few 8,530 ft) and Rios et al. (2006, p. 17) exists primarily in fragmented and hundred hectares (100 hectares = 1 km2 reported the species’ range as 1,000- isolated secondary forest remnants, = 0.39 mi2) of isolated, small, 2,500 m (3,281-8,202 ft). These ranges

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are consistent with recent observations Government of Colombia reported that making it more susceptible to habitat of the species. Kattan et al. (2006, pp. no coca had been cultivated in the disturbance, further fragmentation, and 299, 301) reported its range as 1,000- Departments of Quindı´o and Risaralda destruction from human activity (Brooks 2,000 m (3,281-6,562 ft), noting that since the year 2000 (UNODC and GOC and Strahl 2000, p. 10; Silva and Strahl recent sightings at higher elevations 2005, p. 48). This was attributed to 1991, p. 38). demonstrated that the species has alternative development programs being An analysis of the effects of habitat shifted its altitudinal range, as implemented between 1999 and 2007, fragmentation on Andean birds within deforestation throughout much of for which US$200,000 was provided to western Colombia established that 31 Cauca, Dagua, and Patı´a Valley has left Quindı´o and US$800,000 to Risaralda percent of the historical bird only isolated forest fragments remaining (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 48). During populations in western Colombia had at elevations below 2,000 m (6,562 ft). the same period, at least US$12.1 become extinct or locally extirpated by Although continuous cover remains in million (mill) was spent in alternative 1990, largely as a result of habitat some locations above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) development programs in Cauca, where fragmentation from deforestation caused (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 303), researchers coca production decreased, and another by human encroachment (Kattan and are uncertain whether the species 1.6 mill was spent in Valle de Cauca, A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; Kattan et al. inhabits these areas (Renjifo 2002, p. where coca production increased 1994, p. 141). Kattan and A´ lvarez-Lopez 129). The mid-montane and cloud (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 48). (1996, pp. 5-6) also identified two forests in the Department of Risaralda, This stabilization of the amount of conditions that increase a species’ where this species was observed as land under cultivation for illegal drugs vulnerability to extinction or local recently as the year 2000 (Renjifo 2002, is also attributed to heightened extirpation as a result of habitat p. 124), continue to undergo eradication efforts. Between 2002 and fragmentation: (1) species at the upper deforestation (Dolphijn 2005, p. 2). In 2004, aerial spraying occurred over or lower limit of their altitudinal 2 2 Cauca, timber extraction and mining are more than 1,300 km (502 mi ) distribution (which is the case for the ongoing (Uruen˜ a et al. 2006, p. 42). annually, peaking in 2004, when 1,360 2 2 Cauca guan) are more susceptible to Deforestation and habitat alteration are km (525 mi ) of illicit crops were local extirpation and extinction, and (2) ongoing throughout the Cauca guan’s sprayed (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 11). large fruit-eating birds with limited 2 2 limited range of 560 km (216 mi ). In 2006, eradication efforts were distributions and narrow habitat Illegal drugs and their eradication: undertaken on over 2,130 km2 (822 mi2) 2 preferences were most vulnerable to Cocaine and opium have been of land, consisting of 1,720 km (664 extinction (also the case for the Cauca cultivated throughout the Cauca guan’s mi2) of land being sprayed and manual guan). Deforestation has eradicated the range. The cultivation of illegal crops eradication being used on the remaining Cauca guan from much of its historic (including coca and opium) in Colombia land. Eradication efforts undertaken in range and has led to local extirpation destroys montane forests (Balslev 1993, 2006 occurred over an area representing (Collar et al. 1994, pp. 61-62; Kattan et p. 3). Coca production destroys the soil 2.7 times more land than the net al. 2006, p. 299) in the Cauca and Dagua quality by causing the soil to become cultivation area (UNODC et al. 2007, p. Valleys (Renjifo 2002, p. 128), such as more acidic, which depletes the soil 8). In Cauca alone, 1,811 ha (4,475 ac) in San Antonio (Valle de Cauca), where nutrients and ultimately impedes the of coca fields and 435 ha (1,075 ac) of the species has not been observed since regrowth of secondary forests in opium fields were sprayed or manually 1917 (Renjifo 2002, p. 124). Moreover, abandoned fields (Van Schoik and eradicated in 2004 (UNODC 2005, p. Schulberg 1993, p. 21). As of 2004, the 66). in light of the species’ characteristics, estimated total amount of land under Drug eradication efforts in Colombia the Cauca guan is unlikely to repopulate cultivation for cocaine equaled 80,000 have further degraded and destroyed an isolated patch of suitable habitat ha (197,683 ac); 4,000 ha (9,884 ac) of primary forest habitat by using following decline or local extirpation land are under opium cultivation nonspecific aerial herbicides to destroy (see Factor E, Likelihood to Disperse). (UNODC et al. 2007, pp. 7-8). These illegal crops (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; BLI The Cauca guan, as with other figures include habitat within the Cauca 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez cracids, is susceptible to indirect effects guan’s range. Between 2003 and 2004, Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and of habitat disturbance and fragmentation cocaine cultivation areas decreased from Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Herbicide (Silva and Strahl 1991, p. 38; Brooks 1,445 to 1,266 ha (3,571 to 3,128 ac) in spraying has introduced harmful and Strahl 2000, p. 10). A study Cauca, and increased 22 percent from 37 chemicals into Cauca guan habitat and conducted in northwestern Colombia ha (91 ac) to 45 ha (111 ac) in Valle de has led to further destruction of the demonstrated that habitat destruction Cauca (UNODC and GOC 2005, p. 15). habitat by forcing illicit growers to move and fragmentation may increase a At the same time, opium cultivation to new, previously untouched forested species’ vulnerability to predation decreased in Cauca from 600 ha (1,483 areas (A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1088-1093; (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, pp. 140- ac) to 450 ha (1,112 ac) (UNODC 2005, A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; A´ lvarez 2007, pp. 142) (Factor C). In addition, habitat p. 50). 133-143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and fragmentation, combined with Colombia continues to be the leading Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham continuing human encroachment, coca bush producer (UNODC et al. 2007, and Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Between increases the species’ vulnerability to p. 7). However, since 2003, cocaine 1998 and 2002, cultivation of illicit hunting (Factor B). Habitat cultivation has remained stable at about crops increased 21 percent each year, fragmentation may affect population 800 km2 (309 mi2) of land under with a concomitant increase in densities by shifting the availability of cultivation (UNODC et al. 2007, p. 8). deforestation of formerly pristine areas resources, such as food (Kattan et al. This is attributed, in part, to the of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez 2006, p. 305). Habitat fragmentation also implementation of alternative 2002, pp. 1088-1093). compounds problems for species with development projects, which encourage Effects of habitat fragmentation: The small population sizes, such as the people to pursue alternative vocations Cauca guan requires large territories for Cauca guan, which has an estimated to planting illegal crops (UNODC et al. foraging (Kattan 2004, p. 11), but today population between 196 and 342 2007, p. 77). In 2004, the United Nations is relegated mostly to small forest individuals (Kattan in litt., as cited in Office on Drugs and Crime and the fragments (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 301), Mun˜ oz et al. 2006 p. 55) (Factor E).

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Refugia: The Cauca guan has recently conducted in 2000 and 2001, but the (Ojeda et al. 2001, pp. 308-309). Efforts been confirmed in the following extent and occurrence of the population are underway to replant lulo fruit trees locations: (1) Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora and have yet to be determined (Kattan et al. to encourage a sustainable local Fauna Sanctuary; (2) Reserva La Sirena; 2006, p. 303). economy, enhance local involvement in (3) Reserva Forestal de Yotoco; (4) (3) Reserva Forestal de Yotoco (Valle conservation, and provide technical Chorro de Plata; and (5) Munchique de Cauca) is an isolated 5.6-km2 (2.16- skills for integrated pest management. National Natural Park (Delacour and mi2) reserve on the eastern slopes of the However, logging is ongoing within the Amadon 2004, p. 135; Kattan et al. Western Andes, ranging in altitude from Park, and human population pressures 2006, p. 299, 305; Renjifo 2002, pp. 124- 1,400 to 1,600 m (4,593 to 5,249 ft) and associated deforestation, as well as 125). These locations are discussed (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 302). In dam construction, are ongoing in the below. population surveys conducted by Kattan area (BLI 2007h, p. 2). (1) Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna et al. (2006, p. 304) in 2000 and 2001, There are several areas of suitable Sanctuary (Department of Risaralda), a this subpopulation was estimated to habitat in which the Cauca guan has not 4.9-km2 (1.9-mi2) reserve in the include between 35 and 61 individuals. been observed, but that could serve as Department of Risaralda, contains a One of the last remaining humid important potential habitat for the habitat mosaic of old-growth fragments tropical forests in the Valle de Cauca, species (see Factor E, Likelihood to and regenerating secondary forests, the forest is mostly wellconserved, but Disperse), including: (1) Bosques del including abandoned ash plantations human impacts are evidenced by an Oriente del Risaralda, (2) Can˜ on del Rı´o that cover 0.18 km2 (0.07 mi2) (CARDER asphalt highway running through the Barbas y Bremen, (3) Finca la Betulia 2000, p. 1; Kattan and Beltra´n 1997, p. middle of the Reserve and numerous Reserva la Patasola,and (4) Reserva 369; Kattan et al. 2006, p. 303). Most of footpaths crossing the Reserve to Natural Cajibı´o. These areas are the forested habitat in the area was connect to coffee plantations, which, described below. cleared in the 1960s for cattle ranching, along with pasturelands, surround the (1) Bosques del Oriente del Risaralda leaving the remaining natural forests forest (BLI 2007h, p. 13). (Risaralda): This 23 km2 (8.9 mi2) forest only on the steepest slopes (Kattan and (4) Chorro de Plata (Valle de Cauca) is located on the western slopes of the Beltra´n 1999, p. 273). In population is a 2-km2 (0.77-mi2) forest located at Central Andes, in eastern Risaralda. It surveys conducted by Kattan et al. 1,200 m (3937 ft) (Kattan et al. 2006, p. ranges in altitude between 1,300 and (2006, p. 304) in 2000 and 2001, this 299; Renjifo 2002, p. 302). Visual 3,800 m (5,905 and 12,467 ft). This high- subpopulation was estimated to include confirmation of the Cauca guan was altitude forest is important for the between 144 and 264 individuals. made in this locality in surveys hydrology in lower-elevation areas, Kattan (2004, pp. 12-13) also advised conducted in 2000 and 2001, but the including the Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora and that the Otu´ n-Quimbaya Sanctuary was extent and occurrence of the population Fauna Sanctuary (Department of not large enough to provide the space have yet to be determined (Kattan et al. Risaralda), where the Cauca guan has and resources needed to sustain a viable 2006, p. 303). been observed. The forest has been Cauca guan population. (5) Munchique National Natural Park recovering from deforestation for the This Sanctuary is adjacent to the (Cauca) is considered an important past 30 years and includes a contiguous Ucumarı´ Regional Park (Kattan et al. locality in the southern portion of the patch of montane and premontane forest 2006, p. 302), which covers an area of species’ range, because the species was over 85 percent of the area. About 15 approximately 44 km2 (17 mi2), with historically seen there several times and percent of the land is zoned for grazing elevations ranging from 1,700 to 2,600 because suitable habitat still exists there and agriculture, leading to ongoing m (5,577 to 8,530 ft) (Kattan and Beltra´n (Kattan et al. 2006, pp. 305-306). degradation of these deforested areas, 1999, p. 273; Kattan et al. 2006, pp. 301- However, the Cauca guan has not been along with conversion for human 302). Ucumarı´ Regional Park has been confirmed there since 1987 (Kattan et al. settlements within the forest (BLI considered the stronghold of the species 2006, p. 305; Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, p. 54; 2007h, p. 6). since the late 1990s (BLI 2007h, p. 1) Salaman in litt. 1999, 2000, as cited in (2) Can˜ on del Rı´o Barbas y Bremen (see Population Estimates, above). The BLI 2007h, p. 2) (see Population (Risaralda): This 51-km2 (20-mi2) forest largest number of Cauca guan Estimates, above). Moreover, the is located on the western slopes of the individuals observed at this site was 16 location of this Park within the Pacific Central Andes. It ranges in altitude in 1990 (Wege and Long 1995, p. 141), Region makes it particularly accessible between 1,600 and 2,100 m (5,249 and and a single individual was sighted in and vulnerable to exploitation because 6890 ft). This area includes most of the 2004 (Scanlon 2004, pp. 1-3); however, of the numerous rivers in this part of the Reserva Forestal Bremen (BLI 2007h, p. there have been no population surveys country, which facilitate movement of 9), where the Cauca guan was observed within the Park to determine the current people and products through the region several times between 1995 and 1997 population size. Subsistence hunting (Ojeda et al. 2001, pp. 308-309). In the (Renjifo 2002, pp. 124-125). The Bremen was reportedly prevalent within the 1960s and 1970s, the harvest of native Forest Reserve was established in the Park in the late 1990s (Collar et al. 1992, ‘‘naranjilla’’ or ‘‘lulo’’ fruits (Solanum 1970s to protect important waterways p. 60; del Hoyo 1994, p. 349; Strahl et quitoense) became an important part of and is protected within the regional al. 1995, p. 81) (Factors B and D). the local economy, which deterred system of protected areas in the coffee- (2) Reserva La Sirena (Valle de Cauca) logging. However, logging resumed in growing region. Today, the Bremen is located above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) and the 1980s after a fungal pathogen— forest is comprised of 3.4 km2 (1.31 mi2) consists of fragmented riparian forest in anthracnose (Colletotrichum acutatum) of natural forest and 4.2 km2 (1.62 mi2) various stages of succession (Kattan et (Caicedo and Higuera 2007, p. 41)— and of exotic plantation forests, which are al. 2006, pp. 302-303). Reserva La invasion by a lepidopteran pest—tomato now being allowed to regenerate to Sirena has an environmental education fruit borer (Neoleucinodes elegantalis) natural forest. A sustainable forestry center, around which are located some (Eiras and Blackmer 2003, p. 1)— management plan was implemented in protected areas as well as continuous destroyed the crops (BLI 2006, p. 2). 1996, and plans are underway to forest above 2,000 m (6,562 ft). Visual Human pressures in the Pacific Region connect the isolated forest patches confirmation of the Cauca guan was include unsustainable logging, within the Can˜ on. Currently, the forest made in this locality in surveys colonization, and cash crop cultivation patches within the Can˜ on del Rı´o Barbas

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y Bremen are surrounded by cattle approximately 560 km2 (216 mi2), much within the Sanctuary, claiming to take ranches and tree plantations, primarily of this within the past 30 years. Habitat between two and four birds per month. including eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) fragmentation has isolated remaining This equates to approximately 100 and Mexican weeping pine (Pinus populations, relegated the species to the Cauca guans per year (Rios et al. 2006, patula). There is no further information edges of its former range, and led to a p. 23). on the progress of this project. shift in the species’ altitudinal range. Subsistence hunting may play a role Currently, the forests located within the Habitat destruction, alteration, in the decline or possible local Can˜ on are isolated from each other, and conversion, and fragmentation have extirpation of the species from at least urbanization, agricultural activities, and been factors in the Cauca guan’s two locations. In the late 1990s, deforestation are ongoing within the historical decline (which commenced in subsistence hunting was widespread in area. The forest is also in close the second half of the 20th Century) and the Ucumarı´ Regional Park and proximity to a main highway in the continue to be factors in the species’ Munchique National Natural Park region—the highway between Armenia decline, even in areas designated as (Collar et al. 1992, p. 60; del Hoyo 1994, and Pereira. A survey of the Can˜ on in protected (see also Factor E). Therefore, p. 349; Strahl et al. 1995, p. 81). The 2003 did not reconfirm the presence of we find that the present destruction, Cauca guan may have been locally the Cauca guan within this area (BLI modification, and curtailment of habitat extirpated from the Munchique National 2007h, p. 9). are a threat to the Cauca guan Natural Park (Cauca) (BLI 2007h, p. 2: (3) Finca la Betulia Reserva la throughout all of its range. Renjifo 2002, p. 124), where the species Patasola (Quindı´o): This 17-km2 (7-mi2) was last observed in 1987 (Renjifo 2002, forest is located on the western slopes B. Overutilization for Commercial, p. 124). Despite subsequent searches of of the Central Andes. It ranges in Recreational, Scientific, or Educational the area (Wege and Long 1995, p. 149), altitude between 2,050 and 2,600 m Purposes there have been no recent confirmations (6,726 and 8,530 ft). Most of this Cracids are considered particularly at this locality (Kattan et al. 2006, p. Reserve is covered by primary forest vulnerable to hunting pressures and are 305; Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, p. 54; Salaman interspersed with scrub forest and among those species most rapidly in litt. 1999, 2000, as cited in BLI 2007h, streams. As of 2003, the Cauca guan has depleted by hunting (Redford 1992, p. p. 2). Ucumarı´ Regional Park is been reported but not confirmed within 419). Several factors contribute to the considered the stronghold of the Cauca this Reserve. The western border of this sensitivity of Cauca guans to hunting, guan (BLI 2007h, p. 1). Although Renjifo Reserve abuts the Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora including: their large size, ease of (2002, p. 128) notes that the species has and Fauna Sanctuary (BLI 2007h, p. 12), locating them during their breeding recuperated within this Park, there have where the population is estimated to be season, their trusting nature, their low only been scant reports of Cauca guan between 144 and 264 individuals productivity (1-2 eggs) relative to other sightings there between 1994 and 2004 (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 304). Galliformes, their long generation time, (Renjifo 2002, p. 125; Scanlon 2004, pp. (4) Reserva Natural Cajibı´o (Cauca): their dependence upon specific habitat, 1-3; Wege and Long 1995, p. 141), and This 0.52-km2 (0.2-mi2) reserve is and their poor dispersal qualities no population surveys have been located on the slopes of the West Andes. (Brooks 1999, p. 43; del Hoyo 1994, p. undertaken there (see Population It ranges in altitude between 1,100 and 336; Silva and Strahl 1991, p. 38). This Estimates, above). 1,250 m (3,609 and 4,101 ft). The habitat species, as with other guans, tends to Habitat fragmentation and is mainly secondary forest, interspersed aggregate within its habitat, generally concomitant human encroachment with agricultural fields (sugarcane based on resource availability. For (Factor A) have made the species’ (Saccharum officinarum), coffee, instance, Cauca guans tend to habitat more accessible and the species bananas, and corn (Zea mays)) and congregate around fruit trees at certain more vulnerable to hunting. A study cattle ranching. This Reserve has been times of year (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 305). conducted in French Guiana provided a altered by human encroachment and This aggregation of individuals may quantitative estimate of the effect of indiscriminate logging. The Cauca guan facilitate hunters in catching larger hunting on a related cracid species, the was not confirmed in this location in a numbers of the species. Cracids are also black curassow (Crax alector) (del Hoyo 2003 survey (BLI 2007h, p. 15). slow to reproduce, with a replacement 1994, p. 336). The black curassow has These refugia are limited in size, rate of at least 6 years (Silva and Strahl similar habitat requirements isolated from each other, and 1991, p. 50). (undisturbed primary tropical to undergoing varying levels of human The Cauca guan, as well as other subtropical humid forest at 0-1,400 m encroachment and deforestation (Brooks cracids (e.g., chachalacas (Ortalis sp.), (0-4,600 ft) elevation) as the Cauca guan and Strahl 2000, pp. 13-14; Collar et al. serve as a major source of protein for (BLI 2007e). The estimated population 1994, pp. 61-62; del Hoyo 1994, pp. 337, indigenous people (Brooks and Strahl density of black curassows in non- 349; Kattan et al. 2006, p. 301; Renjifo 2000, p. 8). The Cauca guan is hunted hunted areas was between 7 and 9 birds 2002, p. 128). In addition, regulatory by local residents for sustenance, per 1 km2 (0.4 mi2); in areas with mechanisms within these areas are although this activity is illegal (del intermittent hunting, the numbers fell to inadequate to protect the species from Hoyo 1994, p. 337; Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, between 0.5 and 2.25 birds; and in areas ongoing habitat destruction (Factor D). p. 50; Renjifo 2002, p. 128; Rios et al. where hunting was regular, numbers fell 2006, pp. 22-23) (Factor D). The species to between 0.5 and 0.73 birds (del Hoyo Summary of Factor A is sought after by hunters because it is 1994, p. 336). We believe that the effects The habitat preferred by the Cauca the largest bird in its area of distribution of hunting on the Cauca guan would guan—humid forests or secondary (Renjifo 2002, p. 128). Rios et al. (2006, result in similar population declines forests, forest edges, and plantations in pp. 22-23) interviewed local settlers based on similarities of habitat and proximity to humid forests—has been near the Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora and species characteristics. largely destroyed by cultivation, Fauna Sanctuary (in Risaralda), where grazing, human settlements, road the population is estimated to be Summary of Factor B building, and other human activities. between 144 and 264 individuals Cracids serve as a major food source The species’ range has been reduced (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 304), who in Colombia, and the Cauca guan, as the from 24,900 km2 (9,614 mi2) to admitted to hunting the Cauca guan largest cracid living within its area of

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distribution, is sought after by locals. reproduce, produce a low clutch size, Cauca guans have not been observed in Hunting results in the direct removal of require a long fledging period, and Munchique National Natural Park since eggs, juveniles, and adults from the exhibit a poor replacement rate (see 1987 (BLI 2007h, p. 2: Renjifo 2002, p. population. Cauca guans are slow to Habitat and Life History, above). 124), despite subsequent searches of the reproduce, produce a low clutch size, Predation can destroy pair bonds and area (Wege and Long 1995, p. 149). require a long fledging period, and remove potentially reproductive adults Similarly, since 1994, there have been exhibit a poor replacement rate (see from the breeding pool. Cauca guan only scant sightings of Cauca guans in Habitat and Life History, above). habitat is fragmented and small (Factor the Ucumarı´ Regional Park (Renjifo Hunting can destroy pair bonds and A), and studies on similar species in 2002, p. 125; Scanlon 2004, pp. 1-3; remove potentially reproductive adults similar Andean habitats indicate that Wege and Long 1995, p. 141) (see from the breeding pool. Hunting is vulnerability to predation by generalist Population Estimates, above). facilitated by habitat fragmentation predators increases with increased Researchers have indicated that local (Factor A), which increases access to the habitat fragmentation and smaller patch residents continue to hunt the Cauca forest by hunters. The Cauca guan is sizes. Predation exacerbates the genetic guan despite the illegality of this hunted throughout its current range, complications associated with the activity (del Hoyo 1994, p. 337; Mun˜ oz including within protected areas, and species’ small population size (Factor et al. 2006, p. 50; Renjifo 2002, p. 128; hunting may be responsible for a E). Because of the species’ small Rios et al. 2006, pp. 22-23), even within decline or local extirpation of the population size and inability to areas designated as ‘‘protected’’ under species from at least two of these recolonize isolated habitat fragments Colombian law (see also next protected areas (Ucumarı´ Regional Park (Factor E), predation renders the species paragraph). For instance, settlers in the and Munchique National Natural Park). vulnerable to local extirpation. Otu´ n-Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Therefore, we find that subsistence Therefore, we find that predation, Sanctuary admit to taking between 24 hunting for domestic consumption is a exacerbated by ongoing habitat and 48 Cauca guans a year (Rios et al. threat to the Cauca guan throughout its destruction (Factor A) and hunting 2006, pp. 22-23) (Factor B). Thus, these range. (Factor B), is a threat to the Cauca guan. Resolutions are ineffective at reducing the existing threat of subsistence C. Disease or Predation D. The Inadequacy of Existing hunting to the Cauca guan. Disease: We are unaware of any Regulatory Mechanisms Colombia has enacted numerous information regarding disease or the Regulatory mechanisms may provide forestry laws and forestry management potential for significant disease species-specific or habitat-specific practices (Law No. 2 (EcoLex 1959); outbreaks in the Cauca guan protections. An evaluation of the Decree No. 2,811 (Faolex 1974); Decree populations. As a result, we do not adequacy of regulatory mechanisms No. 1,791 (Faolex 1996); Law No. 1,021 consider disease to be a threat to the within Colombia to mitigate or remove (EcoLex 2006)). Weaknesses in the species. the threats to the Cauca guan is implementation of these laws and the Predation: Predators of cracids provided below, beginning with species- decentralized nature of Colombian include snakes, foxes, feral cats, feral specific and followed by habitat-specific resource management are described in dogs, and raptors (Delacour and protection mechanisms. detail above for the blue-billed curassow Amadon 1973). Cauca guans are also Colombia has enacted numerous laws (Factor D) (ITTO 2006, pp. 218-9, 222; slow to reproduce, with a long fledging to protect species and their habitats Matallana-T. 2005, pp. 121-122). Experts period (up to 1 year) and a replacement (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121). The Cauca consider these decentralized rate of at least 6 years (Rios et al. 2006, guan is listed as an endangered species management mechanisms to be p. 17; Silva and Strahl 1991, p. 50). under Colombian Law 99 of 1993 ineffective at protecting the Cauca guan Cauca guans require large territories for (EcoLex 1993, p. 2) and Resolution No. from habitat destruction (Factor A) or foraging (Kattan 2004, p. 11), but today 584 of 2002 (EcoLex 2002, pp. 10, 12). hunting (Factor B) (Mun˜ oz et al. 2006, are relegated mostly to small forest A full description of these laws and the p. 50). Habitat destruction and hunting fragments (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 301). As categorization of threatened species in are ongoing throughout the species’ discussed in detail above for the blue- Colombia were provided above, as part range, indicating that forestry billed curassow (Factor C, Predation), of the Factor D analysis for the blue- regulations are ineffective at mitigating studies have shown that habitat billed curassow. This threat status the threats to the Cauca guan from fragmentation increases the potential confers protections upon the species, habitat destruction (Factor A) or hunting predation pressure within habitat including protection from commercial (Factor B). fragments by facilitating the predators’ take under Resolution No. 849 of 1973 Colombia has several categories of access throughout the fragment and and Resolution No. 787 of 1977 (EcoLex national habitat protection (Matallana-T. because smaller fragments support 1973, p.1; EcoLex 1977, p. 3). Neither 2005, p. 121-122), which were described smaller predators, which tend to Resolution prohibits subsistence above, as part of the Factor D analysis depredate on the more vulnerable life- hunting. As discussed under Factor B, for the blue-billed curassow (Matallana- history stages of the Cauca guan, eggs commercial and sport hunting are not T. 2005, p. 121-122). The Cauca guan and juveniles (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan threats to this species, but subsistence occurs within national parks (including 1997, pp. 137-143; Gibbs 1991, p. 157; hunting continues to threaten the the Ucumarı´ Regional Park, last Hoover et al. 1995, p. 151; Keyser et al. species throughout its range, including confirmed Cauca guan sighting in 2004 1998, p. 991; 2002, p. 186; Renjifo 1999, within protected areas. Hunting may (Scanlon 2004, pp. 1-3), and Munchique p. 1133; Wilcove 1985, p. 1214). play a role in the decline or possible National Natural Park, confirmed in local extirpation of the species from two 1987 (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 305; Mun˜ oz Summary of Factor C protected areas, Munchique National et al. 2006, p. 54; Salaman in litt. 1999, Snakes, foxes, feral cats, feral dogs, Natural Park and Ucumarı´ Regional 2000, as cited in BLI 2007h, p. 2)); and raptors are all predators of cracids. Park, where subsistence hunting was reserves (Reserva Forestal de Bremen, Predation results in the direct removal widespread in the 1990s (Collar et al. confirmed in 1997 (Renjifo 2002, pp. of eggs, juveniles, and adults from the 1992, p. 60; del Hoyo 1994, p. 349; 124-125), Reserva Forestal de Yotoco, population. Cauca guans are slow to Strahl et al. 1995, p. 81) (Factor B). confirmed in 2000-2001 (Renjifo 2002,

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pp. 124-125), and Reserva La Sirena, Factor B, uncontrolled subsistence population size and distributional range confirmed in 2000-2001 (Kattan et al. hunting of the Cauca guan is ongoing of the Cauca guan (Collar et al. 1992, pp. 2006, p. 302)); and sanctuaries (Otu´ n- and continues to negatively affect the 126-127; Collar et al. 1994, p. 60). By the Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, continued existence of the species. 1980s, the species was believed extinct confirmed in 2000-2001 (Kattan et al. Moreover, the lack of a species or on the verge of extinction (Brooks 2006, p. 302)). Within the last 20 years, conservation strategy and the and Strahl 2000, p. 14; del Hoyo 1994, the Cauca guan population may have decentralized management of natural pp. 337, 349; Hilty 1985, p. 1004; Hilty declined or been extirpated from at least resources in Colombia provide no and Brown 1986, p. 125). The Cauca two Parks, the Munchique National overall coordination in the conservation guan is now confirmed only in several Natural Park and the Ucumarı´ Regional of species such as Cauca guans, which isolated locations. Overall, the Park, where the species has not been range in multiple jurisdictions. population is considered to be in observed since 1987 (Renjifo 2002, pp. Therefore, we find that the existing decline, with the current isolated 124-125) and 2004 (Scanlon 2004, pp. 1- regulatory mechanisms currently in populations ranging from tens of 3), respectively. These Parks were place are inadequate to mitigate the individuals to a few hundred subject to subsistence hunting in the primary threats to the Cauca guan. individuals at best (BLI 2007h, p. 2; late 1990s (Collar et al. 1992, p. 60; del Kattan 2004, p. 6; Renjifo 2002, p. 129), E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Hoyo 1994, p. 349; Strahl et al. 1995, p. but there have been few population Affecting the Continued Existence of the 81), and subsistence hunting of Cauca surveys of the Cauca guan. In 2006, Species guan continues in these and other Kattan (in litt., as cited in Mun˜ oz et al. protected areas, such as Otu´ n-Quimbaya Two additional factors affect the 2006 p. 55) estimated the global Flora and Fauna Sanctuary (Rios et al. Cauca guan: Its minimal likelihood for population to be between 196 and 342 2006, pp. 22-23) (Factor B). In addition, dispersal and the species’ small individuals. Kattan et al. (2006, p. 302) logging, population pressure and population size. conducted the only two population agriculture are ongoing within these Likelihood to Disperse: The Cauca surveys, in 2000 and 2001 (Mun˜ oz et al. Parks. Ucumarı´ Regional Park, guan exhibits characteristics indicative 2006 p. 55). They estimated population considered the stronghold for the of an inability to disperse into isolated densities at two locations, Otu´ n- species (BLI 2007h, p. 2), continues to habitat fragments and recolonize Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary be managed for multiple uses (including patches of suitable habitat that have (Risaralda) and Reserva Forestal de pasture land and other commercial undergone a localized extirpation. The Yotoco (Valle de Cauca), to be between ventures) (Factor A). In light of the Cauca guan prefers habitat of mature 144 and 264 individuals, and 35 to 61 multiple land uses allowed within the humid forests (Collar et al. 1994, p. individuals, respectively (Kattan et al. Park, and the ongoing human-induced 136), has generally been found only in 2006, p. 304). habitat destruction, the Park provides secondary habitats that are situated Small population sizes render species little or no protection to the species within 1 km (0.62 mi) of primary forest vulnerable to genetic risks that can have from the threat of habitat destruction (Renjifo 2002, p. 127), and is reported as individual or population-level (Factor A). timid in the presence of humans (Rios consequences on the genetic level and The Cauca guan ranges in multiple et al. 2006, p. 21). The remaining can increase the species’ susceptibility Departments (currently known in Cauca, suitable habitat available to the Cauca to demographic problems, as explained Quindı´o, Risaralda, Valle de Cauca), guan is limited to a few disjunct and in more detail above for the blue-billed each of which administers their own isolated forest fragments only a few curassow (Factor E, Small Population natural resources under different hundred hectares (100 hectares = 1 km2 Size) (Charlesworth and Charlesworth autonomous Corporacio´nes (ITTO 2006, = 0.39 mi2) in size (Kattan 2004, p. 6; 1987, p. 238; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Once p. 219; Law 99 of 1993). We are unaware Kattan et al. 2006, p. 301; Renjifo 2002, a population is reduced below a certain of any coordinated species management p. 128). number of individuals, it tends to plan. Therefore, in view of the Existing habitat for the Cauca guan is rapidly decline towards extinction decentralized resource management fragmented, with large distances (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and structure, the absence of a conservation between the remaining primary forest Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. strategy for the species, the threats to fragments (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). the Cauca guan from habitat destruction 7; Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46) and an ever- In the absence of quantitative studies (Factor A) and hunting (Factor B) are growing human presence in and around specific to this species, a general not mitigated. the species’ existing habitat (BLI 2004c, approximation of minimum viable p. 2; Cuervo 2002, p. 327; Cuervo and population size is the 50/500 rule, as Summary of Factor D Salaman 1999, p. 8; Renjifo 2002, pp. described above as part of the Factor E Colombia has numerous laws and 124-128; Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. analysis for the brown-banded antpitta regulatory mechanisms to administer 205). Without human intervention, the (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, and manage wildlife and their habitats. Cauca guan is unlikely to repopulate an pp. 160-162). The total population size The Cauca guan is listed as endangered isolated patch of suitable habitat of the Cauca guan is estimated to be under Colombian law and occurs within following decline or local extirpation. between 196 and 342 individuals. While several protected areas. However, on- Evidence for the Cauca guan’s inability 196 individuals is above the minimum the-ground enforcement of existing to disperse across fragmented habitat population size required to avoid short- wildlife protection and forestry laws patches is provided by the fact that term genetic consequences, 342 falls and oversight of the local jurisdictions there are several areas of suitable below the threshold minimum number implementing and regulating activities habitat, located near previously reported of 500 individuals required for long- are ineffective at mitigating the primary localities for the species, in which the term fitness of a population. threats to the Cauca guan. As discussed Cauca guan has not been observed (see Moreover, because the Cauca guan for Factor A, habitat destruction, Factor A, Refugia). exists in isolated forest fragments and is degradation, and fragmentation Small Population Size: Habitat unlikely or incapable of dispersing to continue throughout the existing range destruction (Factor A) and hunting disjunct patches, each disjunct locality of the Cauca guan. As discussed for (Factor B) have affected the current likely acts as a subpopulation.

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Therefore, the resiliency of each of these habitat. Therefore, we believe that, in crops, such as cocaine, has led to further subpopulations will be lower than that combination with the risks to the deforestation and altered soil of the global population. The largest species from habitat destruction (Factor compositions, hindering regeneration of reported subpopulation, in Otu´ n- A), hunting (Factor B), and predation abandoned fields. In addition, drug Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, (Factor C), the Cauca guan is vulnerable eradication programs involving the contains between 144 and 264 to localized extirpation or extinction aerial spraying of non-specific individuals (Kattan et al. 2006, p. 304). from which the species would be unable herbicides have led to further The lower figure, 144 individuals, is to recover, due it its small population environmental degradation and habitat above the minimum effective size and apparent inability to repopulate destruction (Factor A). population size required to avoid fragmented, isolated habitats such as Although the Cauca guan, which is imminent risks from inbreeding (Ne = those currently present within this listed in Colombia as endangered, 50). The upper limit of the species’ range. occurs on lands designated by the subpopulation, 264 birds, represents the Colombian government as ‘‘protected Status Determination for the Cauca maximum number of individuals in the areas,’’ and it is illegal to commercially Guan subpopulation, but does not take into hunt the species, the existing laws and account that not all members of the The five primary factors that threaten their enforcement are inadequate (Factor population will be reproductive. This the survival of the Cauca guan are: (1) D) to mitigate the effects of ongoing figure is well below the upper threshold habitat destruction, fragmentation, and habitat destruction (Factor A) and (Ne = 500 individuals) required for long- degradation; (2) overexploitation due to subsistence hunting (Factor B). term fitness of a population to ensure hunting; (3) predation (Factor C); (4) Moreover, natural resource management that the species will not lose its genetic inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms to within Colombia is highly diversity over time and will maintain an reduce the threats to the species (Factor decentralized, each district managing enhanced capacity to adapt to changing D); and (5) small population size and their resources autonomously. Thus, conditions. The only other isolation of remaining populations there is no overall coordination for the subpopulation figures are for Reserva (Factor E). The Cauca guan, a large, conservation and recovery of the Cauca Forestal de Yotoco, with an estimated primarily terrestrial bird, prefers humid guan, which ranges in several 35 to 61 individuals (Kattan et al. 2006, forests or secondary forests, forest edges autonomous districts. p. 304). Both of these figures are well and plantations that are in close Widespread deforestation and below the 50/500 threshold. Therefore, proximity (within 1 km (0.62 mi)) to conversion of primary forests has led to we currently consider these humid forests. the fragmentation of habitat throughout subpopulations (and the species as a Habitat destruction, alteration, the Cauca guan’s range. The remaining whole) to be at risk from genetic conversion, and fragmentation were suitable habitat is limited to a few complications due to the lack of short- factors in the Cauca guan’s historical disjunct and isolated forest fragments, and long-term viability. decline. The species has experienced a only a few hundred hectares (100 The Cauca guan’s small population 95 percent range reduction since the hectares = 1 km2 = 0.39 mi2) in size. size, combined with its restricted range 1950s, such that the estimated suitable Habitat fragmentation affects resource and inability to repopulate suitable habitat available to the species is availability for the Cauca guan, which habitat following local extirpations approximately 560 km2 (216 mi2). requires large territories for foraging on (Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del Experts estimate that more than 30 its preferred food source: seasonally Hoyo 1994, p. 361; Renjifo 2002, p. 138), percent of this loss of habitat has available fruits. Experts believe that makes the species particularly occurred within the last three remaining refugia, such as the Otu´ n- vulnerable to the threat of adverse generations, or 30 years. Fifty years ago, Quimbaya Sanctuary, may not be large natural (e.g., genetic, demographic, or the species’ historic range was estimated enough to support viable populations, environmental) and manmade (e.g., to have been an approximately 24,900- lacking sufficient space and resources hunting or deforestation) events that km2 (9,614-mi2) area, encompassing needed for this large, terrestrial bird. destroy individuals and their habitat humid forests on the eastern slopes of Habitat fragmentation also increases (BLI 2007, pp. 1-2; Holsinger 2000, pp. the West Andes and the dry forests of the species’ susceptibility to hunting 64-65; Renjifo 2002, p. 140; Young and the Cauca, Patı´a, and Dagua Valleys, in (Factor B). The Cauca guan is hunted Clarke 2000, pp. 361-366). the Departments of Cauca, Quindı´o, throughout its current range. As the Risaralda, and Valle de Cauca. Today, largest cracid living within its area of Summary of Factor E the species has been locally extirpated distribution, the Cauca guan is sought The Cauca guan is now confirmed from the Cauca and Dagua Valleys. The after by locals as a major food source. only in several isolated locations. The Cauca guan inhabits the western slopes Despite being illegal (Factor D), Cauca guan is unlikely or incapable of of the central and western Andes in the subsistence hunting of Cauca guans dispersing into suitable habitat that is few remaining upper-elevation forest continues throughout its range, isolated from extant populations, and remnants at altitudes exceeding those including within protected areas. the species’ overall small population reported in the first half of the 20th Hunting may be responsible for the size makes it vulnerable to genetic and Century. These shifts to the extremes of species’ local extirpation from the demographic risks that negatively its range and shifts in elevational Ucumarı´ Regional Park, considered the impact the species’ short- and long-term distribution have resulted from stronghold for the species in the 1990s, viability. The Cauca guan’s small extensive habitat destruction throughout and the Munchique National Natural population size, restricted range, and the species’ range. The dry forests of the Park. inability to repopulate suitable habitat Cauca, Dauga, and Patı´a Valleys and the Habitat fragmentation exposes the following local extirpations expose the humid forests on the slopes of these species to greater risk of extinction species to threats associated with valleys up to 2,000 m have been largely caused by adverse natural (e.g., genetic, adverse natural (e.g., genetic, destroyed for cultivation, grazing, demographic, or environmental) and demographic, or environmental) and human settlements, road building, and manmade (e.g., hunting or deforestation) manmade (e.g., hunting or deforestation) other human-induced habitat events (Factor E). At the beginning of events that destroy individuals and their alterations. Cultivation of illegal drug the 20th Century through the 1950s, the

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species was considered common. Cauca guan is in danger of extinction despite the availability of suitable Habitat fragmentation has led to the throughout all of its range. Therefore, habitat adjacent to the species’ current isolation of remaining subpopulations, we are proposing to list the Cauca guan locations, these areas are above the which are estimated to range from tens as an endangered species. elevational range of the species and are of individuals or a few hundred not used. Moreover, in the most recent IV. Gorgeted Wood-Quail individuals at most, thus affecting the population surveys in the Yarguı´es (Odontophorus strophium) species’ resiliency. The total population Mountains (Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es), estimate of 196-342 individuals falls Species Description which range up to 3,200 m (10,498 ft), researchers heard the species vocalizing below the threshold minimum number The gorgeted wood-quail, endemic to primarily at elevations between 1,800 of 500 individuals required for long- Colombia and a member of the New and 1,900m (5,905 and 6,234 ft), and term fitness of a population. It is World Quail Family (Odontophoridae), none were heard above 1,950-2,000 m estimated that the species has lost up to is approximately 25 cm (10 in) long (del (6,398-6,562 ft) (Donegan and Huertas 9 percent of its population in the last 10 Hoyo 1994, p. 431; Fjeldsa¨ and Krabbe 2005, p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 29; years. Given that the Cauca guan is 1990, p. 141; Hilty and Brown 1986, p. likely to act as subpopulations and its Donegan et al. 2004, p. 19). There are no 133). The species is locally known as recorded observations of this species at inability to disperse between ‘‘perdiz Santandereana’’ or ‘‘perdiz de fragmented habitat patches, the species’ ´ ranges above 2,050 m (6,726 ft) (BLI monte’’ (Sarria and Alvarez 2002, p. 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, effective population size is actually 158), and may be referred to by the more much less than the global population p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Sarria general term ‘‘forest partridge’’ in and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160; Turner 2006, estimate would imply. The fitness of the English (BLI 2007g, p. 1). Mainly dark subpopulations is vital to understanding p. 22; Wege and Long 1995, pp. 143- brown with black spots on upper parts, 144). Therefore, we conclude that the the viability of the species. The largest the male has a speckled black and white subpopulation, estimated to contain species’ preferred range remains at face, and a white collar on his throat elevations between 1,750 and 2,050 m between 144 and 264 individuals, falls surrounded on the upper and lower side below the threshold for long-term (5,741 and 6,726 ft). by a band of black. Underparts are The gorgeted wood-quail is primarily viability. The other subpopulation for rufous-chestnut colored with white which there is an estimate contains terrestrial (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 2), living spotting. The female appears similar to on the forest floor and feeding on fruit, between 35 and 61 individuals, which the male; however, the female has a figures are below the thresholds for both seeds, and arthropods (Collar et al. black collar surrounded by white bands 1992, pp. 171-172; del Hoyo 1994, p. short-term and long-term viability. on her throat (BLI 2007g, p. 1). Thus, the Cauca guan is at risk from 431; Fuller et al. 2000, pp. 27-28). There both near-term genetic complications Taxonomy appear to be two breeding seasons per year, coinciding with the rainy seasons (such as inbreeding and demographic The gorgeted wood-quail was first shifts) and the lack of long-term fitness from March through May and taxonomically described in 1844 by September through November (BLI (such as the ability to adapt to changing Gould, who placed the species in the conditions). Because the species exists 2007g, p. 3). Gorgeted wood-quails are Odontophoridae family, also known as ground-nesting birds, laying their eggs in isolated subpopulations, the risk from the New World Quails (BLI 2007g, p. 1). near-term genetic consequences, such as in a small depression lined with The type specimen (the actual specimen vegetation and almost always covered inbreeding and demographic shifts, is that was first described by Gould) was with brush from the understory (Sarria further magnified. These potential obtained in the Colombian Department and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 159). Similar to genetic problems are exacerbated by of Cundinamarca (Hilty and Brown other wood-quails, gorgeted wood- ongoing human-induced threats, such as 1986, p. 133), although details on the quails associate in small groups and call habitat destruction (Factor A) and location were not provided with the to other groups by chorusing—singing hunting (Factor B), factors which are not description (Warren 1966, p. 318). together (Donegan et al. 2003, p. 29). being mitigated by existing regulations Therefore, we will refer to the Researchers consider this species to be (Factor D), and are further magnified by Department of Cundinamarca as the dependent on primary forest for at least the species’ inability to repopulate ‘‘type locality.’’ part of its life cycle (BLI 2007g, p. 3; isolated, fragmented patches of suitable Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 159). habitat, where Cauca guan populations Habitat and Life History have undergone decline or local The gorgeted wood-quail prefers Historical Range and Distribution extirpation (Factor E). montane temperate and humid The gorgeted wood-quail historically We have carefully assessed the best subtropical forests dominated by roble, occurred on the western slope of the available scientific and commercial Tabebuia rosea, and secondary-growth East Andes, in the Departments of information regarding the past, present, forests in proximity to mature forests Santander and Cundinamarca in and potential future threats faced by the (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 159), Colombia (del Hoyo 1994, p. 431; Cauca guan. We consider the ongoing especially those dominated by oak Fjeldsa¨ and Krabbe 1990, p. 141; Hilty threats to the Cauca guan, habitat (Quercus humboldtii). The species is and Brown 1986, p. 133). Since the 17th destruction (Factor A), hunting (Factor most often found at elevations between Century, extensive logging and land B), and predation (Factor C), 1,750 and 2,050 m (5,741 and 6,726 ft) conversion in Cundimarca to exacerbated by the species’ small (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas agricultural uses nearly denuded all the population size and limited dispersal 2005, p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; forests of this area below 2,500m (8,202 ability (Factor E), and compounded by Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159; ft) (BLI 2007g, p. 3; Hilty and Brown inadequate regulatory mechanisms to Turner 2006, p. 22; Wege and Long 1986, p. 133). Habitat destruction is mitigate these threats (Factor D), to be 1995, pp. 143-144). Fuller et al. (2000, considered the primary factor that led to equally present and of the same pp. 27-28) suggested that the species’ the historical decline and extirpation of magnitude throughout the species’ range may be up to 2,500 m (8,202 ft) this species from Cundinamarca (Fuller entire current range. Based on this in elevation. However, Sarria and et al. 2000, pp. 4-5; Wege and Long information, we determine that the A´ lvarez (2002, p. 160) noted that, 1995, p. 146).

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For many years, the species was Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 29; forest cover in the Serranı´a de los known only from two specimens Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Turner 2006, Yarguı´es, researchers predicted that an collected in 1915 from its type locality p. 22). The Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es excess of 250 individuals was present at in Cundinamarca (Hilty and Brown locale reportedly harbors the largest the site (Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 1986, p. 133). Although the species was known population and is the stronghold 30; Donegan et al. 2004, p. 19). Turner reported at this site again in 1923 and for the species (Donegan and Huertas (2006, p. 22) extrapolated the 1954, it has not been seen there since 2005, p. 29; Turner 2006, p. 22) (see population size, based on satellite that time (Wege and Long 1995, p. 146). Population Estimates, below). images of the area, which indicated that The species was believed extinct until a Generally speaking, these localities 30,000 ha (74,131 ac) of forest at record of a male bird and chicks was are in two disjunct locations within the elevations between 1,500 and 2,200 m reported in 1970 in Santander Department of Santander. Serranı´a de (4,921 and 7,218 ft) on the western slope Department in the Cuchilla del Ramo los Yarguı´es is in northern Santander and 2,700 and 2,900 m (8,858 and 9,514 forest (Collar et al. 1992, p. 171; Fuller and the other two localities are adjacent ft) on the eastern slope were available to et al. 2000, p. 27). to each other in southern Santander the species. This yielded a predicted (Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 30; Current Range and Distribution population size of between 1,800 and Rainforest Alliance 2008, p. 2). These 3,300 individuals. However, we believe The gorgeted wood-quail is endemic habitats are described more fully under that this population estimate, based on to the west slope of the East Andes, in Factor A (Refugia). the availability of suitable habitat, may the Magdalena Valley (Donegan and Population Estimates be an overestimate for this species for Huertas 2005, p. 29), and is known only two reasons: (1) the population may not in the central Colombian Department of To the best of our knowledge, there be randomly distributed throughout the have been no quantitative studies to Santander (del Hoyo 1994, p. 431; suitable habitat, as assumed by these determine the species’ population size. Fjeldsa¨ and Krabbe 1990, p. 141; Hilty researchers, and (2) the extrapolation The population estimates for the and Brown 1986, p. 133). The current does not take into account human- 2 gorgeted wood-quail are based on range of this species is between 10 km induced threats, such as hunting (Sarria 2 ´ qualitative surveys and extrapolations (4 mi ) (Sarria and Alvarez 2002, p. 160) and A´ lavarez 2002, pp. 160-161) (Factor 2 2 using suitable habitat estimates (BLI and 27 km (10.42 mi ) (BLI 2007g, pp. B). Therefore, until Turner’s (2006, p. 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, 2, 5). 22) predictions have been ground- Since 1970, the species has only been p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Fuller truthed, we are unable to consider the reported in the central Colombian et al. 2000, p. 27; Sarria and A´ lvarez predicted population estimate of Department of Santandar, with fewer 2002, pp. 158-159; Turner 2006, p. 22). between 1,800 and 3,300 individuals to than 10 sightings. Visual observations of As noted above (see Current Range), a this species have been scant; most total of 3 adults and 2 chicks were be a reliable reflection of the current reports have been inferred from auditory observed between 1923 and 1970 (Sarria population size. Consequently, we detections (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 158; Wege and consider the population estimate of 158-159). In 1970, the species was Long 1995, p. 143). The largest number between 189 to 486 individuals (BLI observed in Cuchilla del Ramo forest of visual confirmations of individual 2007g, p. 1) to be the best available (Wege and Long 1995, p. 143), but has birds has been reported in the Reserva estimate of the gorgeted wood-quail. not been confirmed there since that time Biolo´gico Cachalu´ . In 1999, two groups Conservation Status (BLI 2007g, p. 2) (see also Factor A). The of 7-9 individuals were observed. The gorgeted wood-quail is identified species has been observed and most Between 2001 and 2002, six groups of as a critically endangered species under recently confirmed in three locations: 5-11 individuals were observed (Sarria Colombian law (EcoLex 2002, p. 12). (1) Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce Flora and in litt., as cited in Sarria and A´ lvarez The species is classified as ‘Critically Fauna Sanctuary, (2) Cachalu´ Biological 2002, p. 159). Based on these direct Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List, due Reserve, and (3) Serranı´a de los observations, the population in the to its small and highly fragmented Yarguı´es. These confirmed sightings are Reserva Biolo´gico Cachalu´ may consist range, with recent population records briefly described below. of between 30 and 66 individuals. from only two areas (BLI 2004d; BLI (1) Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce Flora All other population estimates have 2007g, pp. 1, 5). and Fauna Sanctuary (Santander been inferred from auditory calls or Department): The gorgeted wood-quail suitable habitat extrapolations. It is not Summary of Factors Affecting the was confirmed at this location in 1979 unusual to infer population estimates Gorgeted Wood-Quail for elusive, ground-dwelling species, (BLI 2007g, p. 2) and again in 1988 A. The Present or Threatened (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160; Wege such as the gorgeted wood-quail, for which direct observation is difficult. Destruction, Modification, or and Long 1995, p. 144). In 2004, the Curtailment of the Habitat or Range species was reported in the oak forests However, extrapolating population within the Province of Guanenta´ (BLI estimates based on suitable habitat can In the early part of the 20th Century, 2007g, p. 2), but it is unclear whether lead to overestimations of population the gorgeted wood-quail was known these observations occurred within the sizes, especially for narrow-ranging only in the oak forests in the Sanctuary. species, such as the gorgeted wood- Department of Cundinamarca. However, (2) Cachalu´ Biological Reserve quail. The potential for overestimation extensive deforestation and habitat (Santander Department): The gorgeted was discussed above, in the analysis of conversion for agricultural use nearly wood-quail was confirmed in this the brown-banded antpitta (Factor E, denuded all the oak forests in Reserve in 1999, 2000, and 2001 (BLI Small Population Size). For instance, Cundinamarca below 2,500 m (8,202 ft) 2007g, p. 2; Fuller et al. 2000, p. 27; researchers recently estimated that the (BLI 2007g, p. 3; Hilty and Brown 1986, Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159). Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es population may p. 133). Deforestation left little (3) Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es hold a significantly greater number of remaining suitable habitat for the (Santander Department): The species birds than ever known. Given the gorgeted wood-quail, which prefers has also been confirmed at this location inferred density of the species (based on primary forests and tolerates secondary- in 2003 and 2004 (BLI 2007g, p. 2; auditory observation) and the extent of growth forests near primary forests (BLI

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2007g, p. 3; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. annually, representing a nearly one- (9,884 ac) were under opium cultivation 159) at altitudes from 1,500 to 2,500 m third total loss of primary forest habitat (UNODC et al. 2007, pp. 7-8). These (4,921 to 8,202 ft) (del Hoyo 1994, p. (Vin˜ a et al. 2004, pp. 123-124). Habitat figures include habitat within the 431; Fuller et al. 2000, pp. 27-28; Hilty loss accelerated dramatically in the gorgeted wood-quail’s range. Between and Brown 1986, p. 133). Subsequent 1980s as an influx of people settled in 2003 and 2004, cocaine cultivation areas surveys have not located the species in formerly pristine forests (Perz et al. increased 25 percent in Cundinamarca, the Department of Cundinamarca since 2005, pp. 26-28; Vin˜ a et al. 2004, p. from 57 to 71 ha (140 to 175 ac), and 1954 (Collar et al. 1992, p. 171; Fuller 124). Recent studies indicate that the by 78 percent in Santander, from 632 to et al. 2000, p. 27; Sarria and A´ lvarez rate of habitat destruction is 1,124 ha (1562 to 2777 ac) (UNODC and 2002, p. 158), and researchers consider accelerating. Between the years 1990 GOC 2005, p. 15). the gorgeted wood-quail to be locally and 2005, Colombia lost approximately Colombia continues to be the leading extirpated from Cundinamarca (BLI 52,800 ha (130,471 ac) of primary forest coca bush producer (UNODC et al. 2007, 2007g, p. 3; Fuller et al. 2000, pp. 4-5; annually (Butler 2006a, pp. 1-3; FAO p. 7). However, since 2003, cocaine Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160-161; 2003a, p. 1). These studies and activities cultivation has remained stable, with Wege and Long 1995, p. 146). were described in greater detail above, about 800 km2 (309 mi2) of land under Deforestation, in combination with as part of the Factor A analysis for the cultivation (UNODC et al. 2007, p. 8). hunting (Factor B), may have led to the blue-billed curassow (under This stabilization of production is, in local extirpation of the gorgeted wood- Deforestation Rates and Patterns). part, attributed to alternative quail from another location. After no Logging is especially common in the flat development projects implemented confirmed reports of the species in lower-elevation areas and areas below between 1999 and 2004, to encourage nearly 20 years (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2,500 m (8,202 ft), where deforestation pursuits other than illegal crop 2002, pp. 158-159), the species was is nearly complete. Logging continues in cultivation (UNODC et al. 2007, p. 77). rediscovered in Cuchilla del Ramo steeper-sloped areas, where This stabilization of production area is forest (in the Department of Santander) commercially valuable trees are still also attributed to heightened eradication in 1970 (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. being extracted, and forested areas are efforts. Between 2002 and 2004, aerial 158-159; Wege and Long 1995, p. 143) being cleared for agricultural purposes spraying occurred over more than 1,300 and last confirmed there in 1988 (Collar (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 4; Stattersfield et km2 (502 mi2) of land annually, peaking et al. 1992, p. 172). However the species al. 1998, p. 192). in 2004, when 1,360 km2 (525 mi2) of has not been confirmed at that location Human-induced deforestation and illicit crops were sprayed (UNODC and since that time (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Sarria environmental degradation have caused GOC 2005, p. 11). In 2006, eradication and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159). the gorgeted wood-quail to shift its efforts were undertaken on over 2,130 According to Wege and Long (1995, p. range from the Department of km2 (822 mi2) of land, consisting of 143), Cuchilla del Ramo, an unprotected Cundinamarca to the Department of 1,720 km2 (664 mi2) of land being area on the western slopes of the East Santander. The species was first sprayed and manual eradication being Andes, has been largely cleared of its observed in Santander within Cuchilla used on the remaining land. Eradication forest such that only fragments remain. del Ramo forest in 1970 (Wege and Long efforts undertaken in 2006 occurred Thus, it is possible that deforestation 1995, p. 143), but has not been over an area representing 2.7 times more within the past 30 years has led to the confirmed there since then (BLI 2007g, land than the net cultivation area extirpation of the gorgeted wood-quail p. 2). The presence of the species has (UNODC et al. 2007, p. 8). In Santander from this location. been documented only about 10 times, alone, 1,855 ha (4,583 ac) of coca fields Today, the gorgeted wood-quail is and most documentations have been were sprayed or manually eradicated in endemic to the western slopes of the auditory. The species has been most 2004 (UNODC 2005, p. 66). Drug East Andes in the Department of recently confirmed in the following eradication efforts in Colombia have Santander, Colombia (Collar et al. 1994, three locations: (1) Guanenta´-Alto Rio further degraded and destroyed primary p. 70; del Hoyo 1994, p. 431; Fjeldsa¨ Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary (BLI forest habitat by using nonspecific aerial and Krabbe 1990, p. 141; Hilty and 2007g, p. 2; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. herbicides to destroy illegal crops Brown 1986, p. 133). The gorgeted 160; Wege and Long 1995, p. 144), (2) (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; BLI 2007d, p. 3; wood-quail is currently confirmed in Cachalu´ Biological Reserve (BLI 2007g, Ca´rdenas and Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, three locations (see Refugia, below), and p. 2; Fuller et al. 2000, p. 27; Sarria and p. 355; Oldham and Massey 2002, pp. 9- its current range is between 10 km2 (4 A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159), and (3) the 12). Herbicide spraying has introduced mi2) (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160) Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es (BLI 2007g, p. harmful chemicals into gorgeted wood- and 27 km2 (10.42 mi2) (BLI 2007g, pp. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 29; quail habitat and has led to further 2, 5). The species has lost 92 percent of Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Turner 2006, destruction of the habitat by forcing its former habitat (Sarria and A´ lvarez p. 22). illicit growers to move to new, 2002, p. 160), and habitat loss continues Illegal drugs and their eradication: previously untouched forested areas throughout its range (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Cocaine and opium has been cultivated (A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 1088-1093; A´ lvarez Collar et al. 1992, p. 172; Collar et al. throughout the gorgeted wood-quail’s 2005, p. 2042; A´ lvarez 2007, pp. 133- 1994, p. 70; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 26; range. The cultivation of illegal crops 143; BLI 2007d, p. 3; Ca´rdenas and Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 133; Sarria (including coca and opium) in Colombia Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, p. 355; Oldham and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 159-160). destroys montane forests (Balslev 1993, and Massey 2002, pp. 9-12). Between Deforestation rates and patterns: p. 3). Coca crops also destroy the soil 1998 and 2002, cultivation of illicit Colombian forests have undergone quality by causing the soil to become crops increased by 21 percent each year, extensive alteration during the 20th more acidic, which depletes the soil with a concomitant increase in Century to establish human settlements, nutrients and ultimately impedes the deforestation of formerly pristine areas build roads, extract timber, and pursue regrowth of secondary forests in of approximately 60 percent (A´ lvarez agriculture. Between 1973 and 1996, abandoned fields (Van Schoik and 2002, pp. 1088-1093). these activities reduced the amount of Schulberg 1993, p. 21). As of 2004, an Effects of habitat fragmentation: An primary forest cover in Colombia by estimated 80,000 ha (197,683 ac) were analysis of the effects of habitat approximately 3,605 ha (8,908 ac) under cocaine cultivation and 4,000 ha fragmentation on Andean birds within

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western Colombia determined that 31 2004, the species was reported in the small plots of land for agriculture and percent of the historical bird oak forests within the Province of settlement) and subsistence extractive populations have become extinct or Guanenta´ (BLI 2007g, p. 2), but it is activities (such as harvesting wood, were locally extirpated by 1990, largely unclear whether these observations plant fibers, and animals) have turned as a result of habitat fragmentation from occurred within the Sanctuary. the upper montane forests into deforestation and human encroachment Beginning in the 1960s, habitat extraction forests (Rainforest Alliance (Kattan and A´ lvarez-Lopez 1996, p. 5; conversion accelerated in the East 2008, p. 2). Ongoing slashing and Kattan et al. 1994, p. 141). The gorgeted Andes (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 192). burning on the outskirts of the Reserve wood-quail, which depends on primary The forests of the Colombian East Andes could further degrade the integrity of forest for at least part of its life cycle have been extensively degraded (Collar the habitat within the Reserve (BLI (BLI 2007g, p. 3; Sarria and A´ lvarez et al., 1992, p. 172; Fjeldsa¨ and Krabbe 2007g, p. 11). 2002, p. 159), has been extirpated from 1990; Hilty and Brown 1986, p. 133; (3) Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es (Yarguı´es its type locality in Cundinaramaca Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 192). The Mountains): This 175,000-ha (432,425- (Fuller et al. 2000, pp. 4-5; Wege and western slopes have been largely ac) forest is located in southern Long 1995, p. 146). The study also noted converted to agricultural use and to Santander and ranges in altitude that species at the upper or lower limit pastureland for cattle (Stattersfield et al. between 200 and 3200 m (656 and of their altitudinal distribution are more 1998, p. 192), and deforestation 10,499 ft) (BLI 2007g, p. 12; Donegan susceptible to local extirpation and continues on the lower slopes of the and Huertas 2005, p. 30). This area was extinction (Kattan and A´ lvarez-Lopez East Andes (Wege and Long 1995, p. previously unsurveyed for birds, due to 1996, pp. 5-6). This is the case for the 143). Selective logging affects birds in political instability and occupation by gorgeted wood-quail; the species prefers the lower part of the Guanenta´ Alto Rio revolutionary armed forces (Donegan habitat at 1,750-2,050 m (5,741-6,726 ft), Fonce (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 28; Sarria and Huertas 2005, pp. 11, 29-30; most of which has been destroyed (BLI and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160), including the Donegan et al. 2004, p. 19; Sarria and 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, gorgeted wood-quail. Stattersfield et al. A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160). The gorgeted p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Sarria (1998, p. 192) reported that forest loss wood-quail was first observed in and A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159; Turner below 2,500 m (8,202 ft) has been Yarguı´es in 2003 and again in 2004 (BLI 2006, p. 22; Wege and Long 1995, pp. almost complete, although Fuller et al. 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, 143-144), and it has not been (2000, p. 28) noted that the forest was p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Turner documented at higher elevations, ‘‘largely intact’’ above 1,950–2,200 m 2006, p. 22). This site is now considered despite the availability of suitable (6,398-7,218 ft). However, elevations to be the stronghold for the species habitat (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and above this altitude would not serve the (Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 29; Huertas 2005, p. 29; Donegan et al. needs of the gorgeted wood-quail, Donegan et al. 2004, p. 19; Turner 2006, 2003, p. 27; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, because this species is found most often p. 22) (see Population Estimates, above). pp. 158-160; Turner 2006, p. 22; Wege at 1,750-2,050 m (5,741-6,726 ft) in This forest does not have protected and Long 1995, pp. 143-144). Another altitude (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and status (BLI 2007g, p. 13) and land study on the effects of habitat Huertas 2005, p. 29; Donegan et al. clearing for slash-and-burn agriculture fragmentation in Colombia found that 2003, p. 27; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, continues to be a problem within the habitat fragmentation facilitates pp. 158-159; Turner 2006, p. 22; Wege Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es (BLI 2007g, p. predation and hunting pressure and Long 1995, pp. 143-144) (see 13; Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. 29; (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, pp. 140- discussion under Habitat and Life Turner 2006, p. 22). History for the gorgeted wood-quail). 142) (Factors B and C). Summary of Factor A Refugia: The gorgeted wood-quail has (2) Cachalu´ Biological Reserve: This been observed, and most recently 1,300-ha (3,212-ac) Reserve (TNC 2008, Habitat destruction, alteration, confirmed, in the following three p. 1) was established in 1997 adjacent conversion, and fragmentation were locations: (1) Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce to Guanenta´ Alto Rio Fonce Flora and factors in the species’ historical decline Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, (2) Cachalu´ Fauna Sanctuary (Rainforest Alliance and continue to be factors affecting the Biological Reserve, and (3) the Serranı´a 2008, p. 2). It encompasses primarily gorgeted wood-quail. The direct loss of de los Yarguı´es. mature oak forests and secondary areas habitat through widespread (1) Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce Flora (regenerating pastureland) at altitudes deforestation and conversion of primary and Fauna Sanctuary (Santander between 1,850 and 2,750 m (6,070 and forests for agricultural uses has led to a Department): This 10,420-ha (25,748-ac) 9,022 ft). Most of the secondary areas 95 percent range reduction for the humid subtropical and temperate oak within the Reserve have been species, leading to extirpation of the forest on the western slope of the East regenerating for 20 years. About 4 species in its type locality (in Andes was declared a protected natural percent of land formerly used for Cundinamarca) and an apparent shift in area in 1993 (Andrade and Repizzo pastureland and slash-and-burn the species’ range (to Santander). The 1994, p. 43; Rainforest Alliance, p. 2; agriculture has been left to regenerate species is known only in three The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2008, p. within the last 8 years (BLI 2007g, p. locations, where habitat conversion and 1). This area has long been considered 10). The species was first observed at poaching of the gorgeted wood-quail are the largest remaining sizeable oak forest this location in 1999 and again in 2000 ongoing. Deforestation, habitat tract remaining in the northern area of and 2001 (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Fuller et al. conversion, and drug eradication efforts the East Andes, even as recently as the 2000, p. 27; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, have reduced the amount of suitable year 2005 (Donegan and Huertas 2005, pp. 158-159). habitat at elevations preferred by the p. 11; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160; While human population pressures in species, such that its current range is Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 193; Wege northern Santander have not been as between 10 and 27 km2 (4 and 10 mi2). and Long 1995, p. 144). The gorgeted great as in other parts of the Andes, 70 The destruction and fragmentation of wood-quail was first observed in the percent of the subsistence population the remaining primary forested habitat Sanctuary in 1979 (BLI 2007g, p. 2) and living locally has had a major influence are ongoing throughout the species’ again 1988 (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. on the upper montane forest system. range and are expected to continue. 160; Wege and Long 1995, p. 144). In Slash-and-burn agriculture (clearing Therefore, we find that the present

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destruction, modification, and the case only where the species is American agoutis (Dasyprocta curtailment of habitat are threats to the capable of retreating into suitable punctata), and South American coatis gorgeted wood-quail throughout all of adjacent habitat. However, little suitable (Nasua nasua) (Arango-Ve´lez and its range. habitat is located in this area. Thus, Kattan 1997, p. 141). A predation study hunting, in combination with B. Overutilization for Commercial, conducted in the Colombian Andes deforestation, may have led to the Recreational, Scientific, or Educational demonstrated that habitat fragmentation extirpation of the gorgeted wood-quail Purposes increased predation pressure on the eggs from Cuchilla del Ramo. of the common quail (Coturnix coturnix) Galliformes such as the gorgeted ´ In addition, Arango-Velez and Kattan when situated within smaller, isolated wood-quail are chiefly terrestrial birds (1997, pp. 140-142) conducted a study habitat fragments (Arango-Ve´lez and that are easily hunted or trapped, and on the effect of habitat fragmentation on Kattan 1997, pp. 137-143). Similar they have been closely associated with birds in Colombia and found that humans throughout history as a source habitat fragmentation facilitates hunting studies have found that nest predation for food, ornamental collection, because smaller habitat patches allow is more prevalent in smaller, isolated commercial trade, and recreational hunters to more easily penetrate the forest patches because the small size of hunting (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 2). entire plot (Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan the patch facilitated predators’ access to Hunting the gorgeted wood-quail is 1997, pp. 140-142). prey throughout the entire plot (Gibbs illegal in Colombia (Factor D) and is 1991, p. 157; Hoover et al. 1995, p. 151; considered poaching. Poaching for Summary of Factor B Keyser et al. 1998, p. 991; 2002, p. 186; subsistence use and for local food trade The gorgeted wood-quail is hunted Renjifo 1999, p. 1133; Wilcove 1985, p. is ongoing throughout the species’ range (poached) throughout its current range 1214). Arango-Ve´lez and Kattan (1997, (BLI 2007g, pp. 7, 11-13; Donegan and for local consumption or local food pp. 140-142) also found that smaller Huertas 2005, p. 29; Turner 2006, p. 22) trade. Hunting results in the direct fragments support smaller predators, (BLI 2007g, p. 7). Hunting affects birds removal of individuals from the which tend to depredate on eggs and in the lower part of the Guanenta´-Alto population and can remove potentially juveniles, rendering understory nesting Rio Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary reproductive adults from the breeding birds, such as the gorgeted wood-quail, (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 28; Sarria and pool. This primarily terrestrial species is particularly vulnerable to predation ´ Alvarez 2002, p. 160), including the particularly vulnerable to hunting during these life-history stages (Arango- gorgeted wood-quail. Illegal hunting is pressures due to its small population Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, pp. 140-142). an ongoing problem on the outskirts of size (Factor E) and fragmented These studies were described in more the Cachalu´ Biological Reserve, where distribution (Factor A). Researchers detail above, as part of the Factor C believe that the gorgeted wood-quail is the species has been observed within analysis for the blue-billed curassow. the past decade (BLI 2007g, p. 10; Sarria only capable of escaping hunting and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 158). Poaching of pressures when adjacent suitable habitat Summary of Factor C the gorgeted wood-quail continues to be exists. There are continued reports of a problem within the Serranı´a de los hunting pressures on the species; these Feral dogs, tayras, dwarf squirrels, Yarguı´es, considered the stronghold for pressures have been and continue to be tree squirrels, common opossums, the species (BLI 2007g, p. 13; Donegan exacerbated by ongoing human kinkajous, Central American agoutis, and Huertas 2005, p. 29; Turner 2006, encroachment into previously and South American coatis are potential p. 22). The IUCN Partridge, Quail, and undisturbed forests (Factor A). Hunting, gorgeted wood-quail predators. Francolin Specialist Group (PQF combined with habitat fragmentation Predation results in the direct removal Specialist Group) considers unregulated (Factor A), increases the possibility of of individuals from the population and hunting to be a factor affecting gorgeted local extirpation since the gorgeted can remove potentially reproductive wood-quail populations throughout the wood-quail is unlikely to re-occupy an adults from the breeding pool. This species’ range (Fuller et al. 2000, p. 28). area that has been depleted through primarily terrestrial species is Hunting, in combination with hunting (Factor E, Likelihood to particularly vulnerable to predation deforestation, may have led to the local Disperse). Hunting may have led to the pressures due to its small population extirpation of this species from Cuchilla local extirpation of the species in a size (Factor E) and fragmented del Ramo (Department of Santander), portion of its range. Hunting pressures distribution (Factor A). Habitat where the species was first observed in are ongoing and affect the entire ´ fragmentation has occurred and is 1970 (Sarria and Alvarez 2002, pp. 158- population of gorgeted wood-quail. ongoing throughout the species’ range. 159; Wege and Long 1995, p. 143) and Therefore, we find that hunting is a Studies on similar species in similar last confirmed in 1988 (Collar et al. threat to the gorgeted wood-quail Andean habitats indicate that 1992, p. 172). The gorgeted wood-quail throughout its range. has not been confirmed at this location vulnerability to predation increases again (BLI 2007g, p. 2; Sarria and C. Disease or Predation with increased habitat fragmentation A´ lvarez 2002, pp. 158-159), which may Disease: We are not aware of any and smaller patch sizes. Predation be due to a combination of habitat information regarding disease or the exacerbates the genetic complications destruction and hunting pressures. This potential for significant disease associated with the species’ small unprotected area on the western slopes outbreaks in gorgeted wood-quail population size (Factor E). Because of of the East Andes is severely fragmented populations. As a result, we do not the species’ small population size and due to deforestation (Factor A). In consider disease to be a threat to the inability to recolonize isolated habitat addition, active hunting was reported in species. fragments (Factor E), predation renders this location in the late 1980s. Collar et Predation: Potential quail predators the species vulnerable to local al. (1992, p. 172) interpreted this level include feral dogs, tayras, dwarf extirpation. Therefore, we find that of hunting to imply that the species was squirrels (Microsciurus sp.), tree predation, exacerbated by ongoing capable of withstanding some hunting squirrels (Sciurus granatensis), common habitat destruction (Factor A) and pressure. Andrade (in litt., Collar et al. opossums (Didelphis marsupialis), hunting (Factor B), is a threat to the 1992, p. 172) noted that this would be kinkajous (Potos flavus), Central gorgeted wood-quail.

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D. The Inadequacy of Existing Therefore, we determine that forestry Santander, and Cachalu´ Biological Regulatory Mechanisms regulations are not effective in Reserve and Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce Regulatory mechanisms may provide mitigating the threats to the gorgeted Flora and Fauna Sanctuary, in southern species-specific or habitat-specific wood-quail from habitat destruction Santander (Donegan and Huertas 2005, protections. An evaluation of the (Factor A). p. 30; Rainforest Alliance 2008, p. 2; Colombia has several categories of adequacy of regulatory mechanisms TNC 2008, p. 1). Although there is little national habitat protection (Matallana-T. within Colombia to mitigate or remove information on the species’ dispersal 2005, p. 121-122), which were more the threats to the gorgeted wood-quail is capabilities, the isolated, fragmented fully described above, as part of the provided below, beginning with species- nature of the remaining suitable habitat Factor D analysis for the blue-billed specific and followed by habitat-specific is considered by researchers to be a curassow (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121- protection mechanisms. hindrance to its ability to disperse Colombia has enacted numerous laws 122). The gorgeted wood-quail occurs because: (1) gorgeted wood-quail is within two protected areas: the to protect species and their habitats primarily a terrestrial species that is Guanenta´-Alto Rio Fonce Flora and (Matallana-T. 2005, p. 121). The found at mid-to-upper-elevation forests Fauna Sanctuary (Fuller et al. 2000, p. gorgeted wood-quail is listed as a (1,750-2,050 m (5,741-6,726 ft)) on the 28; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160) and critically endangered species under western slopes of the East Andes (BLI the Cachalu´ Biological Reserve (BLI Colombian Law 99 of 1993 (EcoLex 2007g, p. 2; Donegan and Huertas 2005, 2007g, p. 10; Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, 1993, p. 2) and Resolution No. 584 of p. 29; Donegan et al. 2003, p. 27; Collar p. 158). Habitat destruction and 2002 (EcoLex 2002, pp. 10, 12). A full et al. 1992, pp. 171-172; del Hoyo 1994, subsistence hunting (poaching) are description of these laws and the p. 431; Fuller et al. 2000, pp. 2, 27-28; ongoing within these protected areas, ´ categorization of threatened species in Sarria and Alvarez 2002, pp. 158-159; despite being illegal (BLI 2007g, p. 10). Turner 2006, p. 22; Wege and Long Colombia were provided above, as part Therefore, these sanctuaries and of the Factor D analysis for the blue- 1995, p. 143-144); (2) the species is reserves provide little or no protection dependent on mature forest for at least billed curassow. Because of its status as to the species from the threats of habitat a critically endangered species, the part of its life cycle and is not found in destruction (Factor A) or poaching secondary habitats that are not adjacent Ministry of the Environment does not (Factor B). permit the gorgeted wood-quail to be to primary forests (BLI 2007g, p. 3; ´ hunted commercially or for sport under Summary of Factor D Sarria and Alvarez 2002, p. 159); (3) researchers believe that the species is Resolution No. 849 of 1973 and Colombia has adopted numerous laws capable of escaping hunting pressures Resolution No. 787 of 1977 (EcoLex and regulatory mechanisms to only when adjacent to suitable habitat 1973, p.1; EcoLex 1977, p. 3). Neither administer and manage wildlife and (Andrade in litt., as cited in Collar et al. Resolution prohibits subsistence their habitats. The gorgeted wood-quail 1992, p. 172); (4) the species is currently hunting, which is a threat to the species is considered critically endangered located in two disjunct areas, one in throughout its range (Factor B). under Colombian law and lives within northern Santander and the other in Gorgeted wood-quail is hunted within two protected areas. However, on-the- southern Santander; and (5) most of the the Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es, which has ground enforcement of existing wildlife habitat below 1,950-2,500 m (6,398- no protected status (BLI 2007g, p. 13) protection and forestry laws and 8,202 ft) in the East Andes has been despite being considered the stronghold oversight of the local jurisdictions destroyed, leaving only isolated, for the species (Donegan and Huertas implementing and regulating activities fragmented habitat patches (Fuller et al. 2005, p. 29; Turner 2006, p. 22). Thus, are ineffective at mitigating the primary 2000, p. 28; Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. these Resolutions are ineffective at threats to the gorgeted wood-quail. As 192). Because the species has not reducing the existing threat of discussed for Factor A, habitat demonstrated an aptitude to disperse subsistence hunting to the gorgeted destruction, degradation, and into secondary-growth areas that are not wood-quail (Factor B). fragmentation continue throughout the adjacent to primary forest, and given the Colombia has enacted numerous existing range of the gorgeted wood- isolated, disjunct nature of remaining forestry laws and forestry management quail. As discussed for Factor B, forest fragments, the gorgeted wood- practices (Law No. 2 (EcoLex 1959); uncontrolled hunting of the gorgeted quail as with other narrow-ranging Decree No. 2,811 (Faolex 1974); Decree wood-quail is ongoing and negatively species found in fragmented habitat No. 1,791 (Faolex 1996); Law No. 1,021 affects the continued existence of the (Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46), is unlikely or (EcoLex 2006)). Weaknesses in the species. Therefore, we find that the incapable of dispersing to suitable implementation of these laws and the existing regulatory mechanisms habitat that is not adjacent to existing decentralized nature of Colombian currently in place are inadequate to locales. resource management are described in mitigate the primary threats of habitat detail above for the blue-billed curassow destruction (Factor A) and hunting Small Population Size: Deforestation (Factor D) (ITTO 2006, pp. 218-9, 222; (Factor B) to the gorgeted wood-quail. (Factor A) and overutilization (Factor B) Matallana-T. 2005, pp. 121-122). These have greatly affected the current regulatory mechanisms are ineffective at E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors population size and distributional range protecting the gorgeted wood-quail (BLI Affecting the Continued Existence of the of the gorgeted wood-quail (Collar et al. 2007g, p. 13; ITTO 2006, p. 222). Habitat Species 1992, pp. 126-127; Collar et al. 1994, p. destruction continues to be a problem Two additional factors affect the 60). The species was thought to be within the unprotected forests of gorgeted wood-quail: its minimal extinct or on the verge of extinction Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es (BLI 2007g, p. likelihood for dispersal and the species’ until its rediscovery in 1970 (Collar et 13), considered the stronghold of the small population size. al. 1992, p. 171; Fuller et al. 2000, pp. species (Donegan and Huertas 2005, p. Likelihood to Disperse: The gorgeted 4-5, 27; Wege and Long 1995, p. 146). 29; Turner 2006, p. 22), and on the wood-quail is currently known in three The gorgeted wood-quail is now outskirts of the Reserva Biolo´gica localities in two disjunct locations confirmed in three isolated areas: the Cachalu´ , where the species has also within the Department of Santander: Sanctuary of Fauna and Flora Guanenta´- been observed (BLI 2007g, p. 10). Serranı´a de los Yarguı´es, in northern Alto Rio Fonce, the Natural Reserve

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Cachalu´ , and the Serranı´a de los 30-66 individuals in southern habitat available to the species is Yariguı´es (Donegan and Huertas 2005, Santander. Upon examination of these approximately 10-27 km2 (4-10 mi2). pp. 11, 29-30; Donegan et al. 2004, p. 19; estimates, both populations are clearly Within the past decade, the gorgeted Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 160). The below the threshold required for long- wood-quail has been confirmed in only population of the gorgeted wood-quail is term fitness in a population. The lower three locations: Serranı´a de los currently estimated to include 189 to limit of the population estimate for the Yarguı´es, in northern Santander, and 486 individuals, with a declining southern Santander population is below adjacent localities in the Guanenta´-Alto population trend (BLI 2007g, pp. 1, 5). the threshold required to avoid short- Rio Fonce Flora and Fauna Sanctuary The gorgeted wood-quail’s restricted term risks such as inbreeding and and Cachalu´ Biological Reserve, in range, combined with its small demographic shifts, whereas the upper southern Santander. Much of the population size (Cuervo and Salaman limit is barely above the 50-individual primary forest, mid-elevation habitat 1999, p. 7; del Hoyo 1994, p. 361; Sarria threshold. Therefore, we currently preferred by the species has been and A´ lvarez 2002, p. 138), makes the consider these subpopulations (and the destroyed by human activities, such as species particularly vulnerable to the species as a whole) to be at risk due to slash-and-burn agriculture, grazing, and threat of adverse natural (e.g., genetic, the lack of short- and long-term extractive industries (Factor A). Illegal demographic, or environmental) and viability. crop production, which continues manmade (e.g., hunting or deforestation) throughout the species’ range, has events that destroy individuals and their Summary of Factor E altered soil compositions, hindering habitat (Holsinger 2000, pp. 64-65; The gorgeted wood-quail is unlikely regeneration of abandoned fields. In Primack 1998, pp. 279-308; Young and or incapable of dispersing into suitable addition, drug eradication programs Clarke 2000, pp. 361-366). Small habitat that is isolated from extant involving the aerial spraying of non- population sizes render species populations, and the species’ overall specific herbicides have further vulnerable to genetic risks that can have small population size makes it degraded the environment and individual or population-level vulnerable to genetic and demographic destroyed primary forest habitat. consequences on the genetic level and risks that negatively impact the species’ In combination, these threats can increase the species’ susceptibility short- and long-term viability. Habitat exacerbate the negative consequences to to demographic problems, as explained destruction through deforestation the species. For example, habitat in more detail above for the blue-billed (Factor A) and overutilization through fragmentation (Factor A) increases the curassow (Factor E, Small Population hunting (Factor B) have greatly affected species’ vulnerability to hunting (Factor Size) (Charlesworth and Charlesworth the species’ current population size. B). Poaching, in combination with 1987, p. 238; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Once Believed to be extinct or on the verge of habitat destruction, may have led to the a population is reduced below a certain extinction within the past 30 years, the local extirpation of the gorgeted wood- number of individuals, it tends to species is now confirmed in 3 areas of quail from Cuchilla del Ramo. This rapidly decline towards extinction 2 disjunct locations. The gorgeted wood- population was only discovered in 1970 (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and quail’s small population size, combined and, amidst ongoing habitat destruction Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. with its restricted range and inability to and hunting pressures, has not been 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). repopulate disjunct suitable habitat observed there since 1988. Thus, In the absence of quantitative studies following local extirpations, makes the deforestation and hunting within the specific to this species, a general species particularly vulnerable to the past 30 years may have led to the approximation of minimum viable threat of adverse natural (e.g., genetic, extirpation of the gorgeted wood-quail population size is the 50/500 rule, as demographic, or environmental) and from this location. described above as part of the Factor E manmade (e.g., hunting or deforestation) Habitat fragmentation also exposes analysis for the brown-banded antpitta events that destroy individuals and their the species to greater risk of extinction (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, habitat. caused by adverse natural (e.g., genetic, pp. 160-162). The total population size demographic, or environmental) and Status Determination for the Gorgeted of the gorgeted wood-quail is estimated manmade (e.g., hunting or deforestation) Wood-Quail to be between 186 and 486 individuals. events (Factor E). The species’ While 186 individuals is above the The five primary factors that threaten population has decreased by up to 9 minimum population size required to the survival of the gorgeted wood-quail percent in the past 10 years and has avoid short-term genetic consequences, are: (1) Habitat destruction, likely been extirpated from at least one 486 falls just below the threshold fragmentation, and degradation (Factor location (Cundinamarca) due to habitat minimum number of 500 individuals A); (2) overexploitation due to hunting loss and from another locality (Cuchilla required for long-term fitness of a (Factor B); (3) predation (Factor C); (4) del Ramo) due to a combination of population and does not take into inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms to habitat loss and hunting. The global account that not all members of the reduce the threats to the species (Factor population of the gorgeted wood-quail is population will be contributing to D); and (5) small population size and estimated to be between 187 and 486 population growth at any one time. isolation of remaining populations individuals. Given that the gorgeted Because the gorgeted wood-quail (Factor E). The gorgeted wood-quail, a wood-quail is likely to interact as exists in two isolated, disjunct habitat small terrestrial bird, prefers primary subpopulations and is unlikely to fragments, between which they are montane forests or adjacent secondary disperse between patches of fragmented unlikely to disperse, an examination of forests at altitudes between 1,750 and habitat, the effective population size is the fitness of each subpopulation is 2,050 m (5,741 and 6,726 ft). The actually much smaller. This small more appropriate. For the purposes of species’ historic range has been reduced population size puts the gorgeted wood- this analysis, although we have by 92 percent, extirpating the species quail at risk from both near-term genetic reservations about the precision of these from its type locality in the Department complications (such as inbreeding and estimates (see Population Estimates of Cundinamarca and causing the demographic shifts) and lack of long- discussion above), we will use the species to shift to the extremes of its term fitness (such as the ability to adapt following two population estimates: 250 range and elevational distribution to changing conditions). These potential individuals in Northern Santander and (Factor A). The estimated suitable genetic problems are exacerbated by

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ongoing human-induced threats, such as 1889 (BLI 2007e, p. 1). The type vera), and mango tree (Mangifera spp.) habitat destruction (Factor A) and specimen (the actual specimen that was (Becker et al. 2000, p. 55; del Hoyo et hunting (Factor B), factors which are not first described) of the Esmeraldas al. 1999, p. 678; Ridgely and Greenfield being mitigated by existing regulations woodstar was obtained from the moist 2001b, p. 295). As recently as 1999, (Factor D) and are further magnified forest habitat near Esmeraldas City, in there were no known breeding sites for because the species is unlikely to the Department of Esmeraldas (Collar et the Esmeraldas woodstar (del Hoyo et repopulate isolated patches of suitable al. 1992, p. 533). Esmeraldas City is, al. 1999, p. 678). Today, one breeding habitat where the species has undergone therefore, referred to as the ‘‘type site has been located in the cloud forests decline or local extirpation, increasing locality.’’ of the Colonche Hills (Hummingbird the likelihood of local extirpations Simon placed the species in the Monitoring Network 2006, p. 1), in the (Factor E). Trochilidae family, under the name Department of Guayas (Best and Kessler The gorgeted wood-quail is listed as Chaetocercus berlepschi. The species is 1995, p. 54). The breeding season is critically endangered, making it illegal also known by the synonym Acestrura from December to March (BLI 2007c, p. to hunt the species, and two of the three berlepschi. Both CITES and BirdLife 3). Little else is known of the known localities are within protected International recognize the species as Esmeraldas woodstar’s breeding habits areas. However, habitat destruction and Chaetocercus berlepschi (BLI 2007e, p. or other activities during most of the poaching are ongoing throughout the 1; UNEP-WCMC 2008b, p. 1). Therefore, year (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001a, pp. species’ range (Factor D). Thus, the we accept the species as Chaetocercus 389-390). The species seems to regulations in place are ineffective in berlepschi, which follows the Integrated ‘‘disappear’’ from known locations protecting the gorgeted wood-quail and Taxonomic Information System (ITIS during non-breeding months (BLI 2007c, its habitat. 2008). p. 2; Becker et al. 2000, p. 55). In We have carefully assessed the best Habitat and Life History general, male hummingbirds breed with available scientific and commercial several females in one breeding season information regarding the past, present, Esmeraldas woodstar is a range- and the females take responsibility for and potential future threats faced by the restricted, forest-dwelling species with all remaining reproductive gorgeted wood-quail. We consider the highly localized populations (BLI 2007f, responsibilities, including nest building, ongoing threats to the gorgeted wood- pp.1-3; Collar et al. 1992, p. 533; incubation, and rearing. Hummingbirds quail, habitat destruction (Factor A), Schuchmann 1999, p. 532). Esmeraldas typically produce 2 eggs per clutch hunting (Factor B), and predation woodstar prefers primary forest and is (Schuchmann 1999, pp. 506, 509). (Factor C), exacerbated by the species’ usually found in lowland semi- small population size and limited evergreen forests (cloud or fog forests) Historical Range and Distribution dispersal ability (Factor E), and and has occasionally been seen in The type locality for the Esmeraldas compounded by inadequate regulatory secondary-growth semi-humid (moist) woodstar (the location of its first mechanisms to mitigate these threats habitat during the breeding season (Best discovery) was in Esmeraldas, near (Factor D), to be equally present and of and Kessler, p. 141; BLI 2004, p. 2; BLI Esmeraldas City, and the last specimen the same magnitude throughout the 2007c, p. 3; Collar et al. 1992, p. 533; was observed there and in the species’ entire current range. Based on del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 678; Department of Manabı´ in 1912 (Collar et this information, we conclude that the Hummingbird Monitoring Network al. 1992, p. 533). The species’ historic gorgeted wood-quail is in danger of 2006, p. 1; Ridgely and Greenfield range has been reduced by 99 percent extinction throughout its range. 2001b, p. 295; Schuchmann 1999, p. (Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 293). The Therefore, we are proposing to list the 468; Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 211; area around its type locality (Esmeraldas gorgeted wood-quail as an endangered Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39). City) has been replaced by pastureland species. Esmeraldas woodstar has not been seen and is nearly devoid of all trees (Collar in secondary-growth forests at any other et al. 1992, p. 533). After the species Ecuadorian Bird Species time of year, and researchers are not went unobserved following the 1912 V. Esmeraldas Woodstar (Chaetocercus certain that the species can survive in sightings, it was thought to be extinct, berlepschi) secondary forests year-round (BLI until it was rediscovered in 1990 2007c, p. 3). The species has mostly (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001a, pp. 389- Species Description been recorded at elevations between 50 390; Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39). Esmeraldas woodstar, a member of the and 150 m (164 and 492 ft) (Ridgely and hummingbird family (Trochilidae) and Greenfield 2001a, p. 390; Ridgely and Current Range and Distribution endemic to Ecuador, is approximately Greenfield 2001b, p. 295), but has Today, Esmeraldas woodstar ranges in 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in length (del Hoyo et occasionally been observed above 500 m northwestern Ecuador, in the al. 1999, p. 678; Ridgely and Greenfield (1,640 ft) (i.e., at Loma Alta; Factor A) Departments of Esmeraldas, Manabı´, 2001b, p. 295; Schuchmann 1999, p. (Best and Kessler, p. 141; del Hoyo et al. and Guayas, along the slopes of the 468; Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39). 1999, p. 678; Ridgely and Greenfield coastal cordillera up to 500 m (1,640 ft) The species is locally known as ‘‘Colibrı´ 2001b, p. 295; Schuchmann 1999, p. (del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 678; Ridgely de Esmeraldas’’ or ‘‘Estrellita 468; Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 211; and Greenfield 2001b, p. 295; esmeralden˜ a’’ (UNEP-WCMC 2008b). Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39). Schuchmann 1999, p. 468; Williams and Both sexes have striking violet, green, Esmeraldas woodstar has been seen Tobias 1991, p. 39). The current extent and white plumage. The male has a most often along forest borders, with of the species’ range is approximately narrow band across its breast, whereas females especially seen perching on 1,155 km2 (446 mi2), in three disjunct the female has a full white underbody dead twigs (Ridgely and Greenfield and isolated areas (BLI 2004, p. 2; (BLI 2007c, p. 1; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001b, p. 295). The species forages Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 293). 2001b, plate 42). mainly in the canopy and has been The species was rediscovered on recorded ‘‘hawking’’ insects from the ridges above the lower Rı´o Ayampe (in Taxonomy air, as well as foraging nectar from northwest Guayas/Manabı´) in March Esmeraldas woodstar was first flowers of the strawberry tree 1990, near the Machalilla National Park taxonomically described by Simon in (Muntingia calabura), river koko (Inga (Becker et al. 2000, p. 55; BLI 2007c, p.

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2; Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39), and environment preferred by the 158-159; Vin˜ a et al. 2004, pp. 118-119). again in January 1991 (Ridgely and Esmeraldas woodstar is one of the most Fragmented habitat also increases Greenfield 2001a, p. 389). Subsequent threatened forest habitats in the predator access to the forest, exposing attempts to relocate the species at Rı´o Neotropics (Collar et al. 1992, p. 533; the species to increased risk of Ayampe (in August 1991 and July 1993) Schuchmann 1999, p. 532). This region predation (Factor C). were unsuccessful (Collar et al. 1992, p. is also known as the Tumbesian region Refugia: The species is currently 533; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001a, p. (which encompasses the coast and known in three localities: (1) Isla de la 389). Researchers subsequently foothills beginning in southwestern Plata, (2) Machalilla National Park, and determined that the species occupies Ecuador and into the mid-coastal area of (3) Loma Alta Communal Ecological this habitat only seasonally, frequenting northwestern Peru) (World Land Trust Reserve. the Park from December through the U.S. 2008, p. 1). This habitat type has (1) Isla de la Plata: This 1,420-ha spring (March), but is absent from this been reduced by over 99 percent (3,508-ac) island is approximately 27 location during non-breeding months (Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 293), km (17 mi) from the coast of the (Becker et al. 2000, p. 55; BLI 2007c, p. making this region one of the most Department of Manabı´ and is actually 2; and Greenfield 2001a, p. 389). vulnerable endemic bird areas in South part of the Machalilla National Park (see Since then, the species has been America (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. below). The species was last observed observed at the following locations: 214). Deforestation, understory on the island in 1998 (Becker et al. Esmeraldas: Sua´, in January 1993, and degradation, and limited habitat size are 2000, p. 55; BLI 2007c, p. 2). The island Muisne, in 1994 (month unknown); among the biggest impacts to resident is mostly uninhabited, but tourism for Manabı´: Isla de La Plata (part of the birds in the Tumbesian region bird-watching occurs there year-round Machalilla National Park), December- (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 214). (BLI 2007c, p. 9), which occasionally January 1998 (BLI 2007c, p. 2; Ridgely Forested habitat within western disturbs the native birds. Non-native and Greenfield 2001a, p. 389; Williams Ecuador, including that within the domestic animals, including goats and Tobias 1991, p. 39). The species Esmeraldas woodstar’s range, has (Capra hircus), were introduced to the was not observed on Isla de La Plata diminished rapidly due to logging, island many years ago (Curry 1993, p. during a bird survey conducted in June clearing for agriculture, and road 24). Non-native predators, which have 2000 (Cisneros-Heredia 2005, p. 24), development (Dodson and Gentry 1991, also been introduced to the island, are reconfirming their absence from this pp. 283-293). The primary moist forest discussed below under Factor C. The habitat during non-breeding months. habitat at the species’ type locality grazing activity of the goats has (Esmeraldas City) has been replaced destroyed understory habitat on the Population Estimates with pastures and scattered trees (Collar island. As of 2007, BirdLife Esmeraldas woodstar is considered a et al. 1992, p. 533). Dodson and Gentry International reports that an eradication rare, range-restricted species with (1991, p. 293) indicated that rapid program is underway to remove these highly localized populations in three habitat loss is continuing and that feral animals from the island (BLI general areas (BLI 2007c, pp. 1-3; extant forests will be eliminated in the 2007c, p. 10). Despite a report, in 1991, Schuchmann 1999, p. 532). There have near future if deforestation continues. that the goat population on the island been no population surveys of this Recent reports indicate that forest had reportedly been reduced from an species. BirdLife International estimated habitat loss continues in Ecuador. estimated 300 to 30 animals (Curry that the population currently includes Between the years 1990 and 2005, 1993, p. 24), the colony of goats between 186 and 373 individuals, based Ecuador has lost a total of 2.96 million apparently remains extant to this day on estimates using similar species of ha (7.31 million ac) of primary forest, (BLI 2007c, p. 10). hummingbirds (BLI 2007c, p. 6). which represents a 16.7 percent (2) Machalilla National Park: This 34,393-ha (84,985-ac) Park was Conservation Status deforestation rate and a total loss of 21.5 percent of forested habitat since 1990 established in 1979 (BLI 2007c, pp. 11, The Esmeraldas woodstar is identified (Butler 2006b, pp. 1-3; FAO 2003b, p. 1). 13) and is designated as a Ramsar as an endangered species under Very little suitable habitat remains for Wetland of International Importance Ecuadorian law (EcoLex 2003b, p. 36, p. the species and remaining habitat is (BLI 2007c, p. 13) (see Factor D). In 36). This species is classified as highly fragmented (BLI 2004a, p. 2). addition to the male sighting on Isla de ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List, due Other Human Factors: Ongoing La Plata, a female was also observed to severe fragmentation within the deforestation has transformed forested within the Park in 1998 (Becker et al. woodstar’s restricted range (IUCN 2006). habitat within the region to a patchwork 2000, p. 55). The Park encompasses a Summary of Factors Affecting the of cropland, with fewer than 5 percent variety of habitats, including high- Esmeraldas Woodstar of the forested areas remaining only on elevation humid and cloud forests and steep slopes that cannot be cultivated lower-elevation slopes covered with A. The Present or Threatened (Best and Kessler 1995, p. 35; semi-deciduous and deciduous forests Destruction, Modification, or Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 214). (BLI 2007c, pp. 11). Curtailment of the Habitat or Range Persistent grazing from goats and cattle This park is populated, and residents The Esmeraldas woodstar is restricted has decimated the understory vegetation subsist on farming and cattle-raising to the semi-humid forests and and any secondary forest growth (BLI (BLI 2007c, pp. 11, 13; Lasso 1997, p. 3). woodlands from sealevel to 500 m 2004a, p. 2). Researchers have observed Portions of land within the Park have (1,600 ft) along the Coastal Cordillera of that road building and other been converted to pastures or cropland western Ecuador (del Hoyo et al. 1999, infrastructure improvements in (Lasso 1997, p. 3). Some previously p. 678; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001b, p. previously remote forested areas have deforested areas have been left to 295). The current extent of the species’ increased accessibility and further regenerate (BLI 2007c, p. 13). However, range is approximately 1,155 km2 (446 facilitated habitat destruction, ongoing grazing is hindering understory mi2), in three disjunct and isolated areas exploitation, and human settlement development in forest areas left to (BLI 2004, p. 2). (A´ lvarez 2005, p. 2042; Ca´rdenas and regenerate (BLI 2007c, pp. 10, 13, 17). Deforestation Rates and Patterns: The Rodrı´guez Becerra 2004, pp. 125-130; Residents continue to selectively semi-humid, semi-evergreen forest Etter et al. 2006, p. 1; Hunter 1996, p. harvest trees and non-timber products;

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this activity is not monitored and the protected areas (Factor D), and are by ecotourism or other human extent of the impact is unknown (BLI expected to continue. disturbance. 2007c, p. 13). The Park is surrounded by We are unaware of any other B. Overutilization for Commercial, a matrix of altered habitat, dominated information currently available that Recreational, Scientific, or Educational by agricultural crops such as bananas, addresses the occurrence of Purposes corn, sugarcane, tomatoes (Lycopersicon overutilization for commercial, esculentum), yucca (Yucca spp.), and Stattersfield et al. (1998, p. 214) recreation, scientific, or education pasturelands (BLI 2007c, p. 11; Lasso reported that birds in the Tumbesian purposes that may be affecting the 1997, p. 3). A highway built around the region are, in part, impacted by hunting Esmeraldas woodstar population. outskirts of the park provides greater and trade (Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. Consequently, we do not consider this access to more areas within the Park 214). However, we have no current factor to be a threat to the species. (BLI 2007c, p. 13). Other activities in the information to suggest that hunting for C. Disease or Predation area, including a fish meal processing domestic or international consumption plant, petroleum waste discharges into or trade is impacting the Esmeraldas Disease: We are unaware of the sea, and accumulation of solid woodstar (including, Best and Kessler, information regarding disease or the waste, are potential sources of pollution pp. 124, 141; BLI 2007c, p. 3). Locally, potential for significant disease within the Park (Lasso 1997, p. 3). the communities in Loma Alta, where outbreaks in the Esmeraldas woodstar. (3) Loma Alta Communal Ecological this species occurs, are involved in As a result, we do not consider disease Reserve: This 6,000-ha (14,826-ac) area conservation activities, including to be a threat to the species. Predation: Hummingbird eggs and was declared a Reserve in 1996 (BLI protecting native species in Loma Alta chicks are most vulnerable to predation. 2007c, p. 17). The Reserve was created Communal Ecological Reserve against Known hummingbird predators that are to protect the watershed and to help hunting, timber harvest and agricultural found in cloud forest habitat in Ecuador preserve the land of four groups of expansion. indigenous inhabitants. The Reserve include domestic cats (Felis catus), feral In 1987, the Esmeraldas woodstar was cats, hawks (family Accipitridae), owls encompasses a variety of habitats from listed in CITES Appendix II (UNEP- dry to cloud forests (BLI 2007c, p. 15). (order Strigiformes), and snakes WCMC 2008b, p. 1), which includes (suborder Serpentes) (Borchardt 2004, p. About 500 ha (1,235 ac) of the Reserve species that are not necessarily is dedicated to cultivation of the 5; The Hummingbird Society no date threatened with extinction, but which (n.d.), p 1; Rosso 2006, p. 35). Because Panama hat plant (Carludovica palmata, require regulation of international trade locally known as ‘‘Paja Toquilla’’), of their small size, many insect-eating to ensure that trade of the species is which is processed and sold by the predators have been known to prey on compatible with the species’ survival. community. Cattle-raising has increased hummingbirds, including, praying International trade in specimens of in recent years and the regenerating mantis (family Mantidae), spiders (class Appendix-II species is authorized forests have again been decimated by Arachnida), bees and wasps (order through permits or certificates under overgrazing. Logging, agriculture, and Hymenoptera), frogs (order Anura), and certain circumstances, including slash-and-burn farming continue to largemouth bass (Micropterus verification that trade will not be impact this Reserve (BLI 2007c, p. 17). salmoides) (Borchardt 2004, p. 5; The detrimental to the survival of the Hummingbird Society no date (n.d.), p Summary of Factor A species in the wild and that the 1; Rosso 2006, p. 35). According to the Esmeraldas woodstars are rare, range- specimens were legally acquired (UNEP- FAO-Fisheries and Aquaculture restricted species with highly localized WCMC 2008a, p. 1). According to the Department (2000, p. 1), largemouth populations in three disjunct locations World Conservation Monitoring Centre bass is a non-native invasive species within an area of approximately 1,155 (WCMC), there has been one that was introduced to Ecuador km2 (446 mi2) (BLI 2004, p. 2; Dodson international transaction permitted by sometime prior to 1988. Many of these and Gentry 1991, p. 293). The evergreen CITES since listing. In 1993, 100 potential Esmeraldas woodstar forests preferred by this species have ‘‘bodies’’ were imported to Mexico predators are found within the undergone extensive deforestation, and through the United States. According to Machalilla National Park (Emmons and remaining habitat is highly fragmented. the trade data, the specimens were being Albuja 1992, pp. 120-121), both on the Habitat alteration and human activities, traded for commercial purposes and mainland and on Isla de La Plata (see such as slash-and-burn agriculture and were seized by inspectors (UNEP- Factor A). cattle and goat grazing, are occurring WCMC 2008d, p. 1). There has been no On Isla de La Plata, non-native throughout the species’ range, including further CITES-recorded trade in this predators, including cats and spiny rats the protected areas in which the species species since that time. Although we are (Proechimys decumanus), were occurs (Machalilla National Park, no longer able to determine the exact introduced to the island many years ago including Isla de la Plata, and Loma details surrounding this seizure, we (BLI 2007c, p. 10; Curry 1993, p. 24). Alta Communal Ecological Reserve). consider the seizure and lack of ensuing Cats are opportunistic predators and Infrastructure development and trade to be supportive that CITES has their diet is comprised of a variety of economic activities (such as fish meal been effective in controlling commercial animals, including birds (Rosero 2006, processing and non-timber forest trade in this species. Therefore, we do p. 5). It was conjectured that the wild product extraction) occur throughout not consider international trade for cats on Isla de La Plata would keep the the species’ known breeding range. commercial purposes to be a threat to rat population in check. However, Curry Logging, road development, and the species. (1993, p. 24) examined the stomach pollution from industrial activities Tourism occurs year-round at Isla de contents of several cats on the Island occur within or near protected areas. la Plata and has been known to and found that they contained egg shell Habitat destruction, alteration, and occasionally disturb the native birds fragments, not mammal hair, indicating conversion have reduced the available (BLI 2007c, pp. 2, 9-10). There is no that the cats were preying upon bird habitat for this species by 99 percent. information regarding whether nests. Because Esmeraldas woodstar is These activities are ongoing throughout Esmeraldas woodstar is among the only observed on Isla de La Plata during the species’ range, including within native species that is adversely affected breeding season (BLI 2007c, p. 2; Becker

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et al. 2000, p. 55; Cisneros-Heredia are all predators of hummingbirds that species, except those specifically 2005, p. 24), this renders the woodstar are found in Esmeraldas woodstar identified by the Ministry of the especially vulnerable to egg predation habitat. Predation results in the direct Environment or otherwise permitted by cats. Cats are also considered among removal of eggs, juveniles, and adults (EcoLex 2000, p.1; EcoLex 2003a, p. 1). the most common predators of non- from the population. Esmeraldas Under this law, the Ministry of the nesting hummingbirds, especially woodstars produce a low clutch size Environment does not permit during torpor, a resting state induced in and are particularly vulnerable to egg commercial or sport hunting of the hummingbirds when energy levels are predation by cats on Isla de la Plata (see Esmeraldas woodstar because of its low (BLI 2008b, p. 1; The Hummingbird Habitat and Life History). Esmeraldas status as a critically endangered species Society n.d., p. 1; Schuchmann 1999, p. woodstar habitat is much reduced and (EcoLex 2002b, p. 17). However, we do 485). During torpor, hummingbirds are highly fragmented (Factor A), and not consider hunting (Factor B) to be a slow to react to external stimuli studies on similar species in similar current threat to the Esmeraldas (Schuchmann 1999, p. 485). Cats are Andean habitats indicate that woodstar and these laws do not mitigate responsible for endangering other vulnerability to predation by generalist threats to the species from habitat island-dwelling hummingbirds, predators increases with increased destruction (Factor A), predation (Factor including the critically endangered habitat fragmentation and smaller patch C), or its small population size (Factor Ferna´ndez firecrown (Sephanoides sizes. Predation can remove potentially E). Therefore, protection under these fernandensis) (native to the Juan reproductive adults from the breeding laws does not reduce any existing Ferna´ndez Islands, Chile) (BLI 2008b, p. pool and exacerbates the genetic threats to the species. 1; The Hummingbird Society n.d., p. 1). complications associated with the Esmeraldas woodstar is listed in According to BirdLife International, species’ small population size (Factor Appendix II of CITES, to which Ecuador an eradication program is underway to E), increasing the species’ vulnerability became a Party in 1975 (UNEP-WCMC remove feral animals from the island to local extirpation. Therefore, we find 2008a, p. 1; USFWS 2008, p. 1). CITES (BLI 2007c, p. 10). One project to that predation, exacerbated by ongoing was described in more detail above, as control the introduced cat population habitat destruction (Factor A), is a threat part of the Factor E analysis for the blue- on Isla De La Plata, being supported by to the Esmeraldas woodstar. billed curassow. As discussed under the World Conservation Foundation, Factor B for the Esmeraldas woodstar, would trap the feral cats, neuter them, D. The Inadequacy of Existing we consider that this international and return them to the wild, with the Regulatory Mechanisms treaty has minimized the potential eventual goal of preventing further Regulatory mechanisms may provide threat to the species from international reproduction of the feral population. species-specific or habitat-specific trade and do not consider international This project will also help to better protections. An evaluation of the trade to be a threat impacting the quantify the extent of the invasion on adequacy of regulatory mechanisms Esmeraldas woodstar. However, this the island (Rosero 2006, p. 5). However, within Ecuador to mitigate or remove treaty does not mitigate threats to the predation on the island continues to be the threats to the Esmeraldas woodstar species from habitat destruction (Factor a threat to native bird species, including is provided below, beginning with A), predation (Factor C), or its small the Esmeraladas woodstar, both on the species-specific and followed by population size (Factor E). Therefore, Island and in Machalilla National Park habitat-specific protection mechanisms. protection under this Treaty does not (BLI 2007c, p. 10; Emmons and Albuja The Esmeraldas woodstar is protected reduce any existing threats to the 1992, pp. 120-121; Rosero 2006, p. 5). under Ecuadorian law by Decree No. species. The Esmeraldas woodstar’s historic 3,516 of 2003 (Unified Text of the Ecuador has numerous laws and range has been reduced by 99 percent Secondary Legislation of the Ministry of regulations pertaining to forests and (Dodson and Gentry 1991, p. 293) and Environment (EcoLex 2003b, pp. 1-2 forestry management, including: the remaining suitable habitat is highly and 36). Decree No. 3,516 summarizes Forestry Act (comprised of Law No. 74 fragmented (Best and Kessler 1995, p. the laws governing environmental of 1981 — Forest Act and conservation 35; BLI 2004a, p. 2; Stattersfield et al. policy in Ecuador and provides that the of natural areas and wildlife (Faolex 1998, p. 214). Studies have shown that country’s biodiversity be protected and 1981, pp. 1-54)—and Law No. 17 of habitat fragmentation increases the used primarily in a sustainable manner. 2004—Consolidation of the Forest Act potential predation pressure within Appendix 1 of Decree No. 3,516 lists the and conservation of natural areas and habitat fragments by facilitating the Ecuadorian fauna and flora that are wildlife (Faolex 2004, pp. 1-29); a predators’ access throughout the categorized as critically endangered (En Forestry Action Plan (1991-1995); the fragment and because smaller fragments peligro critico), endangered (En peligro), Ecuadorian Strategy for Forest support smaller predators, which tend or vulnerable (Vulnerable) (EcoLex Sustainable Development of 2000 to prey upon the more vulnerable life- 2003b, p.17). Under this law, (Estrategia para el Desarrollo Forestal history stages of the Esmeraldas Esmeraldas woodstar is categorized as Sostenible); and Decree 346, which woodstar, eggs and juveniles (Arango- endangered, under the synonym recognizes that natural forests are highly Ve´lez and Kattan 1997, pp. 137-143; Acestrura berlepschi (EcoLex 2003b, p. vulnerable (ITTO 2006, p. 225). Gibbs 1991, p. 157; Hoover et al. 1995, 36). This threat status confers However, the International Tropical p. 151; Keyser et al. 1998, p. 991; 2002, protections upon the species, including Timber Organization considers p. 186; Renjifo 1999, p. 1133; Wilcove protection from hunting or commercial ecosystem management and 1985, p. 1214). These studies were take, under Resolution No. 105 of 2000 conservation in Ecuador, including described in more detail above, as part (Regulatory control of hunting seasons effective implementation of mechanisms of the Factor C analysis for the blue- and wildlife species in the country) and that would protect the Esmeraldas billed curassow. Agreement No. 143 of 2003 (Standards woodstar and its habitat, to be lacking for the control of hunting seasons and (ITTO 2006, p. 229). Habitat destruction Summary of Factor C licenses for hunting of wildlife). is ongoing (Butler 2006b, pp. 1-3; FAO Domestic and feral cats, rats, hawks, Resolution No. 105 and Agreement No. 2003b, p. 1) and extensive (Best and owls, snakes, praying mantis, spiders, 143 regulate and prohibit commercial Kessler 1995, p. 35; BLI 2004a, p. 2; bees, wasps, frogs, and largemouth bass and sport hunting of all wild bird Stattersfield et al. 1998, p. 214)

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throughout the species’ range (Factor A). and Gentry 1991, pp. 283-293); and conservation and wise use of wetlands Thus, these laws are ineffective at pollution from industrial activities and their resources. There are presently protecting Esmeraldas woodstar habitat. occur within or near protected areas 158 Contracting Parties to the Extractive harvest practices may pose (Lasso 1997, p. 3). In addition, most of Convention (including Ecuador, where a threat to the Esmeraldas woodstar (BLI Ecuador’s forests are privately owned or the Esmeraldas woodstar occurs), with 2007c, p. 13) (Factor A). In 2004, Law owned by communities (ITTO 2006, p. 1,828 wetland sites, totaling 169 million No. 17 (Faolex 2004, pp. 1-29) amended 224; Lasso 1997, pp. 2-3), and the ha (418 million ac), designated for the Forest Act of 1981 (Law No. 74) management and administration of inclusion in the Ramsar List of (Faolex 1981, pp. 1-54) to include five Ecuador’s forest resources and forest Wetlands of International Importance criteria for sustainable forest harvest practices is insufficient and (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2008, p. management: (i) sustainable timber unable to protect against unauthorized 1). Experts consider Ramsar to provide production; (ii) the maintenance of forest harvesting, degradation, and only nominal protection of wetlands, forest cover; (iii) the conservation of conversion (ITTO 2006, p. 229). Habitat noting that such a designation may biodiversity; (iv) co-responsibility in conversion and alteration are ongoing increase international awareness of the management; and (v) the reduction of throughout the range of the Esmeraldas site’s ecological value (Jellison et al. negative social and environmental woodstar, including within protected 2004, p. 19). However, habitat alteration impacts (Aguilar and Vlosky 2005, pp. areas (BLI 2007c, pp. 10, 13, 17; Butler (Factor A) (BLI 2007c, pp. 10-11, 13; 9-10; ITTO 2006, p. 225). In 2001, the 2006b, pp. 1-3; FAO 2003b, p. 1).Thus, Lasso 1997, p. 3) and predation by feral Ecuadorian government worked with Ecuadorian forestry regulations have not animals (Factor C) (BLI 2007c, p. 10; the private sector to develop a system of mitigated the threat of habitat Curry 1993, p. 24; Rosero 2006, p. 5), monitoring and control of forest harvest destruction (Factor A). key threats to the Esmeraldas woodstar, practices. However, in 2003, the The Ecuadorian government are ongoing within the Park and Supreme Court of Ecuador declared that recognizes 31 different legal categories predation has not been considered as the control system was unconstitutional, of protected lands (e.g., national parks, part of the most recent Ramsar site and new control systems are now being biological reserves, geo-botanical review (Lasso 1997, pp. 1-4). Therefore, developed (ITTO 2006, p. 225). reserves, bird reserves, wildlife reserves, this designation as a Ramsar Wetland of Approximately 70 percent of the forest etc.). Currently, the amount of protected International Importance does not products harvested are harvested land (both forested and non-forested) in mitigate the threats from habitat illegally, are used as fuel wood, or are Ecuador totals approximately 4.67 destruction (Factor A). discarded as waste (Aguilar and Vlosky million ha (11.5 million ac) (ITTO 2006, 2005, p. 4; ITTO 2006, p. 226). Because p. 228). However, only 38 percent of Summary of Factor D the extractive harvesting industry is not these lands have appropriate Ecuador has adopted numerous laws monitored, the extent of the impact is conservation measures in place to be and regulatory mechanisms to unknown (BLI 2007c, p. 13). However, considered protected areas according to administer and manage wildlife and we find this law is currently inadequate international standards (i.e., areas that their habitats. The Esmeraldas woodstar in monitoring the impacts of extractive are managed for scientific study or is protected under CITES, which we harvesting on the Esmeraldas woodstar wilderness protection, for ecosystem consider has been effective in mitigating or to protect the species from potential protection and recreation, for the potential threat to this species from impacts of extractive harvesting (Factor conservation of specific natural features, A). or for conservation through management commercial trade (Factor B). Esmeraldas The governmental institutions intervention) (IUCN 1994, pp. 17-20). woodstar is listed as endangered and responsible for natural resource Moreover, only 11 percent have ranges within at least two protected oversight in Ecuador appear to be management plans, and fewer than 1 areas (Machalilla National Park and under-resourced, and there is a lack of percent (13,000 ha (32,125 ac)) have Loma Alta Communal Ecological law enforcement on the ground. Despite implemented those management plans Reserve). However, on-the-ground the creation of a national forest plan, (ITTO 2006, p. 228). enforcement of these laws and oversight there appears to be a lack of capacity to The Esmeraldas woodstar has been of the local jurisdictions implementing implement this plan due to insufficient recorded in or near two protected areas: and regulating activities is insufficient political support, unclear or unrealistic (1) Machalilla National Park (Collar et for these measures to be effective in forestry standards, inconsistencies in al. 1992, p. 533) and (2) Loma Alta conserving the Esmeraldas woodstar or application of regulations, discrepancies Communal Ecological Reserve. As its habitat. As discussed for Factor A, between actual harvesting practices and described under Factor A, both of these habitat destruction, degradation, and forestry regulations, the lack of protected areas are inhabited and, fragmentation continue throughout the management plans for protected areas, among other activities, deforestation, species’ range, including lands within and high bureaucratic costs. These livestock grazing, and slash-and-burn protected areas. Therefore, we find that inadequacies have facilitated logging agriculture are ongoing within these the existing regulatory mechanisms, as (Dodson and Gentry 1991, pp. 283-293); areas (BLI 2004, p. 2; Wege and Long implemented, are inadequate to mitigate cattle-raising and persistent grazing 1995, p. 174). Thus, this protected area the primary threats to the Esmeraldas from goats and cattle (BLI 2004a, p. 2; status does not mitigate the threats from woodstar from habitat destruction BLI 2007c, pp. 11, 13, 17; Curry 1993, habitat destruction (Factor A). (Factor A), predation (Factor C), or its p. 24; Lasso 1997, p. 3); clearing for Esmeraldas woodstar occurs within small population size (Factor E). agriculture, subsistence farming, and the Machalilla National Park, which was E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors small local industries (BLI 2007c, pp. included in the Ramsar List of Wetlands Affecting the Continued Existence of the 11, 13, 17; Dodson and Gentry 1991, pp. of International Importance in 1990 (BLI Species 283-293; Lasso 1997, p. 3); selective 2007c, p. 13). The Ramsar Convention, harvest of trees for fuelwood and non- signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, is an Two additional factors affect the timber products (Aguilar and Vlosky intergovernmental treaty that provides Esmeraldas woodstar: Its minimal 2005; BLI 2007c, p. 13); road the framework for national action and likelihood for dispersal and the species’ development (BLI 2007c, p. 13; Dodson international cooperation for the small population size.

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Likelihood to Disperse: The described above, as part of the Factor E A); (2) predation (Factor C); (3) Esmeraldas woodstar is confined to analysis for the brown-banded antpitta inadequate regulatory mechanisms locations within the Departments of (Shaffer 1981, pp. 132-133; Soule´ 1980, (Factor D); and (4) limited size and Esmeraldas, Manabı´, and Guayas, in pp. 160-162). The total population size isolation of remaining populations lowland moist forest patches that are of the Esmeraldas woodstar is estimated (Factor E). The Esmeraldas woodstar is disjunct and fragmented (BLI 2007f, pp. to be between 186 and 373 individuals. a tiny hummingbird endemic to 1-3; del Hoyo et al. 1999, p. 678; The lower estimate of 186 individuals Ecuador. Esmeraldas woodstars are a Williams and Tobias 1991, p. 39). The meets the theoretical threshold for the rare, range-restricted species with distance between known occupied areas minimum effective population size highly localized populations in three is between 125 and 200 km (78 and 124 required to avoid risks from inbreeding disjunct locations – in the Ecuadorean mi), with minimal habitat between (Ne = 50 individuals). However, the Departments of Esmeraldas, Guayas, and occupied sights (Best and Kessler 1995, upper limit of the population, 373 Manabı´. The species occurs in lowland p. 141). In light of the species’ small individuals, is below the minimum semi-humid or semi-evergreen forests overall population size and the distance threshold (Ne = 500 individuals) and woodlands, from sealevel to 500 m between the remaining fragmented required for long-term fitness of a (1,600 ft) along the Coastal Cordillera of primary forested habitats, it is unlikely population that will not lose its genetic western Ecuador. Preferring primary that the Esmeraldas woodstar would diversity over time and will maintain an evergreen forests, the species is also repopulate an isolated patch of suitable enhanced capacity to adapt to changing known to occupy low-altitude habitat following decline or extirpation conditions. secondary-growth areas during the of that patch (Hanski 1998, pp. 45-46). The Esmeraldas woodstar’s restricted breeding season (December-March). The Small Population Size: The range combined with its small current extent of the species’ range is Esmeraldas woodstar inhabits a very population size (Cuervo 2002, p. 138; approximately 1,155 km2 (446 mi2). small and severely fragmented range, Cuervo and Salaman 1999, p. 7; del The primary threat to this species is which is decreasing rapidly in size due Hoyo 1994, p. 361) makes the species habitat loss (Factor A), caused by to habitat destruction and various other particularly vulnerable to the threat of widespread deforestation and human factors (Collar et al. 1992, p. 533; adverse natural (e.g., genetic, conversion of primary forests for Ridgely and Greenfield 2001a, pp. 389- demographic, or environmental) and numerous human activities. The 390). Ongoing declines in the bird’s manmade (e.g., deforestation, habitat species’ range has been reduced by 99 population are linked to persistent alteration, wildfire) events that destroy percent. The semi-humid and semi- habitat destruction (BLI 2007c, p. 2). individuals and their habitat (Holsinger evergreen forests preferred by this Before the species was rediscovered in 2000, pp. 64-65; Primack 1998, pp. 279- species have undergone extensive 1991, it was thought to be extinct after 308; Young and Clarke 2000, pp. 361- deforestation. Habitat-altering activities not being seen since 1912 (Ridgely and 366). Therefore, we currently consider that have occurred include: logging; Greenfield 2001a, pp. 389-390). the single Esmeraldas woodstar cattle-raising and persistent grazing Subsequent surveys of previously population to be at risk due to the lack from goats and cattle; forest clearing for known occupied areas have not been of long-term viability. agriculture, subsistence farming, and successful in locating the species on a small local industries; selective harvest Summary of Factor E consistent basis, and little is known of of trees for fuelwood and non-timber breeding habits or other activities The Esmeraldas woodstar is currently products; road development; and during most of the year (Ridgely and limited to a few small populations pollution from industrial activities Greenfield 2001a, pp. 389-390). Experts within a limited habitat range, with a (Factors A). These activities are ongoing estimate that the species has undergone small estimated population size that and occurring throughout the species’ a 50-79 percent reduction in population leaves the species vulnerable to genetic range – including within protected areas size within the past 10 years and predict and demographic risks that negatively where the species occurs (Machalilla that this trend will continue (BLI 2007c, impact its long-term viability. The National Park, Isla de La Plata, and p. 5). The current population estimate species’ population size is estimated to Loma Alta Communal Ecological for this species is between 186 to 373 have declined considerably within the Reserve). Because regulatory birds, with a decreasing population past 10 years (50-79 percent), and this mechanisms are ineffective at reducing trend (BLI 2007, pp. 2, 6). rate of decline is expected to continue. these activities (Factor D), habitat Small population sizes render species Based on this information, we have destruction and alteration are expected vulnerable to genetic risks that can have determined that the species is to continue. individual or population-level particularly vulnerable to the threat of The species’ population is estimated consequences on the genetic level and adverse natural (e.g., genetic, to have declined between 50 to 79 can increase the species’ susceptibility demographic, or predation) and percent within the last 10 years, a to demographic problems, as explained manmade (e.g., slash-and-burn decline which is attributed to habitat in more detail above for the blue-billed agriculture or infrastructural loss. The Esmeraldas woodstar has a curassow (Factor E, Small Population development) events that destroy small estimated population size Size) (Charlesworth and Charlesworth individuals and their habitat, and that (between 186 and 373 individuals), 1987, p. 238; Shaffer 1981, p. 131). Once these genetic and demographic risks are which renders the species vulnerable to a population is reduced below a certain exacerbated by ongoing habitat the threat of adverse natural (e.g., number of individuals, it tends to destruction (Factor A) and predation genetic, demographic, or predation) and rapidly decline towards extinction (Factor C). manmade (e.g., slash-and-burn (Franklin 1980, pp. 147-148; Gilpin and agriculture or infrastructural Soule´ 1986, p. 25; Holsinger 2000, pp. Status Determination for the Esmeraldas development) events that destroy 64-65; Soule´ 1987, p. 181). Woodstar individuals and their habitat (Factor E). In the absence of quantitative studies The four primary factors that threaten In addition, the direct loss of habitat specific to this species, a general the survival of the Esmeraldas woodstar through widespread deforestation and approximation of minimum viable are: (1) habitat destruction, conversion for human activities has led population size is the 50/500 rule, as fragmentation, and degradation (Factor to habitat fragmentation and isolation of

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the remaining populations of the throughout the species’ entire current or offer for sale in interstate or foreign Esmeraldas woodstar. The Esmeraldas range. Based on this information, we commerce, any endangered wildlife woodstar currently occupies three conclude that the Esmeraldas woodstar species. It also is illegal to possess, sell, disjunct, isolated patches that are is endangered throughout its range. deliver, carry, transport, or ship any separated by large distances (between Therefore, we are proposing to list the such wildlife that has been taken in 125 and 200 km (78 and 124 mi)), with Esmeraldas woodstar as an endangered violation of the Act. Certain exceptions minimal suitable habitat between species. apply to agents of the Service and State occupied sites. Given the species’ small conservation agencies. Available Conservation Measures population size and the distance We may issue permits to carry out between the remaining fragmented Conservation measures provided to otherwise prohibited activities primary forested habitats, the species is species listed as endangered or involving endangered and threatened unlikely to repopulate an isolated patch threatened under the Act include wildlife species under certain of suitable habitat following decline or recognition, requirements for Federal circumstances. Regulations governing extirpation of the species within that protection, and prohibitions against permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for patch (Factor E). This renders the certain practices. Recognition through endangered species, and at 17.32 for species particularly vulnerable to local listing results in public awareness, and threatened species. With regard to extirpation from ongoing habitat encourages and results in conservation endangered wildlife, a permit must be destruction (Factor A) and predation actions by national governments, private issued for the following purposes: for (Factor C). agencies and groups, and individuals. scientific purposes, to enhance the Esmeraldas woodstars are vulnerable Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, propagation or survival of the species, to predation by a variety of predators, and as implemented by regulations at 50 and for incidental take in connection including domestic and feral cats, rats, CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies with otherwise lawful activities. hawks, owls, snakes, praying mantis, to evaluate their actions within the Peer Review spiders, bees, wasps, frogs, and United States or on the high seas with largemouth bass (Factor C). Habitat respect to any species that is proposed In accordance with our joint policy fragmentation (Factor A) contributes to or listed as endangered or threatened, with the National Marine Fisheries this vulnerability, because research and with respect to its critical habitat, Service, ‘‘Notice of Interagency indicates that predation increases with if any is being designated. However, Cooperative Policy for Peer Review in increased habitat fragmentation and given that the blue-billed curassow, the Endangered Species Act Activities,’’ smaller patch sizes. Predation leads to brown-banded antpitta, the Cauca guan, published in the Federal Register on the direct removal of eggs, juveniles, the gorgeted wood-quail, and the July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek and adults from the population, Esmeraldas woodstar are not native to the expert opinions of at least three exacerbating risks associated with the the United States, no critical habitat is appropriate independent specialists species’ small population size. being proposed for designation with this regarding this proposed rule. The Esmeraldas woodstars are particularly rule. purpose of peer review is to ensure that vulnerable to predation by wild cats Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes our final determination is based on during the breeding season on Isla de La limited financial assistance for the scientifically sound data, assumptions, Plata, where cats have been known to development and management of and analyses. We will send copies of prey particularly upon bird eggs. programs that the Secretary of the this proposed rule to the peer reviewers Esmeraldas woodstars produce a low Interior determines to be necessary or immediately following publication in clutch size (see Habitat and Life useful for the conservation of the Federal Register. We will invite History), and predation can remove endangered and threatened species in these peer reviewers to comment during potentially reproductive adults from the foreign countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) the public comment period on our breeding pool. of the Act authorize the Secretary to specific assumptions and conclusions The Esmeraldas woodstar is classified encourage conservation programs for regarding the proposal to list the blue- as an endangered species under foreign endangered species and to billed curassow, the Cauca guan, the Ecuadorian law, and part of the species’ provide assistance for such programs in gorgeted wood-quail, the brown-banded range is included within two protected the form of personnel and the training antpitta, and the Esmeraldas woodstar areas. Despite numerous laws and of personnel. as endangered. regulatory mechanisns to administer The Act and its implementing We will consider all comments and and manage wildlife and their habitats, regulations set forth a series of general information we receive during the existing laws are inadequate (Factor D) prohibitions and exceptions that apply comment period on this proposed rule to protect the species and its habitat to all endangered and threatened during our preparation of a final from ongoing habitat loss (Factor A) and wildlife. Consequently, these determination. Accordingly, our final predation by non-native animals (Factor prohibitions would be applicable to the decision may differ from this proposal. C), even within the protected areas. blue-billed curassow, the brown-banded We have carefully assessed the best antpitta, the Cauca guan, the gorgeted Public Hearings available scientific and commercial wood-quail, and the Esmeraldas The Act provides for one or more information regarding the past, present, woodstar. These prohibitions, under 50 public hearings on this proposal, if we and potential future threats faced by the CFR 17.21, make it illegal for any person receive any requests for hearings. We Esmeraldas woodstar. We consider the subject to the jurisdiction of the United must receive your request for a public ongoing threats to the Esmeraldas States to ‘‘take’’ (take includes harass, hearing within 45 days after the date of woodstar, habitat loss (Factor A) and harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, this Federal Register publication (see predation (Factor C), exacerbated by the trap, capture, collect, or to attempt any DATES). Such requests must be made in species’ small population size and of these) within the United States or writing and be addressed to the Chief of limited dispersal ability (Factor E), and upon the high seas, import or export, the Branch of Listing at the address compounded by inadequate regulatory deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION mechanisms (Factor D), to be equally in interstate or foreign commerce in the CONTACT section. We will schedule present and of the same magnitude course of a commercial activity or to sell public hearings on this proposal, if any

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are requested, and announce the dates, (c) use clear language rather than List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 times, and places of those hearings, as jargon; well as how to obtain reasonable (d) be divided into short sections and Endangered and threatened species, accommodations, in the Federal sentences; and Exports, Imports, Reporting and Register at least 15 days before the first (e) use lists and tables wherever recordkeeping requirements, hearing. possible. Transportation. If you feel that we have not met these Proposed Regulation Promulgation Required Determinations requirements, send us comments by one National Environmental Policy Act of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES Accordingly, we propose to amend (NEPA) section. To better help us revise the part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title rule, your comments should be as 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, We have determined that specific as possible. For example, you as set forth below: environmental assessments and should tell us the numbers of the environmental impact statements, as sections or paragraphs that are unclearly PART 17—[AMENDED] defined under the authority of the written, which sections or sentences are 1. The authority citation for part 17 National Environmental Policy Act of too long, or the sections where you feel continues to read as follows: 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not lists or tables would be useful. be prepared in connection with Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 regulations adopted under section 4(a) References Cited U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; of the Act. We published a notice The references cited in this proposed Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless outlining our reasons for this rule are available on the Internet at otherwise noted. determination in the Federal Register http://www.regulations.gov or upon 2. Amend § 17.11(h), by adding new on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). request from the Branch of Listing, entries for ‘‘Curassow, blue- Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish billed,’’‘‘Guan, Cauca,’’‘‘Wood-quail, Clarity of the Rule and Wildlife Service (see FOR MORE Gorgeted,’’‘‘Antpitta, Brown-banded,’’ We are required by Executive Orders INFORMATION CONTACT). and ‘‘Woodstar, Esmeraldas’’ in alphabetical order under BIRDS to the 12866 and 12988, and by the Author(s) Presidential Memorandum of June 1, List of Endangered and Threatened 1998, to write all rules in plain The primary authors of this proposed Wildlife to read as follows: language. This means that each rule we rule are Arnold Roessler of the § 17.11 Endangered and threatened publish must: Endangered Species Program wildlife. (Sacramento, California) and Dr. Patricia (a) be logically organized; De Angelis of the Division of Scientific * * * * * (b) use the active voice to address Authority U.S. Fish and Wildlife (h) Birds. readers directly; Service. * * * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic range where Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name endangered listed habitat rules or threatened

* * * * * * * BIRDS

* * * * * * *

Antpitta, brown-banded Grallaria milleri Columbia, South America Entire E NA NA

* * * * * * *

Curassow, blue-billed Crax alberti Columbia, South America Entire E NA NA

* * * * * * *

Guan, cauca Penelope perspicax Columbia, South America Entire E NA NA

* * * * * * *

Wood-quail, gorgeted Odontophorus strophium Columbia, South America Entire E NA NA

* * * * * * *

Woodstar, Esmeraldas Chaetocercus berlepschi Ecuador, South America Entire E NA NA

* * * * * * *

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Dated: May 28, 2009 Rowan W. Gould Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [FR Doc. E9–15826 Filed 7–6– 09; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310-55-S

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