Beyond the Western Pass: Emotions and Songs of Separation in Northern China Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Levi Samuel Gibbs Graduate Program in East Asian Languages and Literatures The Ohio State University 2009 Thesis Committee: Mark A. Bender, Advisor Meow Hui Goh Copyright by Levi Samuel Gibbs ©2009 ABSTRACT For several centuries, men in parts of northern China, driven by poverty and frequent droughts, were forced to journey beyond the Great Wall to find means of sustenance in Inner Mongolia. Over time, a song tradition arose dealing with the separation of these men from their loved ones. This study examines how various themes and metaphorical images in the lyrics of folksongs and local opera-like performances about “going beyond the Western Pass” (zou xikou !"#) reflect aspects of folk models of danger and emotional attachment. It also looks at how the artistic expression of these folk models may have helped people to better cope with the separation involved in this difficult social phenomenon. I suggest that the articulation of these folk models in song provided a traditionally available means through which to conceptualize and deal with complex emotions. ii For my wife, Aída, who inspires me in everything I do. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people to whom I would like to express my gratitude for their help during the process of writing this thesis. First and foremost, I want to thank my advisor, Dr. Mark Bender, for his patient guidance, insightful criticisms and suggestions, and for providing a cordial environment within which to explore new ideas. I would also like to thank Dr. Meow Hui Goh, my committee member, for her helpful comments and ideas, and her tireless efforts in working through my revisions. Dr. Marjorie K. M. Chan was extremely helpful during the writing of Chapter 4, and provided several examples from various regional Chinese operas. I must also thank Professor Cao Guxi $%&, Dr. Stephen Jones, and Dr. Patrick B. Mullen for their valuable advice, and Debbie Knicely for all of her help during my time at OSU. In addition, as the Chinese saying goes, “when you drink water, think of its source” (yinshuisiyuan'()*+), and in doing a project dealing with regional Chinese folksongs, I often think of the classes I took with Professor Huang Bai ,-'at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music, and the year in which Professor Li Wenzhen ./0' led me through a survey of regional Han folksongs at the China Conservatory of Music in Beijing. I would also like to thank Antoinet Schimmelpenninck, Frank Kouwenhoven, and Bernice Weissbourd for their assistance that allowed me to attend the 11th CHIME iv Conference/Fieldwork Project in northern Shaanxi 1"'province in 2006, which furthered my inspiration to write this thesis. Last, but not least, I am grateful to my parents and my brother, Ian, for all of the love and support they have given me over the years. v VITA Born April 11, 1980...........................................................Evanston, Illinois 1999-2000..........................................................Study Abroad, Shanghai Conservatory of Music 2002............................................................................B.A., Wesleyan University 2002-2003.....................................................................Fulbright Scholar, China Conservatory of Music 2005-2007...............................................................Lecturer, Multilingua Program, La Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia 2008-2009............................................................................University Fellow The Ohio State University 2007-Present...............................................................Jacob K. Javits Fellowship, Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures, The Ohio State University FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: East Asian Languages and Literatures Area of Interest: Chinese Literature, Oral Performance, Folklore, and Local Culture vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract.................................................................................................................ii Dedication.............................................................................................................iii Acknowledgments................................................................................................iv Vita.......................................................................................................................vi Chapters: Preface......................................................................................................1 Introduction..............................................................................................4 Methodology................................................................................7 Literature Review.........................................................................9 1. History, Geography and Background..................................................14 1.1 History...................................................................................14 1.2 Geography.............................................................................18 1.2.1 Shanxi.....................................................................19 1.2.2 Shaanxi...................................................................21 1.2.3 Inner Mongolia.......................................................24 1.3 Three Routes.........................................................................28 1.3.1 The Overland Route...............................................28 1.3.2 The River Route.....................................................30 1.3.3 The Eastern Route..................................................31 2. Genres, Style, and Performance Contexts...........................................33 2.1 Introduction...........................................................................33 2.2 Mountain Songs....................................................................36 2.3 Little Ditties..........................................................................39 2.4 Errentai.................................................................................42 2.5 Emotions Involved in Singing..............................................46 vii 2.6 Audience Experience of Emotion..........................................54 2.7 Conclusion.............................................................................66 3. Folk Models of Gender Roles and Danger..........................................67 3.1 Introduction...........................................................................67 3.2 Separation and Mutual Dependence Between Men and Women......................................................................68 3.3 Infidelity................................................................................79 3.4 Dangers Expressed in the Songs...........................................83 3.4.1 Bandits...................................................................84 3.4.2 Illness.....................................................................86 3.4.3 Accidents................................................................89 3.5 The Concept of Danger and the Means of Overcoming It....92 3.6 Ambiguity of Death and Absence..........................................97 3.7 Conclusion............................................................................102 4. The Conceptualization of Emotions through Metaphors....................103 4.1 Introduction...........................................................................103 4.2 Objects Floating in the Wind................................................106 4.3 Soul-Bonding String.............................................................115 4.4 Door and Gate Metaphors.....................................................127 4.5 Conclusion............................................................................136 Conclusion..............................................................................................139 Bibliography.......................................................................................................144 viii PREFACE The roots of this thesis are in a concert I attended in Taipei, Taiwan, in 1999. After a rather solemn first half of traditional Chinese orchestral music, out stepped a man with a white towel on his head and a big grin on his face. The audience was mesmerized even before he opened his mouth... and then he sang. I had never heard such pure emotion pour forth from anyone, and Wang Xiangrong !"#, the “King of Northern Shaanxi $% Folksongs,” instantly became one of my favorite singers. Later, I bought a CD of his songs, and saw that some dealt with men in northern China who were forced to part from their loved ones and travel beyond the Great Wall to Inner Mongolia in order to find work, a phenomenon known as “going beyond the Western Pass” (zou xikou &% '). Intrigued, I wondered why such a story was told in a dialogue, expressing painful emotions so publicly in song. My curiosity eventually led me to attend the 2006 CHIME1 Conference/Fieldwork Project in northern Shaanxi province, where I met Wang and recorded him singing these songs next to the Yellow River and at a nearby temple. From the large crowds that gathered and the audience responses, it was clear that the songs struck a chord with the local people, and it seemed that part of the attraction came from how they elicited