Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 DOI 10.1007/s41636-017-0014-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The Edges of Wood: Dendrochronological Analysis of Three Seneca Log Structures at ,

Cynthia A. Kocik

Accepted: 26 January 2016 /Published online: 29 March 2017 # Society for Historical Archaeology 2017

Abstract Letchworth State Park in Castile, New York, Genesee a principios del siglo XIX. El análisis maintains the Caneadea Council House, the Nancy dendrocronológico de muestras de estas estructuras ha Jemison Cabin, and Thomas “Buffalo Tom” Jemison proporcionado una fecha de construcción más precisa de Cabin, all built in Seneca communities along the 1820 ca. para la vivienda social, significativamente pos- valley in the early 19th century. terior a 1759–1780, tal como se derivaba de los Dendrochronological analysis of samples from these documentos históricos. Sin embargo, los resultados structures has provided a more precise construction date apoyan las fechas de construcción históricas en torno a of ca. 1820 for the council house, significantly later than 1800 para la cabaña de Nancy Jemison, y de 1818 ca. the 1759–1780 range derived from historical docu- para la cabaña de Thomas Jemison. Aplicando el tipo ments. However, the results support the historical con- intercultural/creolizado de K. Jordan (2008) y el tipo struction dates of around 1800 for the Nancy Jemison “casa de troncos de la reserva” de Brown (2000) junto Cabin and ca. 1818 for the Thomas Jemison Cabin. con la lente de hibricidad se esclarece cómo la vivienda Applying K. Jordan’s(2008) intercultural/creolized type social y las cabañas se relacionan con las decisiones de and Brown’s(2000) “Reservation Log House” type Seneca de incorporar principios de la construcción de along with the lens of hybridity elucidates how the troncos de estilo europeo en su hogar comunal y otras council house and cabins relate to Seneca decisions to formas de construcción para adaptarse a su construcción incorporate principles of European-style log construc- de infraestructura y asentamiento de territorio más tion into their longhouse and other building forms in confinado y más europeo-americano de esa época. adaptation to their more confined territory and increased European American settlement and infrastructure build- Résumé Le parc d’État de Letchworth à Castille (New ing at that time. York), conserve la maison du conseil de Caneadea, la cabane de Nancy Jemison et la cabane de Thomas Extracto El Parque Estatal de Letchworth en Castile Jemison dit « Buffalo Tom », construites dans les (Nueva York) mantiene la Vivienda Social Caneadea, la communautés Senecas le long de la vallée de la rivière cabaña de Nancy Jemison, y la cabaña de Thomas Genesee au début du XIXe siècle. L’analyse “Buffalo Tom” Jemison, todas construidas en las dendrochronologique des échantillons provenant de comunidades de Seneca a lo largo del valle del Río ces structures a apporté une date de construction plus précise qui est. d’environ 1820 pour la maison du conseil, nettement plus tardive que 1759–1780, obtenue * C. A. Kocik ( ) à partir de documents historiques. Toutefois, les résultats Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory, B-48 Goldwin Smith Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-4601, U.S.A. confirment les dates de construction historique e-mail: [email protected] d’environ 1800 pour la cabane de Nancy Jemison et de Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 195

1818 pour la cabane de Thomas Jemison. Le fait Importantly, the Jemison cabins also tie into the life d’appliquer le type interculturel/créolisé de K. Jordan of the famed . A woman of Scots Irish (2008) et le type de la « maison de rondins de réserve » descent, she was adopted by the Senecas in her youth de Brown (2000), ainsi que l’angledel’hybridité, after her capture by a party in in détermine comment la maison du conseil et les cabanes the 1750s. James E. Seaver (1990) recorded her now sont liées aux décisions des Senecas d’intégrer les widely known story in the early 1800s. Mary settled on principes de construction en bois de style européen dans the Gardeau Flats along the Genesee River after the leur cabane et d’autres formes de construction pour 1779 American punitive campaign under Sullivan dur- s’adapter à leur territoire plus restreint, à l’accroissement ing the Revolutionary War. The area became part of the de la colonisation américaine européenne et à la con- Gardeau Reservation under the 1797 . struction des infrastructures à ce moment-là. Nancy Jemison was one of Mary’s daughters, and Thomas was one of her grandsons. Seneca faithkeeper Peter Jemison, another direct descendant, was involved Keywords cabin . Caneadea . dendrochronology. in the current project and offered important insight into Gardeau . Genesee River valley. Haudenosaunee . Mary’s life and family, as well as general knowledge hybridity. intercultural/creolized . Iroquois . Letchworth about Seneca settlement and housing. State Park . longhouse . Jemison . New York State . The ability to examine the superstructures of these Reservation Log House Type . Revolutionary War. buildings makes possible lines of investigation not fea- Seneca . Squawky Hill Reservation . tree-ring dating sible at most Northeast archaeological sites from this time period, namely dendrochronology and the analysis of architectural features. The first aim of this investiga- Introduction tion was to employ dendrochronology to derive building dates for the structures to compare with the dates based Whether still standing or evidenced by post molds or solely on the historical record. The second was to ex- foundations, buildings and their remains can provide a amine building construction and layouts, and to com- window into the architectural skills and customs of their pare these with contemporaneous accounts of housing makers, as well as the social, religious, political, and and models of Haudenosaunee housing developed by economic lives of their inhabitants. Furthermore, they other scholars. Dendrochronology has not thus far been can reveal changes in the messages these people con- employed in research on Haudenosaunee structures, veyed via their homes and structures serving myriad though see DeWeese et al. (2012)foraCherokeeexam- other functions. In the American Northeast, a limited ple. Three reports completed in 1995 by the firm of number of scholars have addressed decisions to incor- Crawford & Stearns Architects and Preservation Planners porate or reject certain European construction methods evaluated the historical significance and condition of the and architectural features among the Haudenosaunee council house and Jemison cabins (Bartlett 1995a, 1995b, (Iroquois) in the 18th and 19th centuries (Lantz 1980; 1995c). They also proposed building dates between the Kenyon 1985;Hamell1992;Brown2000;K.Jordan mid-1750s and 1780 for the council house, 1797 and 1800 2002, 2008). Letchworth State Park in Castile, New for the Nancy Jemison Cabin, and ca. 1818 for the Thomas York, currently retains three Seneca Iroquois log struc- Jemison Cabin, based on historical sources (Bartlett tures relevant to these shifts in housing form. These 1995a:194–195, 1995b:26, 1995c:15). These dates sug- buildings, all relocated from former reservation lands gest that the novel application of dendrochronology in this on the Genesee River for preservation and now under study involves three of the oldest-known, at least partially the jurisdiction of the New York State Office of Parks, intact, Haudenosaunee structures in existence. Recreation and Historic Preservation, include (1) the Determining more precise dates through dendrochro- Caneadea Council House, (2) the Nancy Jemison nology, along with an evaluation of architectural fea- Cabin, and (3) the Thomas “Buffalo Tom” Jemison tures, assisted in viewing the construction and use of the Cabin. The Caneadea Council House and Nancy council house and Jemison cabins in historical and Jemison Cabin stand on display at the Council House cultural context. Analyzing the edges of wood samples Grounds at Letchworth, while the Thomas Jemison for tree-felling dates, and therefore house construction, Cabin remains dismantled and in storage there. for chronological control thus informs the study of 196 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

Haudenosaunee culture, which recognizes the symbolic Revolutionary War. European log and frame styles were and practical importance of the “edge of the woods.” not common in Iroquoia outside Mohawk territory for This margin where the forest meets the clearing is a most of the 18th century (K. Jordan 2009:216–217,276). significant, longstanding part of conceptualizing the Frameworks developed by Dorcas Brown (2000)and landscape as an ecological zone of resources and in Kurt Jordan (2008) go beyond a simple dichotomy be- terms of gender (women associated with the clearing tween “traditional” Haudenosaunee and European archi- and men with the forest, though they conducted activi- tectural styles to examine combinations of traits in 18th- ties in both areas), spirituality, and maintaining social and 19th-century Haudenosaunee housing. Thus, they relations, as in its part in the Condolence Ceremony provide fertile ground for an evaluation of the (Fenton 1998:120,137–139,180; Engelbrecht Letchworth structures as they relate to the transition from 2005:100–101; Parmenter 2010:xxxix–xl,xlv–xlvii). longhouses to more log-style houses among the Senecas Similarly, straddling the border between longhouse and other Haudenosaunee.1 While K. Jordan’s(2008) and log-house styles, the Caneadea Council House and “intercultural/creolized” type describes pre-reservation Jemison cabins speak to social, political, economic, and Haudenosaunee dwellings that were fundamentally long- ecological shifts and continuities, as Senecas endeav- houses adapted with log-house elements, Brown’s(2000) ored to maintain their autonomy and adapted their life- “Reservation Log House” type considers the log house as ways amid constriction of their territory and increased the principal architectural form, but recognizes the incor- European American settlement in the early 1800s. poration of longhouse elements. This study incorporates dendrochronology, a consid- K. Jordan’s(2008:34) intercultural/creolized designa- eration of architectural features, and historical documen- tion reflects Haudenosaunee selective integration of tation to examine the Caneadea Council House and the European tools, techniques, and architectural materials two Jemison family homes. In so doing, it demonstrates and styles with Haudenosaunee design elements and con- the potential of dendrochronology to narrow down the struction materials. Dwellings with these characteristics possible construction dates not only of these three build- appeared by at least 1715 at the Seneca Townley-Read ings, but also to contribute to other investigations of site near Geneva, New York, and possibly as early as Seneca and Haudenosaunee sites. Furthermore, the lim- 1690 at the multinational Conestoga site near Lancaster, ited extant documentation and an analysis of the designs Pennsylvania (K. Jordan 2008:95,258). A number of at- of these structures show how Senecas acted and reacted tributes aid in defining the intercultural/creolized long- to events following the Revolutionary War, neither sim- house form in an archaeological context. These include ply taking on European and European American traits square or rectangular posts of varying or large size; pre- wholesale nor remaining culturally stagnant. A discus- dug holes for posts; low wall-post density; high iron-nail sion of important concepts related to Haudenosaunee density; and siding, such as hewn and planked logs housing types and the theoretical lens of hybridity, along employed in the same manner as Haudenosaunee bark with background on Seneca housing in the centuries covering, but produced with European technology (K. before and after European arrival, set this context for Jordan 2008:239–244). The absence of European- understanding the council house and Jemison cabins derived corner notching and the presence of non-load- beyond their construction dates. bearing corners also merit attention for this type of mod- ified longhouse (K. Jordan 2008:243–244). Window glass; chinking; plaster; metal hardware, such as hinges; Concepts of Combination and cellar features (for example, Kenyon and Ferris [1984:24]) also indicate cultural mixture in Senecas and other Haudenosaunee people constructed Haudenosaunee housing. The Letchworth structures bark-sided longhouses of various sizes before European arrival to the New World (Hart 2000), as well as special- 1 The Seneca-Iroquois National Museum in Salamanca, New York, purpose structures like council houses and hunting lodges. employs different Seneca terms for longhouse (ganöhse:s)andlog Short longhouses also figured significantly in the range of cabin (degëöda:dö) in its “Longhouse Room” and “Log Cabin Seneca building forms (Hamell 1992:15; K. Jordan Room” exhibits, noting the differences between those housing modes. – These exhibits also aim to point out that log-cabin use did not preclude 2008:245 246). Senecas continued to construct such the continuation of Seneca lifeways (Seneca-Iroquois National dwellings up to and in some cases after the Museum 2013). Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 197 provide an opportunity to extend the intercultural/ strict labeling of artifacts as “native” or “European.” creolized concept to principally log-style Haudenosaunee Liebmann (2013:30–31) argues in a similar vein that structures with notched, weight-bearing corners and the concept of hybridity loses explanatory force when supplementary vertical posts. applied indiscriminately to any case of blending cultural Brown (2000) outlines another applicable frame- elements. Hybridity must consider the power of and work: the “Reservation Log House Type.” She defines inequality between the social groups involved, in its this form through historical research and analysis of log postcolonial sense as drawn from scholars such as houses from the Allegany, Buffalo Creek, Cattaraugus, Bhabha (2004)(Liebmann2013:30–31). A postcolonial Onondaga, Six Nations, and Tonawanda reservations orientation is particularly appropriate in the context of (Brown 2000:25). Eight criteria delineate this type: Seneca and wider Haudenosaunee history examined walls of square-hewn logs; half-dovetailed corner here, as Senecas and other Haudenosaunee peoples en- notching; a single-pen (one-room) plan; an interior gaged in colonial situations of great cultural, economic, gable-end fireplace; side lengths of 12 to 20 ft. (3.66 to and political impact involving French, British, and other 6.10 m); a rectangular floorplan; a centered eave-wall European colonists, and later the U.S. government and front door, with a possible opposite back door; and an expansionist, enterprise-driven New York State. windows in the front wall and possibly in other walls Brown (2000) and K. Jordan’s(2008) types and the (Brown 2000:25–26). The one-room floor plan suggests concept of hybridity as practice, rather than just a term the continuation of the single-family compartments of a for a mixed state (Silliman 2015:10), assist in the anal- Haudenosaunee longhouse as free-standing structures, ysis of the Seneca structures at Letchworth to avoid as well as the possible influence of the English single- seeing change and the adaptive use of European or pen plan with doors in the eave walls (T. Jordan European American traits and materials as “loss or 1985:23,25, figure 2.14; Brown 2000:29). The single- passive acquiescence” on the part of native peoples room plan, presence of interior chimneys, and consider- (Silliman 2009:226). A perspective of loss and power- ation of loft or attic spaces as similar to overhead storage lessness is not only deceiving, but biased, as archaeolo- compartments in longhouses draw attention to subtle gists tend not to consider European settlers’ adoption of differences between Haudenosaunee houses of the res- native culture, such as consumption of certain crops, in ervation era with these features and typical European- the same manner (Silliman 2009:214,227). This evalu- style log dwellings. ation of the Caneadea Council House and Nancy and In addition to the aforementioned housing categori- Thomas Jemison cabins also adds to hybridity studies in zations, hybridity provides a valuable theoretical lens eastern North America, such as Hodge’s(2005)investi- when considering the culturally multifaceted nature of gation of a Wampanoag cemetery in the council house and Jemison cabins’ traits in the employing a postcolonial perspective highlighting mim- context of the social, economic, and ecological factors icry and appropriation, and research considering archi- affecting Senecas in the late 18th and early 19th centu- tecture and hybridity, as in Tirpan’s(2013)workfocus- ries. Whatever the perceived origin of the architectural ing on Mesopotamia with an “eclectic” hybridity, in part principles incorporated into the council house and involving postcolonial theory. cabins, Senecas likely built them themselves, included Hybridity also relates to the idea of the edge of elements they adapted to their culture through various the woods as a physical and symbolic differentiation pathways of introduction, and, above all, lived in or between the clearing as “secure/civilized/home” and used these structures. The investigation of such con- the forest as “dangerous/uncivilized/outlands,” nei- structions and artifacts with elements from multiple ther completely one region nor the other (Parmenter cultural sources requires careful consideration not only 2010:xlvi–xlvii). The edge-of-the-woods protocol, of cultural origin, but also the ways different groups in which visitors wait at that border for permission took up specific traits and materials from others and to enter an area of settlement, has a role in control- made them their own. Silliman (2009), citing the ling space and setting the stage for meetings or talks Eastern Pequot Reservation as an example, discusses with others, highlighting part of the importance of the nuanced study needed to understand “hybrid” arti- the edge of the woods in sustaining good social ties facts more fully and critiques the assumptions surround- (Fenton 1998:180; Parmenter 2010:xlvii). Indeed, ing origins and cultural practices that accompany the Parmenter (2010) demonstrates how this concept 198 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 allowed for Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, settlements (Hamell 1992:3). In the 1740s, western and Seneca mobility and flexibility in the midst of Senecas began to reoccupy the Genesee River valley managing their spatial movements, installing new year-round for the first time in nearly two centuries, leaders as part of the Condolence Ceremony, and likely to link themselves more firmly to the Ohio addressing fluctuating social and diplomatic rela- Territory in conjunction with developments in the tions with other native groups and the Dutch, fur trade and to position themselves closer to Fort French, and English between 1534 and 1701. That Niagara (K. Jordan 2008:195–196). Senecas shifted mobility and the ecological and political landscape, their settlement pattern again at mid-century. They as well as the metaphorical edge of the woods in formed a number of relatively closely placed, re- terms of intergroup relations, continued to fluctuate gional, satellite villages between their two major for the Senecas into the early 19th century. Hybrid settlements, and intercultural short longhouses be- practices and material culture, such as housing came prominent (K. Jordan 2004:42–44,53, (which connected the work of felling logs in the 2010:102–103). woods with building and utilizing dwellings in areas Despite attempts to remain neutral during the of settlement), figured into Seneca actions and reac- Revolutionary War, Senecas and other native groups tions during this time. suffered attacks and eventually took part in military actions with the British against the Americans (Graymont 1972;Calloway1995). Illustrations and Background: Seneca Settlement and Housing personal accounts from the Sullivan campaign, which decimated many Seneca settlements, provide Circa 1550–1779 examples of Seneca housing in 1779. A Major Brice completed two such drawings (Library Company of The Senecas, the westernmost nation of the League [LCP] 1779:2,4). His sketch of the of the Haudenosaunee upon its formation, occupied council house at Kanadesaga appears to be mainly territory extending from the Genesee River east to longhouse in style and perhaps intercultural/ , with hunting lands stretching as far as creolized (Fig. 1) (LCP 1779:4). Two columns of Cayuga Lake and southern to Ohio (Abler smoke denote the presence of multiple hearths in the and Tooker 1978:505). From ca. 1550 to 1779 the center of the structure. It also includes vestibule Senecas lived in one eastern and one western major areas and, presumably, doorways at each gable nucleated village, both of which shifted location at end, along with vertical wall posts. Compared to regular intervals (K. Jordan 2010). Following the the Tory colonel John Butler’ s house (Fig. 1, left), onset of interaction with Europeans, the which actually stood some distance away near Haudenosaunee modified their longhouse, short Seneca Lake, likely erected by British or Tory longhouse, council house, and more cabin-like builders (F. Cook 1887:30), the council house does special purpose forms only under specific social, not exhibit the same stacked horizontal log construc- political, and economic conditions. They generally tion or have windows. The texturing of the roof continued to construct longhouses and, at times, suggests that it is bark, a Haudenosaunee standard. intercultural/creolized forms that retained Butler, who was based at and had an Haudenosaunee features and their “functional and outpost at Kanadesaga, led a group of British symbolic purposes” (K. Jordan 2008:272). Eastern rangers who fought along with Senecas and other Senecas began to occupy smaller, more dispersed native people in various military actions during the settlements that provided ecological and labor ben- revolution (Graymont 1972:167–174,208–215; efits after the onset of a time of peaceful relations Taylor 2006:85,93). with Europeans in 1713. In the west, the Senecas Brice’s depiction of a Seneca house at Genesee claimedamiddlemanroleinnativetradewithposts Town also appears intercultural/creolized (Fig. 2) at French Fort Niagara and British Fort Oswego in (LCP 1779: 2). The house includes various custom- the ensuing decades (K. Jordan 2008:210–213,326– ary Haudenosaunee elements: smoke designates the 333). Intercultural/creolized longhouses provided presence of a central hearth; the doorway shown is greater durability in these longer-lasting dispersed in a gable end, and the roof appears to be bark. Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 199

Fig. 1 American Major Brice’s 1779 drawing of a council house and Butler’s house at Kanadesaga. (Courtesy of the Pierre Eugène du Simitière Collection, Library Company of Philadelphia [LCP 1779:4].)

However, the eave-side roof displays a butting board illustration, Fairlie’s drawing does not clearly show or pole system, a trait of Midland pioneer log archi- any corner joinery, so vertical internal posts may tecture with Savo-Karelian Finnish connections (T. have supported most of the weight of the structure. Jordan and Kaups 1989:169–170, figure 6.26). Fairlie also reported around a dozen other similar Midland American backwoods pioneers drove much hewn-log houses in Kendaia with longhouse-style initial European American settlement of frontier bark roofs, side-wall berths, and central fires with woodlands, making the presence and possible shar- no chimneys (DAH 1929:176). ing of their log-housing techniques relevant to the investigation of Haudenosaunee structures (T. 1779–1869 Jordan and Kaups 1989:1–18, figure 1.3). The sides of the structure consist of horizontal logs that appear Many Senecas and other native refugees fled to to end at a perpendicular angle to one another rather British Fort Niagara after the devastation wrought than interlocking with a European-style notch, im- by the Americans in the Sullivan and Brodhead plying that interior posts rather than the corners bore expeditions, which included the destruction of set- the weight of the structure, as in a longhouse. tlements and accompanying fields and orchards Lieutenant James Fairlie sketched a structure at (Hauptman 1999:107; Taylor 2006:98). Native the town of Kendaia, which Senecas had possibly groups and Indian Department officials, military occupied since 1704 (Fig. 3) (Division of Archives men, and traders jockeyed for influence and power and History [DAH] 1929:174; K. Jordan 2008:182). among themselves and with each other amid hazards The building could be an intercultural/creolized of violence, alcohol use, and resource scarcity near longhouse, with an apparently bark-covered, round- the fort as the British sporadically gave gifts to ed roof, a door in a gable end, no chimney, horizon- native leaders in attempts to curry their favor tal log siding, and a possible window in the upper- (Calloway 1995:129–157). Mt. Pleasant (2007:28– left eave-side corner. As in Brice’s Genesee Town 37) points out the independence and at times 200 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

Fig. 2 Major Brice’s 1779 drawing of a house at Genesee Town. (Courtesy of the Pierre Eugène du Simitière Collection, Library Company of Philadelphia [LCP 1779:2].) interdependence of Senecas. This was to a degree a Taylor (2006:133) asserts that one of the reasons continuation of their earlier autonomy. Indeed, other native refugees left the Niagara area after the

Fig. 3 American Lieutenant Fairlie’s depiction of a house at Kendaia (DAH 1929:174). Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 201

Fig. 4 Seneca reservations, including (a) Squawky Hill, (b) Gardeau, and (c) Caneadea on the Genesee River. The western boundary of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase runs south from the bend westward in the Genesee River. (Map adapted from Wallace [1972:xv].)

war was to escape Seneca “domination.” Though Ontario, Senecas and other Haudenosaunee moved some settled along the Grand River in British back to State and settled in the Genesee and Allegheny valleys and the Finger Lakes region (Calloway 1995:153–155; Taylor Table 1 Population of western New York 2006:133–134). Western New York Counties Year Combined American interest in the Genesee region after the Population war resulted in drastically increased encroachment by European American settlers, earlier limited to a a Ontario 1790 1,075 small number of traders, squatters, and pioneers b Ontario and Steuben 1800 17,006 (Turner 1976:128). Plentiful timber, bountiful game, c Allegany, Genesee, Niagara, Ontario, 1810 72,779 land suitable for agriculture, and navigable water- and Steuben ways lured settlers (many from New England) who Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Genesee, 1820 217,327d Niagara, Ontario, and Steuben learned of this abundance from American soldiers Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, 1830 406,126e returning from duty in the Genesee Valley (Franklin Genesee, Livingston, Monroe, Niagara, 1791;Turner1976:130). The Phelps and Gorham Ontario, Orleans, Steuben, Wayne, Purchase brought lands west of Seneca Lake and and Yates east of the Genesee River in New York into a U.S. Bureau of the Census (1790:9). American hands in 1788 (Abler and Tooker b U.S. Bureau of the Census (1800:3). 1978:508; Hauptman 1999:map 5). European c U.S. Bureau of the Census (1811:28a). Americans soon began to develop infrastructure, d U.S. Bureau of the Census ( 1820:60). such as the road projects started by the Holland e U.S. Bureau of the Census ( 1830:9–10). Land Company (Hauptman 1999:144–146; Dennis 202 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

2010:39,101,160). Alterations to Seneca landhold- compartments, central fireplaces, and smoke holes in ings continued as the century neared its close. In the roof at Squawky Hill and nearby Mount Morris. 1794 Seneca territorial lines were redrawn with the Quaker missionaries also impacted some Seneca , and the 1797 Treaty of Big communities at this time. With the Seneca leader Tree then established a number of reservations. The ’s permission, they settled at Genesinguhta Seneca reservations along the Genesee included Big in the Allegany Reservation beginning in 1798, formed Tree, Canawaugus, ’s Town, Caneadea, a new town off the reservation at Tunesassa in 1803, and Gardeau, and Squawky Hill (Kappler 1904:35,1028– were active at Cattaraugus (Rothenberg 1976:155; 1029) (Fig. 4). More settlers poured into the Abler and Tooker 1978:509; Dennis 2010:130–134). Genesee area following reservationization, and the The Quakers encouraged Senecas to adopt certain fea- American population in western New York State tures of a European American lifestyle, including house overall exploded through the first decades of the forms, farming methods, male involvement in agricul- 19th century (Table 1). By comparison, 305 ture, and an emphasis on the nuclear family (Deardorff Senecas lived along the Genesee in 1816, and 456 and Snyderman 1956:591,603; Wallace 1972:281–282). people of various native groups inhabited Genesee Before Quaker arrival, residents of Cornplanter’stown reservations in 1819 (Minard and Merrill 1896:34; on the Allegheny River lived in log houses, but they also Snyder and Granger 1978:30). built bark structures with longhouse traits, such as center While Haudenosaunee people may have continued to smoke holes, bunks, and the absence of windows build homes in standard longhouse and intercultural/ (Wallace 1972:189). In 1806, Quaker Halliday Jackson creolized forms at this time, K. Jordan (2002:458– recorded at least some impact of the missions on dwell- 459,466–467) posits that Haudenosaunee people on ings in the “near 100 new houses” of notched hewn logs, reservations took up residence in more long-lasting “many of them covered with shingles & hav[ing] pannel cabins influenced by European log styles as a workable Doors and Glass windows,” built since Tunesassa’s solution to imposed mobility restrictions, increased set- inception (Snyderman 1957:582). tlement duration, and the influence of European Senecas did not fully capitulate to Quaker efforts to American ideas of property ownership. Post-revolution modify their culture, however. Quaker John Philips saw examples generally support this assertion. For instance, recently constructed, notched, hewn houses, including Lantz (1980) excavated the vestiges of a Seneca cabin two-story dwellings, upriver from Cold Spring, but he occupied from ca. 1790 to 1850 or 1869 at the Vanatta also noted Haudenosaunee features, such as bark cov- site near Salamanca, New York. European American ering and sidewall benches, in houses at the settlement construction materials, such as lime, mortar, and win- itself (Deardorff and Snyderman 1956:606). Seneca dow glass; 20.3 cm diameter posts, possibly from level- men chose to continue to engage in hunting for furs, ing blocks for the cabin; smaller post remnants from a wage labor, and lumbering activities, which drew them shed or porch; and the lack of metal housing hardware into interaction with American markets (Rothenberg or evidence of a chimney are consistent with an 1976:206–216, 1980:75–76; Dennis 2010:151,177). intercultural/creolized form in terms of a log-house de- Such work fit a familiar Haudenosaunee seasonal mod- sign incorporating longhouse features2 (Lantz 1980:19– el of varying activity types and intensity, and travel 21,39). Intercultural/creolized abodes with longhouse outside the home base (Dennis 2010:158). Herein lies elements and log walls persisted in other villages and a form of hybridity in addition to architecture, with settlements in the late 1700s. During his travels in 1795– seasonal travel as part of livelihood and subsistence, 1797, La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1799:155–156) re- but encompassing different economic activities. In ad- ported log houses with bark covering, sleeping dition, the Genesee region lacked a prominent Quaker presence. Indirect impacts of Moravian activity, on the other hand, may have been a major driver in spreading 2 The low proportion of manufactured personal items, prevalence of deer in the faunal assemblage, and a high proportion of European the use of European-style housing elements via mis- American arms-related artifacts at the Vanatta site also demonstrate sionized groups such as the Delawares, who could have the continuation of pre-reservation Seneca lifeways, such as deer – shared Moravian techniques with Haudenosaunee peo- hunting (Lantz 1980:36 38, table 3). Professor Kurt Jordan discussed – this interpretation during his fall 2013 Haudenosaunee archaeology ple later (Brown 2000:18,20,24,28 29; K. Jordan course at Cornell University. 2002 :455). Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 203

The Seneca prophet sought to approximately 18 m long council house at the change Seneca society as well. In 1799 he received the early-1800s Canawaugus Reservation near Avon, first of a series of revelations directing the reformation New York, had a roof of bark over a ridge pole, of certain Seneca practices and the revitalization of and a smoke hole in the center (L. R. Doty others (Parker 1968; Wallace 1972:239,252–253). His 1925:862; Hayes 1965:4 –5; Omwake 1965:31). code, in part, called for following the example of Bark roofs also topped Seneca dwellings at Big European American men, who constructed substantial Tree in 1820 (L. L. Doty 1876:86). houses for their families (Parker 1968:38). At Cold The incorporation of specific European housing ele- Spring, for instance, Handsome Lake supported the ments and even occupation of European-style dwellings building of hewn-log houses with clapboard roofs and, do not necessarily signify the adoption of other later, glass windows, chimneys, and paneled doors European cultural traits. For example, Senecas at (Wallace 1972:288). Still, in 1806 John Philips recorded Tonawanda maintained extended family ties though no a seemingly traditional council house with two central longer living in longhouses, as demonstrated by the fires and an alleged 200-person capacity (Deardorff and “Clute, Fish, Jemison, and Brooks families, all living Snyderman 1956:599,601). Yet, before his death in in this [the same] corner of the” reservation and main- 1815, Handsome Lake did not spread his message in taining close relationships (Brown 2000:13,49,53–58). the Genesee Valley as successfully as he did to areas In the case of the Nancy and Thomas Jemison cabins, such as the Allegany Reservation, near which his half- one also can observe the continued importance of ex- brother Cornplanter lived and the Quakers founded their tended family, noted later in 1900 by Shoemaker (1991). missions (Wallace 1972:299–301; Abler and Tooker The inhabitants of Squawky Hill, where Thomas lived, 1978:510). He also faced opposition from the Seneca arranged their homes around the council house (L. L. leader (Wallace 1972:167,259,299–301; Doty 1876:61). Mary’s married daughters, Nancy and Dennis 2010:101–105). However, the presence of a Betsey, lived approximately 0.4 km south and north council house longer than a single-family home at of her, respectively, and her daughter Polly and her Caneadea, similar to others used in the Longhouse reli- family lived with Mary on the Gardeau Reservation gion inspired by Handsome Lake, and more-permanent (Seaver 1990:129), Thus, at least some families log housing suggest a possible minor influence of the remained geographically close, though not living Code of Handsome Lake in the Genesee. Longhouses in the same dwelling. built more recently for ceremonial purposes by groups such as the Tonawanda Senecas illustrate the continued effect of the Longhouse religion’s The Three Seneca Log Structures at Letchworth combination of tradition and innovation in architec- State Park tural forms (Fenton 1968:plates 3,5–8). The War of 1812 only temporarily reduced the The Caneadea Council House European American influx into the Genesee and western New York (Benn 1998:182–183). The The Caneadea Council House formerly served the American land grab continued in the 1820s. Mary Seneca community at Caneadea, established before the Jemison, owner of the Gardeau Reservation, sold revolution near present-day Houghton, New York. The most of her land in 1823 and eventually moved to Sullivan Campaign left the settlement intact (Graymont Buffalo Creek in 1831 (Milliken 1925:445–446; 1972:218), and Caneadea and the surrounding area later Seaver 1990:122–124). The Senecas lost Caneadea became the Caneadea Reservation under the Treaty of and Squawky Hill, along with other reservation Big Tree. The Crawford & Stearns report places the lands, in a contested treaty involving the Ogden construction of the council house between 1759 and Land Company in 1826 (Hauptman 1999:152– 1780, based on Mary Jemison’s account, Guy 161). Senecas lived in homes with both longhouse Johnson’s 1771 map, and the biographies of Captain and log-house characteristics at the time. L. L. Doty Horatio Jones and Major Moses Van Campen of the (1876:89) reported, in his history of Livingston American army, who ran the gauntlet there in 1781 County, that in 1816 “a dozen bark-roofed houses and 1782, respectively (Hubbard and Minard 1893; of small logs” stood at Squawky Hill. The Harris 1903;Bartlett1995a:36–37). The council house 204 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

Fig. 5 The Caneadea Council House (Letchworth State Park, Castile, New York, New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation) viewed from the west. (Photo courtesy of Ted Barlett, Preservation Consultant, Cazenovia, New York, 2013.)

mentioned in the Jones account may be an earlier struc- William Pryor Letchworth purchased the council house ture than the one now at Letchworth, or a different and had it reassembled at his Glen Iris estate, now part of building altogether given the staff and flag reported with Letchworth State Park (Bartlett 1995a:22). A Seneca the building in the biography, but this record notes a mix named John Shanks then directed efforts to restore the of housing forms, including “a few bark huts” and building, including replacing rotted timbers and remov- “ordinary houses,” at Caneadea in the early 1780s. ing the logs believed to be added by Seaton (Bartlett (Harris 1903:407). Henry Howland (1903:102) later 1995a:105–106). Despite various maintenance activities suggested a pre-revolution date for the council that later took place, such as roof replacement, a sub- house, stating that “Indians ascribe it a venerable stantial number of the original eastern white pine3 antiquity.” However, he may have exaggerated this (Pinus strobus L.) log walls remain (Bartlett 1995a; claim or misunderstood his Native American infor- Carol Griggs 2013, pers. comm.) (Fig. 5). mants: they may have been describing an earlier version of the council house or when a council house was first erected at Caneadea. The Nancy Jemison Cabin The Senecas of Caneadea used the council house now at Letchworth until about 1826, when most left The Nancy Jemison Cabin initially stood near present- the area after losing their claim to the territory (Minard day Castile on the Gardeau Reservation, close to the and Merrill 1896;Hauptman1999). At that point, the home of Nancy’s mother Mary. It may be the dwelling one-room structure had a central fireplace or fireplaces that Mary “built on the Gardeau flats about the year at either end with one or more smoke holes in the roof, 1800 for one of her daughters” (Milliken 1925:446), and and may have lacked windows, similar to a Crawford & Stearns estimated its construction to be Haudenosaunee longhouse (F. W. Beers and Co. between 1797 and 1800 (Bartlett 1995b). Nancy and 1879:52; Minard 1896:658). European American settler her husband Billy Green lived in the cabin with their Joel Seaton soon purchased the plot of land containing children until 1831, when they (and Mary) moved to the council house, using it as his family’s residence and Buffalo Creek (Milliken 1925:446; Bartlett an outbuilding (Minard 1896:658). He moved the struc- 1995b:15,26). At that time the single-pen cabin with ture on the property, added three or four courses of logs 3 and a gable-end chimney, and may have added two Few dendrochronology studies of historical structures in the Northeast have included white pine, e.g., Bonzani et al. (1991), windows (Hubbard and Minard 1893:233; Bartlett Griggs (2008), and Young-Vigneault et al. (2012), and they have 1995a:92,94,116). In 1871/1872, philanthropist mainly focused on European American constructions. Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 205 attic had one doorway, one window, and likely a gable- subgroup) (Carol Griggs 2015, pers. comm.), too dete- end chimney (Bartlett 1995b:32–34). A series of riorated to reassemble, were in a storage shed at the park European Americans later occupied the cabin, and a as of October 2013. second doorway and more windows probably were added during this time (Bartlett 1995b:36,43–44). The building was moved to Letchworth in 1880. John Methods Shanks again led renovations, including the addition of a porch, replacement of certain beams, and construction Dendrochronology of a new chimney (Bartlett 1995b:51,54–56). The Nancy Jemison Cabin has undergone repairs and minor In October 2013 and May 2014, I traveled with modifications since, yet still contains original eastern researchers from the Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory white pine beams (Bartlett 1995b; Carol Griggs 2013, at Cornell University to Letchworth State Park to pers. comm.) (Fig. 6). At least one beam in the attic is obtain samples from the council house and cabins eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis [L.] Carrière) (Carol for dendrochronological analysis. Peter Jemison Griggs 2013, pers. comm.). joined in the May visit and observed as Dr. Carol Griggs from the lab and I filled in holes in the cored logs. He also examined the council house and Nancy The Thomas Jemison Cabin Jemison Cabin, specifically the carvings, of an as- yet unknown date, depicting a snipe and cross in the Mary’s grandson Thomas Jemison and his family lived northeast interior corner of the council house. in his cabin on the Squawky Hill Reservation near Consideration of this iconography falls outside the present-day Leicester from around 1818 to 1828 before scope of this investigation. Using Henson and moving to Buffalo Creek (L. L. Doty 1876:89; Bartlett Rinntech borers, cores were drilled from logs with 1995c:15). American Warren C. Hatch then occupied rounded or minimally worked corners with bark or a the cabin, which was incorporated into a frame home “waney” edge. A waney edge contains the tree’s (Bartlett 1995c:3,24). The brothers Joseph, Frank, and final annual growth ring just under the bark. Cross Charles Cipriano later assumed ownership of the prop- sections were sawn from loose council-house beams erty and worked with Letchworth State Park officials to that had been removed and replaced due to deterio- transport what remained of the cabin there in 1969 ration during Shanks’s maintenance. These beams (Bartlett 1995c:29). However, the cabin was not recon- have been stored in the attic of the Nancy Jemison structed. Its oak timbers (Quercus sp. L., white oak Cabin as of May 2014.

Fig. 6 The Nancy Jemison Cabin (Letchworth State Park, Castile, New York, New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation) viewed from the east. (Photo by author, 2014.) 206 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

In the Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory, core samples Analysis of Construction Methods and Architectural were mounted in a wooden holder with common Features glue. The cores and two cross sections were then sanded using belt and orbital sanders, and on occa- The aforementioned intercultural/creolized and sion by hand, with paper of up to 1,000 grit to enable Reservation Log House concepts highlight construction clear viewing of the rings. The widths of the com- methods and features, such as corner notching, log plete rings in each core and two radii from each cross siding and hewn-log walls, and floor plans, associated section were then measured straight across at least with Haudenosaunee structures incorporating twice using a measuring platform and a microscope Haudenosaunee-derived longhouse and European-derived equipped with crosshairs. Tellervo and Corina soft- log-building principles to varying degrees (Brown 2000; ware recorded the ring widths to the nearest 0.01 mm K. Jordan 2008). Applying these frameworks and investi- with a 0.03 mm error. The measurement sequence for gating the materials, techniques, and people (Seneca or each sample was then indexed, or detrended, to re- European American) involved in constructing these build- move the impact of age and non-climatic factors on ings provides a better understanding of the Caneadea the growth for each tree, which enabled easier com- Council House, the Jemison cabins, and the transition from parison of the sequences from each beam (E. Cook fundamentally longhouse- to principally log-style houses 1990;E.Cooketal.1990). among 18th- and early 19th-century Senecas. Information Visual comparison of the graphs of the indexed on extant and past architectural features for this analysis sequences and statistical analyses performed by derives from the Caneadea Council House and Nancy Corina indicated the best match of each Letchworth Jemison Cabin historic structure reports (Bartlett 1995a, specimen’s ring pattern to those of the other samples 1995b); the preservation report on the Thomas Jemison from the same structure to create relatively dated chro- Cabin (Bartlett 1995c); firsthand observation during sam- nologies. Correlating these with established tree-ring pling; and local, county, and regional histories. Not all chronologies using the same methods then provided original features, such as roofs, were documented or extant calendar dates for the samples, a process known as during the sampling visits to Letchworth. crossdating (Baillie 1995:16,20–21). Single specimens of a given species were only compared with dated chronologies of the same species. The relevant statis- Results tics are Student’s t, the correlation coefficient (r), and the trend coefficient (tr). They represent how well the Dendrochronology patterns of peaks and dips in sequences match one another and increase or decrease simultaneously from In total, 19 cores and sections were collected from year to year. Significant values usually fall above 3.50 the Caneadea Council House and Jemison cabins. for t, 0.32 for the correlation coefficient, and 60% for During sampling in October 2013, preservation con- the trend coefficient (Carol Griggs 2014, pers. com). sultant Ted Bartlett, who authored the Crawford & The COFECHA application verified the crossdating of Stearns reports on the three structures, assisted in the council-house chronology by checking the correla- identifying logs for sampling that had not been tion of each sample from the chronology against the replaced at any point after relocation to the park. A others (Holmes 1983; Grissino-Mayer 2001); the log-numbering system employed to reassemble the Nancy Jemison Cabin and Thomas Jemison Cabin council house as it stood on the Seaton farm in 1871 sample sizes were too small to run through aidedintheseefforts(Bartlett1995a:197). Ten core COFECHA. Each specimen was also examined to samples were taken from the four walls of the coun- determine whether bark or a waney edge was present. cil house, which allowed for greater security in If the parent log was employed in construction soon dating the building as whole. Two cross sections after felling, the date for the ring at this edge also and one core came from loose council-house tim- indicates when the building was erected or modified bers. All are eastern white pine. Three cores were (Baillie 1995:21). Even without the final growth ring, taken from different logs in the Nancy Jemison samples still provide a useful terminus post quem,a Cabin: one white pine from the east wall in the date after which the tree must have been felled. lower floor, one white pine from the south wall in Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 207 the attic, and one from an eastern hemlock cross- unmeasured outer rings (Fig. 8). Specimens 2A, 9A, and beam in the attic. Attempts to sample the Thomas 10A terminate in a waney edge at 1819, but 4A, with a Jemison Cabin’s decayed oak beams yielded three final ring close to or at the waney edge at 1820, is the heavily fragmented cores. Nine cores and the two youngest beam in this ca. 1820 cluster. Sample 6A ends cross sections from the Caneadea Council House, in 1808 with sapwood, which grows at the outer edge of representing 10 trees, produced datable ring-width the tree and leaves open the possibility that it was cut sequences. All three Nancy Jemison Cabin cores between 1818 and 1820. Though WLCH-4A had a contained datable portions or full sequences. One section glued in the mount at an improper angle to Thomas Jemison Cabin sample proved sufficiently reliably measure the ring widths, and a crack and im- intact for dating. Crossdating the specimens with measurably small outer rings prohibited the measure- established tree-ring chronologies for central New ment of WLCH-3A in its entirety, counting the unmea- York produced probable cutting dates for the sured rings still provided information on how many council-house and Jemison-cabin logs (Figs. 7, 8) years beyond the measured portion the sample must (Tables 2, 3). For more detailed information date. A later group of three beams (with four cores, concerning each sample, see Kocik (2014). including WLCH-1A and -1B, -5A, and -8A) dates to First the cores and cross sections from the council around 1831 with a waney edge on 8A (Fig. 8). This house were relatively dated through comparison of their aligns with the period Joel Seaton owned the property, ring-width sequences with each other. The resulting possibly when he moved the structure and would have 158-year Caneadea Council House chronology was then had the opportunity to switch out rotting timbers crossdated with a multisite central New York white (Hubbard and Minard 1893:233). All of the sample pines chronology. Eastern white pines tend to exhibit dates taken together suggest two building episodes: highly variable growth patterns (Carol Griggs 2014, one around 1820, shortly before the Senecas left personal comm.). However, the substantial number of Caneadea, and another ca. 1831, when the Seaton occu- samples in the council house chronology reduced the pation began. The samples do not support the claim of impact of inconsistencies among the trees an 18th-century construction date. (Schweingruber et al. 1990:28), and the chronology Results for the Nancy Jemison Cabin eastern white correlates significantly with the central New York pines pine cores fall close to the 1797–1800 range estimated series at 1674–1831 (Fig. 7)(Table2). Series from all by documentary sources (Fig. 8)(Table3). These two the dated council-house specimens were analyzed in cores were first matched with the council-house samples COFECHA, except the outer section of WLCH-3A, (r=0.59, t=7.09, p<0.001, and tr=71.6% with a 96-year which contains many small, unmeasurable rings. measured ring overlap) and then combined into their COFECHA confirmed the results with an intercorrela- own 98-year chronology. Crossdating with the central tion of 0.552 and flagged no-problem segments New York pines chronology provided a best-fitting date (Holmes 1983; Grissino-Mayer 2001). of 1710–1807 (Figs. 7, 8). The correlations between the Six of the datable council-house samples (WLCH- chronologies are statistically significant, save for the 2A, -3A, -4A, -7A, -9A, and 1-0A) end in 1818–1820 comparison with the Hull House chronology from when accounting for the presence of waney edge and Lancaster, New York (Table 3). Neither core contained

Fig. 7 The Caneadea Council House, Nancy Jemison Cabin, and central New York pines chronologies. The New York pines chronology has been truncated at 1650 for ease of viewing. (Figure by author, 2017.) 208 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

Fig. 8 Caneadea Council House, Nancy Jemison Cabin, and incomplete and unmeasured, ++=multiple counted but unmea- Thomas Jemison Cabin sample dates. W=waney edge, v=last ring sured extant rings. (Figure created by author with Grapher soft- is close to the waney edge, vv=proximity of last ring to the waney ware, 2015.) edge is unknown, swr=sapwood rings, +=last ring counted but a waney edge, but 1A came from a minimally shaped central and western New York eastern hemlock chro- log. Therefore, the tree may have been cut shortly after nology, ending in 1883 (r=0.51, t=5.69, p<0.001, and 1807. The single hemlock sample from a crossbeam in tr=72.0% with a 94-year overlap) (Fig. 8). The core does the attic (WLJC-3A) correlates significantly with a not contain bark, but the sample came from a fairly

Table 2 Crossdates for the Caneadea Council House

Central New York Pines Approximate Distance First Compared Last Compared Overlapping RTPValue Tr Chronology Compared from Caneadea (Km) Measured Year Measured Year Ring Count

Gregoire Farm, Burdetta 130 1675 1826 152 0.36 4.68 < 0.001 67.5% Shoneman House, Burdettb 130 1691 1830 140 0.53 7.27 < 0.001 68.7% Beardslee House, 275 1675 1823 149 0.41 5.4 < 0.001 69.3% New Berlinc Kopelson House, Ithacad 160 1688 1830 143 0.25 3.08 0.002 < p 64.1% <0.005 Kopelson House 160 1685 1830 146 0.34 4.27 < 0.001 66.2% Renovation, Ithacad Hull House, Lancastere 80 1675 1823 149 0.41 5.41 < 0.001 65.5% Full Master Chronology –– 1675 1830 156 0.50 7.16 < 0.001 69.4% a Griggs (2010a). b Griggs (2010b). c Griggs (2007). d Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. e Griggs and Wazny (2011). Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 209

Table 3 Crossdates for the Nancy Jemison Cabin

Central New York Pines Approximate Distance First Compared Last Compared Overlapping RTPValue Tr Chronology Compared from Castile (Km) Measured Year Measured Year Ring Count

Gregoire Farm, Burdetta 130 1711 1806 96 0.47 5.10 < 0.001 71.6% Shoneman House, Burdettb 130 1711 1806 96 0.57 6.65 < 0.001 77.4% Beardslee House, New Berlinc 270 1711 1806 96 0.46 5.03 < 0.001 76.3% Kopelson House, Ithacad 170 1711 1806 96 0.36 3.76 < 0.001 64.2% Kopelson House Renovation, 170 1711 1806 96 0.29 2.99 0.002 < p 65.3% Ithacad <0.005 Hull House, Lancastere 70 1711 1806 96 0.22 2.19 0.2 < p 55.8% <0.5 Full Master Chronology –– 1711 1806 96 0.54 6.29 < 0.001 74.7% a Griggs (2010a). b Griggs (2010b). c Griggs (2007). d Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. e Griggs and Wazny (2011). rounded side of the roughly squared crossbeam. Thus, They incorporated traits they considered desirable and the log could have been felled in 1883 or shortly after, took advantage of European American construction tech- possibly coinciding with John Shanks’s renovations, niques and possibly infrastructure (such as sawmills for which concluded in 1884 (Bartlett 1995b:45). building materials) within the context of changing social, The Thomas Jemison Cabin could only be tentatively political, economic, and ecological factors. dated dendrochronologically, based on the comparison The Caneadea Council House’s characteristic of sample WLBT-1A with the Wixson Cabin oak chro- Haudenosaunee longhouse traits, such as a likely central nology from Campbell, New York (Griggs 2003), ap- fireplace or fireplaces, an earthen floor, “shake” roofing, proximately 94 km southeast of Leicester. The measured and a lack of windows during the original Seneca occupa- portion of the core appears to end at 1801 (r=0.40, tion (F. W. Beers and Co. 1879:52; Hubbard and Minard t=3.97, p<0.001, and tr=67.4% with an 87-year overlap) 1893:233; Minard 1896:658), as well as hand-hewn log (Fig. 8). Accounting for the 7 unmeasured rings in the walls half-dovetailed at the corners, evidence its detached outermost section and the 6 to 20 sapwood intercultural/creolized character as a substantially log- rings oaks normally have brings the felling date to style building with only select longhouse elements. 1814–1828. This range, albeit insecure, includes the Bartlett (1995a:34–35) specifically likens the council documented 1818 construction date for the cabin. house to a short longhouse based on these same features. Further sampling could create a robust, internally con- The half-dovetailed cornering, hewn logs, eave-wall front sistent, and thus secure chronology for the cabin. and back doorways, and rectangular English single-pen floorplan fit the Reservation Log House type. On the other Analysis of Construction Methods and Architectural hand, the council house’s dimensions, at 17 × 47 ft. (5.18 × Features 14.32 m), exceed that of Brown’s type and exhibit greater similarity to a longhouse than the more square English Study of the architectural principles, elements, and con- single-pen plan (T. Jordan 1985:23–25). This is also con- struction methods of the council house and Jemison sistent with the Haudenosaunee designation of council cabins revealed similarities to as well as differences from houses as special-purpose structures, with minimal use as the intercultural/creolized and Reservation Log House everyday living spaces, in the early 1800s (Hamell types. Although the following discussion includes hous- 1992:33–34,49). In addition, the logs are hewn on only ing styles and construction techniques with two sides with rounded upper and lower sides, not squared. Haudenosaunee and European roots, it should be stressed The lack of windows and a gable-end chimney during that, ultimately, used these dwellings. Seneca use also deviates from the Reservation Log 210 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

House type. Finally, the doorways are not centered in the does not fully recognize the possible longhouse el- eave walls. This placement, along with the rectangular ements of the dwelling, mainly its organization with floor plan, could reflect a Seneca variation of the long- a single room and loft similar to a longhouse berth, house gable-end doorway, but is similar to the Scots Irish pointed out by Bartlett (1995c:16). form of the English single-pen plan as well (T. Jordan 1985:23–25). The Nancy Jemison Cabin contains some components Discussion which make it intercultural/creolized, but with a log-house rather than longhouse core design. The dwelling has one Dendrochronology revealed a date around 1820, rather room and an earthen floor. If the original fireplace and than the estimated mid- to late 1700s, for the initial chimney were internal, this would have been in line with construction of the Caneadea Council House, as well as typical longhouse forms, but in a varied position from the a probable modification episode carried out by Joel Seaton center. However, the walls interlock at the corners to carry around 1831. This puts the council-house construction the weight of the dwelling, as in the case of a European- close to that of the Nancy Jemison Cabin at 1807 and style log cabin. The rectangular single-room plan and the Thomas Jemison Cabin estimate of 1818. Admittedly, hand-hewn logs of the Nancy Jemison Cabin are consistent the early samples may come from replacement logs in the with the Reservation Log House type, as are the doorway structure, and this analysis does not preclude other parts of (thought to be the only one during the original period of the building from dating to the 18th century, but this occupation [Bartlett 1995b])inthemiddleofaneavewall scenario is unlikely, given that samples taken from differ- and the presence of at least one window in the front wall. ent logs at different heights in the building cluster around The interior chimney and fireplace’s present location on a 1820. The long history attributed to the council house may gable-end wall was presumed by the Crawford & Stearns not apply to the specific structure now at Letchworth, but report to be the same in Nancy Jemison’s time (Bartlett to a council house existing in multiple iterations over time 1995b:34), also fitting with Brown’s house type. The in the Caneadea community. To rebuild a structure fol- cabin’swallsmeasure21ft.and26ft.(6.40mand7.92 lowing damage or complete destruction, as did other m), slightly longer than Brown’s criteria. In addition, the V- Haudenosaunee at the time, would not have been unusual. notching of the corner joinery, with the ends of the timbers The post-revolution date for the Caneadea Council cut into upside-down V-wedges and the corresponding House, as well as its similarities to the Reservation Log shape cut into the joining log (T. Jordan 1985:19), does House type, make sense when considered with accounts of not conform to the Reservation Log House model. housing around the time of the Revolutionary War. A The V-notching of the Thomas Jemison Cabin generally longhouse-style council house stood at again differs from Brown’s defined type. However, Kanadesaga on the eastern side of Seneca territory in the possible fireplace at a gable end (based on a wall 1779, even with Butler’s rangers in the area (Fig. 1) opening seen when the house was deconstructed for (LCP 1779:4). The sketches included above (Figs. 1, 2, transport to Letchworth), single-pen rectangular 3) (LCP 1779:2,4; DAH 1929:174) are more consistent floor plan, doorways in the eave walls in the center with standard longhouses or intercultural/creolized long- and near center, glass windows on the front (two) houses than log houses, with which the half-dovetailed and back (one) walls, and hand-hewn planked logs council house fits more closely. The Crawford & Stearns (Bartlett 1995c:18) do correspond with the report contends that the British may have had a hand in Reservation Log House type. These traits also fit building the council house during the Revolutionary War an intercultural/creolized designation, but in the based on the abovementioned biographical sketch of sense of a basic log-house form with longhouse Moses Van Campen (Hubbard and Minard 1893; Bartlett features, as with the Caneadea Council House and 1995a:34,39–40), the style and proficiency of the log Nancy Jemison Cabin. The walls measure close to hewing, and the dovetailing that Rempel (1980:50–51) Brown’sfigures,at21ft.6in.and16ft.11in.(6.55 asserts featured prominently in European military hewn- m and 5.16 m) (Bartlett 1995c:16). Bartlett log buildings in central Canada. British soldiers and offi- (1995c:15–16,18) argues that the cabin resembles cers, such as Lieutenant Nelles at Caneadea (Harris the Midland type (described by T. Jordan 1903:408) and Colonel Butler, were active in Seneca [1985:14–40]). However, this designation alone territory during the war (Graymont 1972;Taylor2006). Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 211

However, the dendrochronology dates make the British- 1990:xxix). The political boundaries of the edge of the assistance scenario implausibleforthespecificstructure Seneca woods and social relations with European now standing in the park. Yet, they do not definitively rule Americans shifted as European American settlers from out the possibility of Senecas learning techniques, such as the East infiltrated the Genesee following the contracts dovetailing, from British troops before or during the war. and treaties that increasingly dispossessed Senecas of their Alternatively, the council house’s half-dovetailed lands and created reservations. They may have brought cornering could reflect the influence of Moravian mis- with them common European-derived Midland American sionaries. Senecas at Caneadea around 1820 may have log-construction forms that Seneca people might consider drawn upon construction techniques shared by in building their own structures. Midland architecture Moravians during earlier visits when they tried (and frequently made use of half-dovetailed cornering and logs failed) to gain a foothold among the Senecas. They also hand hewn on the inner and outer facing sides (T. Jordan may have gained such knowledge from interactions with 1985:19). T. Jordan and Kaups (1989:233–235) pointed Delawares4 who had adopted elements of Moravian-style out that German and Scots Irish immigrants spread the housing earlier in the 1700s, especially during the period Midland style westward as early as the 1720s, as they of settlement near Fort Niagara following the Sullivan made their way into Pennsylvania and along the Delaware campaign (T. Jordan 1985:132, figure 6.1; Brown and Susquehanna rivers into New York State.5 2000:18,20,24,28–29). Delawares, Cayugas, European American infrastructure and industry, in Onondagas, Mohawks, some Oneidas and Tuscaroras, addition to settlement, may have affected housing and a handful of Native Americans of other affiliations styles after the revolution in the Genesee and else- sought greater protection and formed mixed communities where in western New York. Sawmills promoted the near the fort that could have shared cultural traits lumber industry and may have impacted Seneca (Calloway 1995:137). housing by providing or at least increasing exposure The V-notching of the Jemison cabins suggests the to European American–style lumber shaping and influence of Midland construction. This notching type, building techniques. For instance, in the account of with Fenno-Scandinavian roots, was common from east- her life documented by Seaver (1990:127), Mary ern Pennsylvania to the Ohio Valley (T. Jordan Jemison mentioned obtaining boards for a house 1985:19,146, table 6.1; T. Jordan and Kaups 1989:144). from Ebenezer Allen’s nearby sawmill on Silver Nancy Jemison’s mother Mary lived in Pennsylvania prior Lake. Such building materials would presumably to Nancy’s capture and resided near the Ohio River at have been available for Nancy’s house also, which Wiishto before moving to the Genesee region (Seaver Mary may have helped build (Milliken 1925:446). 1990:3,27–28). She also lived with Delawares at Wiishto Sawmills were first erected in the Caneadea area at and married a Delaware man named Sheninjee (Seaver Angelica in 1803, Hume in 1807, Caneadea (the 1990:28). She may have observed V-notching and log- American town) in 1816, and Granger in 1819 (F. construction techniques in her childhood home, among W. Beers and Co. 1879:230; Fox 1976:92–93). backwoods settler neighbors, and as learned and Leicester, near which Thomas Jemison built his cab- employed by the Delawares. In addition, when she first in, gained its first sawmill even earlier, in 1792 (Fox moved to Gardeau she lived in a house built by two 1976:105). Caneadea residents of Squawky Hill and African Americans (Seaver 1990:59–61), which may have Gardeau assisted in “preparing logs for a house” for influenced her (and her daughter’s) later decisions in Niel McCoy in Dansville before his death in 1809 housing style. Mary herself resided in a log home with (Turner 1976:355–356), and native people from some Haudenosaunee features, such as a fireplace in the Caneadea aided in erecting a sawmill approximately center, at the time of Seaver’s visit in 1823 (Seaver 32 km northeast in Granger in 1819, with the first frame house in that town following the next year

4 Delawares who had settled with missionaries at Fairfield on the Thames River in Ontario starting in 1792 built a number of log houses 5 Native Americans, including Delawares, influenced what became (Ferris 2009:84–86). They exhibited Delaware longhouse traits, such Midland American culture, for instance, through sharing hunting strat- as central hearths, uncovered floors (though some had planked floors egies when Europeans established New Sweden (T. Jordan and Kaups and glass windows), and moss chinking, as well as cornerstones or log 1989:90–92,247). Hamell (1992:43–45) notes instances of European sections, which Ferris (2009:86–88) contends could indicate that the Americans drawing from Haudenosaunee and Algonquian house corners were dovetailed. styles. 212 Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217

(Minard and Merrill 1896:517–518). A number of conditions. They also marked a persistent Seneca pres- Seneca men also worked cutting and selling timber ence on the landscape in the face of nonnative settle- (Rothenberg 1980; Dennis 2010). However, inten- ment. The council house dendrochronology date of ca. sive industrial logging did not occur in the Genesee 1820 places it at a time shortly before most Senecas left area until around the 1850s (Cox et al. 1985:91). the Caneadea area in 1826, and Thomas Jemison’s The ecological impact of Seneca and European family may have occupied its cabin for only around 10 American timber cutting, a literal change in the edge years, yet the builders invested in longer-lasting log of the woods, on Seneca decisions to build longer- structures. Furthermore, one could see employment of lasting structures to conserve this resource also deserves white pine, a sacred tree, as representing a claim to a tree attention. Stands of white pine and other species grew that European Americans prized for economic reasons. near the Caneadea Reservation as well as other areas on Through the mimicry of European log construction the Allegheny Plateau in thelate1700s(Seischab externally, Senecas at Caneadea and the Nancy and 1990:30–31, 1992:40,44, figure 6.11). They could have Thomas Jemison families expressed their claim to the thus been readily available for the Caneadea Council land in a manner understood by incoming European House and Nancy Jemison Cabin. However, European Americans, while still retaining, internally, longhouse American farmers cleared land for agriculture and took characteristics—interior fires and chimneys, house advantage of woodlands as a source of income, thereby layout similar to the compartments of longhouses, reducing forests (and possible Seneca building materi- lofts similar to storage areas above sidewall berths— al). White pines in the Genesee Valley and elsewhere in and arranging their homes so as to maintain close New York provided raw material for a variety of prod- family connections. In addition, sawmills, such as ucts, such as shingles and barrels, making them an those mentioned above, made frame houses more attractive target, and sawmills involved in the produc- practicable (Cox et al. 1985:65). That Senecas chose tion of such goods drew in farmers and other settlers to build in log forms when they knew of and in some (Cox et al. 1985:78,90–91; Cox 2010:8). For example, cases used sawmills (Rothenberg 1976:154), and were Indian agent Erastus Granger received complaints that also aware of the frame houses sawmills made more settlers were cutting trees on Seneca lands at Buffalo feasible, signals a form of autonomy expressed Creek and Cattaraugus, and that Cornplanter was selling through dwelling construction with traits of multiple timber of his own accord in the early 1800s (Snyder and cultural origins. The Caneadea Council House and Granger 1978:86–88). Incoming settlers also reduced Jemison cabins, when considered through the the amount of game available, owned pigs and cattle intercultural/creolized and Reservation Log House that destroyed vegetation (though Senecas, too, raised types and hybridity, reflect how Senecas, in the early certain domesticated animals), and dammed waterways 19th century, as their edge of the woods shifted, and built log booms for mills and transporting logs sought to direct their own culture through housing (Taylor 2006:140–141; Cox 2010:14–16). A long- and engagement in activities like logging, which ech- house–log house mix would have allowed Senecas to oedearliermobilityinnewways(Dennis2010:158). better cope with forest depletion than a longhouse with In so doing, they perpetuated the edge-of-the-woods vertical posts that needed to be replaced more often than concept, which had played a role in creatively thicker-diameter horizontal log siding or walls. retaining freedom of movement in preceding centuries It is imperative to bear in mind that Seneca people (Parmenter 2010). employed principles from both European-derived forms and those stemming from their own cultural history, including earlier intercultural/creolized structures. Conclusion Here, the concept of hybridity provides a productive perspective through which to understand the council In general, dendrochronological analysis aligned house and Jemison cabins and other contemporary with the documentary evidence for the age of the Seneca structures. These buildings are not examples of Nancy Jemison Cabin (1807) left open the possibil- acculturation or deterioration of Seneca forms, but a ity of the documented Thomas Jemison Cabin date blend of traits producing a more durable structure suited (ca. 1818) and revealed a date later than historical to Seneca lifeways under more confined reservation sources claimed for the Caneadea Council House Hist Arch (2017) 51:194–217 213

(ca. 1820). The council house and Jemison cabins Acknowledgments: This article is an abbreviated and revised ’ all bear traits at least partially consistent with version of a master s thesis completed at Cornell University in August 2015. I also presented portions of this research at the New intercultural/creolized and Reservation Log House York State Archaeological Association 98th Annual Meeting in types as defined by K. Jordan (2008) and Brown April 2014, for which I received a Cornell Graduate Conference (2000). They represent neither completely “tradi- Travel Grant. I would like to thank my advisor, Professor Kurt A. tional” Haudenosaunee nor European forms, and Jordan, and Professor Jon Parmenter and Dr. Carol Griggs for serving on my thesis committee and providing indispensable help contain features indicative of Haudenosaunee, and guidance. Thanks also go to Professor Sturt Manning, Dr. Moravian, and Midland styles. In terms of the long- Linah Ababneh, Dr. Brita Lorentzen, and Kate Seufer of the house to log house transition, they more closely Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory, Seneca faithkeeper Peter Jemison, resemble log forms with longhouse elements than Christopher Flagg of the New York State Office of Parks, Recre- ation and Historic Preservation, historic site manager Brian vice versa. Hybridity offers a lens through which to Scriven of Letchworth State Park, Ted Bartlett, and Tom Cook. view this transition and the way Senecas managed A Hirsch Graduate Scholarship from the Cornell Institute of Ar- the physical and social changes to the edge of the chaeology and Material Studies funded my travel to the park to woods. The log-construction forms employed by the take samples in May 2014. James D. Folts of the New York State Archives provided copies of the drawings of the Kanadesaga Senecas at Caneadea and in the Nancy and Thomas council house and Butler’shouse,aswellasthehouseatGenesee Jemison cabins allowed for longer-term occupation Town. Cornelia S. King of the Library Company of Philadelphia on ever-smaller landholdings and the persistence of located the images in that institution’s collections. George Hamell certain longstanding aspects of Haudenosaunee ar- kindly provided me a copy of his 1992 paper on Seneca housing. Finally, a number of faculty (Kurt A. Jordan, Christopher Monroe, chitecture, especially internally. Externally, they pre- and Adam T. Smith) and graduate students (Peregrine Gerard- sented a visual reminder to European Americans that Little, Eilis Monahan, Nils Niemeier, Samantha Sanft, and Senecas still lived in the area and could mark terri- Kathryn Weber) from Cornell University shared helpful comments tory with their European-style log homes in a way and suggestions at a work-in-progress open seminar at the univer- sity in February 2015. they recognized. Finally, this dendrochronological analysis demonstrates that more precise dates of construc- tion and modification episodes derived from den- References drochronology can, when coupled with other lines of evidence, contribute to a fuller understanding of when, how, and why Seneca housing changed in Abler, Thomas S., and Elisabeth Tooker 1978 Seneca. In Handbook of North American Indians, different areas at different times. Future Vol. 15, Northeast, Bruce G. Trigger, editor, pp. investigations could involve dendrochronological 505–517. 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