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Copyrighted Material 1 Historical perspectives Prehistoric and ancient observation evolutionary tree. Historically, epileptic seizures are one of the oldest described afflictions of humans. As early The first ancient humans who witnessed an animal man would recognize a cut on their finger as similar to ­having a seizure were probably as “wide eyed,” surprised a cut on an animal’s digit, so too would they recognize and scared as people are today. That first observed sei- the similarities in symptoms associated with a convul- zure likely corresponds to the beginning of the human/ sion, fit, or seizure between humans, dogs, and cats. animal relationship. The very first human/animal rela- It is estimated that the natural occurrence of seizures tionship originated at a point in our history where we as in dogs is similar to that of humans, whereas in cats and a species started to feed off the leftover scraps of other species, seizures are considered significantly less ­organized packs of wild dogs. Thus began a relationship common (Berendt et al., 2004; Schriefl et al., 2008). with canines, most likely around the time we decided to Observation of the first cat having a seizure would most supplement our diet with more than what Mother likely to have occurred following head trauma inflicted Nature would provide. We became hunter-gatherers on a wild cat by another animal or man or with the rather than just gatherers. At some point in human domestication of cats, as opposed to natural ­observation, ­history, we started to spend more time observing ani- since they are less common. The earliest recorded history mals in their natural environment, learning from them of animal observation dates to approximately 35,000– (e.g., how they hunted, social interactions, etc.) as 40,000 BP (before present), when the Neanderthals opposed to just killing them for food (Figure 1.1). painted images of animals on cave walls in what is now Considering the fact that dogs were the earliest cohabi- modern-day France (Figure 1.2). The earliest recorded tants of humans, early domesticated dogs were perhaps history of animal/human cohabitation dates back to the first animals (other than our own species) humans ­Cro-Magnon humans (early Homo sapiens) at round witnessed to have a seizure. Ancient humans were well 20,000–15,000 BP, when humans started to dabble in on their way toward higher cognitive abilities, which agriculture and the domestication of animals, which nat- allowed them to associate the characteristics of a con- urally came with it. It is suspected, however, that humans vulsing wolf/dog as comparable to those of a human and animals coexisted together thousands of years prior exhibiting similar signs. Considering the genetic predis- to 15,000–20,000 BP. The discovery of a child’s footprint position to have seizures inCOPYRIGHTED both species, epileptic sei- along MATERIAL with that of a large dog in the Chauvet Cave of zures secondary to brain injury may have been observed southern France suggests humans and dogs (wolf/dogs) as commonly as spontaneous seizures. Traumatic brain coexisted as early as 26,000 BP (Garcia, 2005). Humans injury to either a human or a dog would probably and dogs began hunting together around 12,000 BP. This account for some of the first observed occurrences of time also coincides with the development of early civili- seizures. Seizures and epilepsy have undoubtedly been zations further strengthened by the domestication of part of our species from the very bottom of the livestock, namely, sheep and goats (Wilkinson, 1992). Seizures in Dogs and Cats, First Edition. Sean Sanders. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/sanders/seizures 1 0002212475.indd 1 12/11/2014 8:25:06 PM 2 Seizures in Dogs and Cats Figure 1.1 Some of the first observations by humans of canines having seizures may have occurred while watching wild dogs hunt. While the incidence of epileptic seizures in dogs is similar to humans, seizures secondary to head trauma were most likely witnessed during these early observations. Photograph of original painting by Heinrich Harder (1858–1935) Aurochs Fighting Wolves (~1920). Public domain. Figure 1.2 Earliest discovered cave paintings of animals, ca. 30,000–32,000 bp (before present). Facsimile reproduction of the “Wall of Lions” depicting lions hunting bison. Chauvet Cave Complex, Pont d’Arc Valley, Ardèche Southern France. Public domain. The domestication of cats is thought to follow dogs by The origins of comparative medicine likely began with several thousand years. The earliest evidence of cats animal sacrifice, as those doing the sacrificing were the living among humans dates to about 5300 years ago in earliest vivisectionists and often local healers. Humans ancient China. would easily be able to make the connection between With the development of a relationship centered on similar medical conditions such as a vomiting dog being cohabitation, humans were now applying their knowl­ very comparable to a vomiting human. Unless a medical edge of “self” to other species. The earliest development condition was the result of a known trauma, most of medicine would have little distinction between that ­afflictions were thought to be due to a combination of practiced on other humans or that practiced on animals. mystical or magical sources. Demonic possession by 0002212475.indd 2 12/11/2014 8:25:07 PM Chapter 1: Historical perspectives 3 many cultures was the foun dation of early medicine physiological and physiochemical disorders of the although this was shadowed by the development of body. Rather than praying to the gods or visiting tem- religious explanations for “disease.” The application of ples, they took a more practical and proto-scientific medical knowledge between species was in parallel and approach to treatment of the condition through often applied to each species by the same “medical” altering etiological factors, diet changes, and lifestyle (often religious) practitioner. Our understanding of changes, which allowed those afflicted with the prehistoric medicine is deduced from the first recorded condition to have better management of their seizures history on the planet. (Manyam, 1992). References to rabies in animals can be found as early as 2000 BP in the Codex of Eshnunna. These collections of Early civilization laws inscribed on two cuneiform tablets are similar to the Laws of Hammurabi, which are also of early While we do not think of epilepsy today as a disease Mesopotamian origin. These laws specifically refer to per se, historically, it was regarded as one of the earliest the penalties one might face if a rabid dog that they recognized afflictions of humans. It has been described owned was to bite a person. Certainly, we can infer that in ancient Mesopotamian, Babylonian, Indian, Egyptian, if rabies was being observed in dogs, seizures were being and Chinese civilizations. The earliest description of observed in dogs. epilepsy in human beings dates back to about 6000 With specific reference to animal disease, the earliest years ago (4000 BP) in a Babylonian text describing epi- written description may come from the veterinary leptic psychoses. The magico-mystical or magico-religious papyrus of Kahun (Figure 1.3). This document produced notion that seizures (and most disease in general) in ancient Egypt at around 1900 BP contains the oldest occurred through possession of an individual by spirits known veterinary writings outside of the Ayurvedic or punishment of an individual by the gods for evil texts. Within the Kahun papyrus is a specific passage, doing arose in ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest written which could be (note: extreme emphasis on “could be”) recorded history of human observation of animals dates interpreted as the description of a dog having a seizure roughly to 3500–3000 BP. This corresponds with the ear- or collapse: liest known written history of mankind, which comes …if when it courses (?) scenting (?) the ground, it falls from the foundation of civilization located in ancient down, it should be said “mysterious prostration as to it.” Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates river When the incantations have been said I should thrust my valleys of modern-day Iraq. hand within its hemu, a henu of water at my side. When Further descriptions of the condition were made the hand of a man reaches to wash the bone of its back, the man should wash his hand in this henu of water each time around 1000 BP within a Babylonian text on diagnostic that the hand becomes gummed (?) until thou hast drawn medicine known as the Sakikku (meaning “all dis- forth the heat-dried blood, or anything else or the hesa (?). eases”) (Reynolds and Kinnier Wilson, 2008). The Thou wilt know that he is cured on the coming of the hesa. Mesopo tamian word antašubbû is commonly referred to as “the falling disease” or “the hand of sin,” which Of course, much can be said about the interpretation of the was brought about by the god of the moon and the passage; however, similar behaviors observed in humans notion that it was a manifestation of the possession by would have been applied to those observed in animals, evil spirits (i.e., “lunatic”) (Labat, 1951). The Ayurvedic especially the animals for which humans spent the medical texts describe the oldest know medical system, majority of their time with. There is no ancient Egyptian developed in ancient India between 4500 and 1500 BP, word for “veterinarian”; therefore, it is presumed that and within the Charaka Samhita, dated at around ancient Egyptian physicians treated both humans and 450 BP, is a description of a condition labeled as “apas- animals (Gordon and Schwabe, 2004). mara” (meaning “loss of consciousness”) (Magiorkinis Shalihotra (c.
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