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Qing Li The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa Qing Li

The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa

123 Qing Li Institute of Quantitative and Technical Economics Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

ISBN 978-981-10-6733-4 ISBN 978-981-10-6735-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8

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1 Genesis ...... 1 1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 7 1.1.1 Pre-urban Lhasa and Nearby Regions ...... 7 1.1.2 Lhasa During Tupo Dynasty ...... 8 1.1.3 Lhasa During the and Phagmodru Periods ...... 10 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 16 1.2.1 Urban Construction Between 17th Century and 19th Century ...... 16 1.2.2 From Early 20th Century to Early Post-peaceful Liberation Period ...... 20 References ...... 29 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors ...... 31 2.1 Influence of Natural Environment ...... 31 2.1.1 Natural Conditions of and Implications to City Building ...... 31 2.1.2 Natural Conditions of Lhasa ...... 33 2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center ...... 33 2.2.1 Tupo Dynasty: Lhasa Became a Capital ...... 33 2.2.2 Regime Established Capital in Lhasa ... 34 2.2.3 The System: Establishment and Continuation..... 35 2.3 Lhasa as a Religious Center ...... 41 2.3.1 Importation of ...... 41 2.3.2 Rise of Gelugpa ...... 43 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network ...... 46 2.4.1 Outbound Transportation During the Tupo Era ...... 47 2.4.2 Postal Service During the Yuan and ...... 50 2.4.3 Outbound Transportation from Lhasa in ...... 51

v vi Contents

2.4.4 Republic of China Era—Lhasa as an Important Link Connecting China ...... 53 References ...... 56 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 57 3.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 57 3.1.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 58 3.1.2 Factors that Influence the Layout of the Old City ...... 61 3.2 and Barkor Area ...... 61 3.2.1 Jokhang’s Historical Evolution ...... 62 3.2.2 Barkor Area ...... 65 3.3 and Zhol Area ...... 72 3.3.1 Potala Palace ...... 73 3.3.2 Zhol ...... 76 3.3.3 Significant Cultural Heritage ...... 79 References ...... 83 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa ...... 85 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 85 4.1.1 Characteristics of Traditional Tibetan Buildings ...... 85 4.1.2 Color Characteristics ...... 87 4.1.3 Characteristics of Residences in The Old City of Lhasa ...... 89 4.1.4 Different Forms of Old Lhasa Buildings ...... 91 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa ...... 100 4.2.1 Vernacular Buildings ...... 101 4.2.2 The Vintage Courtyards ...... 102 4.2.3 Yabshi Residences and Lhadrang ...... 107 References ...... 109 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy ...... 111 5.1 Barkor North and the Main Historical Relic ...... 111 5.1.1 Nangtseshag ...... 112 5.1.2 Tromsikkhang (Aka Dragkhang Courtyard) ...... 113 5.1.3 Ganden Darchen Prayer Flag ...... 115 5.2 Barkor Eastern Street: Layout and Main Historical Legacy Projects ...... 117 5.2.1 Moru Nyingpa ...... 117 5.2.2 Beijing Tsongkhang ...... 119 5.2.3 Deling Khangsar ...... 120 5.2.4 Yellow House Aka Makye Amye Restaurant ...... 121 5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages ...... 122 5.3.1 Labdrang Nyingpa ...... 127 5.3.2 Pomdatsang Courtyard ...... 128 Contents vii

5.3.3 Sharkyiring Darchen Prayer Flag ...... 128 5.3.4 Gelsang Darchen ...... 128 5.3.5 Samdrup Phodrang ...... 129 5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square ...... 131 5.4.1 Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument ...... 132 5.4.2 Monument of Urging Locals to Receive Smallpox Vaccination ...... 133 5.4.3 Juyak Darchen Prayer Flag ...... 134 5.4.4 Doring Residential House and Doring Family ...... 135 5.4.5 Penjor Rabten Tibetan King Residence ...... 136 References ...... 137 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa ...... 139 6.1 History of Amban Yamen ...... 139 6.1.1 From Tromsikkhang to Gandan Khangsar (1727–1751) ... 140 6.1.2 From Gandan Khangsar to Tzashen (1788–1857) ...... 142 6.1.3 From Tzashen to Lubug Yamen (Circa 1892–1911) ...... 143 6.1.4 Republic of China Era—Kyetopa ...... 144 6.1.5 Tromsikkhang’s Restoration and Commercial Development ...... 145 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards ...... 147 6.2.1 Samdrup Phodrang Courtyard ...... 148 6.2.2 Yabshi Phunkhang ...... 154 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History .... 159 6.3.1 Pomdatsang Courtyard ...... 160 6.3.2 Phodrang Sarpa ...... 166 6.3.3 Other Vintage Courtyards ...... 169 6.4 Gorkha Nyingba—Special Courtyard ...... 176 6.4.1 Nepalese Merchants in the ...... 177 6.4.2 Gorkha Nyingba’s Construction Style and the Development ...... 179 References ...... 180 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City ...... 183 7.1 Lhasa Prior to Reform and Opening-up ...... 185 7.1.1 Lhasa’ Urban Construction in 1951–1965 ...... 185 7.1.2 From 1966 to Reform and Opening-up ...... 188 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era ...... 188 7.2.1 Reform and Opening-up to Mid-1980s ...... 189 7.2.2 Construction Between 1987 and 1993 ...... 191 7.2.3 1994–2005 ...... 195 7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation ...... 203 7.3.1 Post-reform and Opening-up Preservation and Modification ...... 205 viii Contents

7.4 Institutional Construction Regarding the Preservation of Old City ...... 213 7.4.1 Related TAR-Level Institutions ...... 213 7.4.2 Development of Tibetan Autonomous Region’s Institutions ...... 214 References ...... 216 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development ... 219 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 219 8.1.1 Multiple Problems in the Process of the Old City Preservation and Reform ...... 220 8.1.2 Some Specific Cases ...... 223 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 230 8.2.1 Basic Principles in the Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa ...... 231 8.2.2 Ensure Holistic Preservation View ...... 232 8.2.3 Development with Characteristics ...... 234 8.2.4 Management with a Scientific Outlook ...... 235 8.2.5 Strengthen Comprehensive Planning and Research...... 237 References ...... 239 Appendix A: The Tupo Kings ...... 241 Appendix B: The Dalai ...... 243 References ...... 247 Epilogue...... 255 Chapter 1 Genesis

The years workingand living in Lhasa in the 1940s left Shen Zonglian and Liu Shengqi lots of fond memories. In their coauthored book Tibet and Tibetans, they wrote: Just as a Tibetan friend told us: Everyone, who had been to Lhasa, would spend the rest of life missing it. We can confirm the veracity of this statement.1 Usually after you returned to your hometowns, which may be modern, though you would realize the absence of many wonderful things—the azure sky, unblemished clouds, long winding alleyways, golden rooftops, whitewashed walls, painted pil- lars and carved windows, oil lamps in the , crowded and noisy markets and simple people are now subjects of nostalgia. Lhasa situates astride , which courses through the southern part of the . 3650 m above sea level, the sunbaked city has over 3000 h of yearly sunshine, earning it the nickname of “Sunshine City”. It is the cultural and economic center of Tibet. In an area between three rivers, namely Yarlong Tsangpo River, Lhasa River and Nyang Qu River, this city concentrated the majority of the Tibetan population and historical heritage. Two largest Tibetan cities both in this area, namely Lhasa and , are home to the rich and colorful that came into being millenniums ago. Today, in China’s National Urban Development Plan, Lhasa is designated the center of the Lhasa-Tsetang City Group, as well as the center of Tibetan Mid-South Development Zone, a nation-level development zone. The city’s population, 0.5594 million per 2010 Tibetan census, accounts for about the 1/5 of the entire Tibetan population. Among them, 0.4 million lived on the 62.9 km2 center area of the city. Back in the tribal era prior to Tsenpo time, the city of Lhasa was referred to as Kyi Shöl O Tang, meaning that the “fertile riverbank land down Kyichu river”; Kyichu being the ancient name for Tibetan river, which literally means the place of the Kyi tribe. The urban history of Lhasa can be traced back to the 7th century during the reign of . Starting in early 7th century until today, with the exception of

1Shen and Liu (2006, p. 201).

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 1 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_1 2 1 Genesis a gap between 9th and 17th century, Lhasa retained the status as the economic and cultural center of Tibetan region. This history left behind a rich bequeath of cultural heritage. According to the survey undertaken by Lhasa Urban Cultural Artifact Department, a total of 934 sites were recognized as cultural heritage, including tombs of historical figures, buildings, grottos, stone inscriptions, pre-modern his- toric sites and other types of architectural pieces. Among them, one was classified as World-class Cultural Heritage Preservation site, eight were Nation-level ones, 49 were Tibetan Autonomous Region-level ones, 732 were city and county-level ones. Overall, Lhasa represents the highest concentration level in terms of the number of cultural heritage sites in the entire Autonomous Region. The Old City alone has over 30 monasteries, including Jokhang, Ramoche, 56 Vintage Courtyards, and 387 old residences. Due to the unique urban development characteristics and rich cul- tural heritage, in 1882, Lhasa was listed by the State Council as a National Historic Cultural City of the first batch. The Old City of Lhasa originally refers to the urban quarters that existed prior to Peace Liberation. After the Peaceful Liberation, the urban area expanded sub- stantially, leading to a new urban area, aka the New City. This historic Old City is somehow different from the area that locals commonly refer to as Old City today, which is an area within four roads, namely Lingkor East to the east, Dosengge Road to the west, Jiangsu Road to the southand Lingkor North to the north. In total, this area covers about 1.33 km2, accounting for 2% of the total developed urban Lhasa. This area is one of the most densely populated areas with a permanent population of about 80,000. Historically, Lhasa urban area prior to the Peace Liberation also includes Potala Palace, its surrounding area as well as area. The modern Old City can be more accurately named Barkor Historic-Cultural Urban Quarters. During much of the history, Barkor Historical-Cultural Urban Quarters was where most urban activities took place, the largest amount of residences and urban infrastructure existed; it is also the most developed and heavily built area where greatest amount of facilities existed that serve the local residents’ demand. Prior to 2009, in Lhasa government’s urban development plans, the Old City refers to the area centered on Jokhang and Barkor, aka Barkor Historic-Cultural Urban Quarters. According to the Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020), the Old City of Lhasa covers an area bordered by Lubding Southern Road to the west, Beijing Middle Road, Lingkor West Road, Lingkor North Road to the north, Jinzhu Road and Jiangsu Road to the south; the total area is 6.74 km2. This is an area where the largest numbers of historic buildings and population concentrated. Jokhang, together with Potala Palace and Norbulingka, formed the three gravity centers of the city Lhasa. Historically, Lhasa city mainly consisted Jokhang area (the area surrounding Jokhang, Barkor and Ramoche) and Potala area. A third part, Norbulingka area was much smaller and had a much lower construction density. Functionally, the

2Lhasa’s Achievement of Historic Relics Conservation over the Six Decades, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn, 2011.7.1. 1 Genesis 3

Fig. 1.1 Lhasa historic urban area. Source Lhasa Municipal People’s Government, Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020) buildings in Norbulingka area was mainly for offices and vacation residences of the Dalai Lamas, thus it was seen more as an affixation to the Potala Palace, and less significant than the other two urban areas, namely the Barkor Historic and Cultural Quarters and Potala area. It is not an independently functioning urban quarters by itself (Fig. 1.1). Barkor Historic-Cultural Urban Quarters are known for their richest historic and cultural heritage, large number of well-preserved alleyways, distinct ethnical characteristics. It has the highest population density and number of tourist attrac- tions. It represented the city’s highest level of historic urban development. In the figures below, inside the red solid lines is the areaunder preservation by the Lhasa Municipal Government where construction activities are restricted. In the sur- rounding blue area such restrictions don’t apply (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). Barkor Historic-Cultural urban quarters include Gyabumkhang, Barkor, Tromsikkhang and Kyire, Lhasa—four street-level residential communities (Fig. 1.4)3. In different times, Lhasa was referred to by different names. In the 7th century, when Songtsen Gampo, the founder of Tupo Tibet, established the capital in the city, the area was doted with swamps. In an effort to prepare the foundation forcity building, large numbers of goats were deployed to transport soil from surrounding areas. After the ground was consolidated, construction of Jokhang commenced. Actually, Lhasa’s original name, Rasa, meant City of Goats and Soil. In the 8th

3These four names were transliteration of Tibetan place names—in Tibetan language, Tromsikkhang stands for the streets where one can see tall buildings; Barkor Circuit means the Mid-ring circumambulation surrounding Jokhang Temple; Kyire means Baked Cow Hide; Gyabumkhang means place where Master Tsongkhapa’s statue is worshiped. 4 1 Genesis

Fig. 1.2 Barkor historical-cultural street area. Source 95. Lhasa Municipal People’s Government, Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020)

Fig. 1.3 Barkor historical-cultural area’s location within the city 1 Genesis 5

Fig. 1.4 Distribution of different neighourhood committees in the old city of Lhasa. Source China Academy of Urban Planning and Design, Conservation Plan for Lhasa Barkor Area, 2004 century AD, Kridê Zukzain, offspring of Songtsen Gampo, married Tang princess Jincheng. The Princess placed the statue of Shakyamuni, previously brought by , in the main building of Jokhang. Since then Jokhang had acquired a status as an important symbol and been worshiped by large numbers of pilgrims. This contributed to the city’s new name—Lhasa, meaning Land of the Buddha. Today, the Tibetan words meaning Lhasa can be seen on the Monument of Geqiong , built in 806 AD at the order of Kridê Zukzain. The inscription reads: During the reign of his Greatness Songtsen Gampo, Buddhism was intro- duced to this land, and Jokhang was built in Lhasa. Thus we conclude that by the early 9th century AD, the name Lhasa had already been in wide use. 6 1 Genesis

In history, two incidents affected Lhasa’s development—one was Songtsen Gampo establishing capital here in 633 AD and the subsequent city building, including the construction of Potala Palace, Jokhang and Ramoche—these con- structions marked the beginning of the city. The second is the 5th Dalai ’s establishing Ganden Phodrang Regime in 1642 AD. Afterwards, Lhasa regained its status as the capital city. This development ushered in centuries of sustained growth. During the time, Lhasa grew slowly but steadily, and stabilized in late 18th and 19th century. Among all historical figures that made significant contribution to the city, Songsten Gampo probably had the greatest impact for ushering in urbanization and being responsible for the city’s overall structure. During his reign, resident com- munities surrounding Jokhang as well as Barkor emerged, albeit smaller compared with today’s level. In early and mid-9th century, in the Reign, some monasteries were built on the fringes of the city. They gradually merged into the city proper as the city expanded. The third phase of expansion took place in late 17th century during the reign of the 5th . Between late 18th century and 19th century, during the reign of the 8th Dalai Lama, the city building stabilized, and assumed its scale, occupying an area within today’s Lingkor Circuit. Until Tibet’s Peaceful Liberation, the city’s size and population stayed level. Between its establishment and the Peaceful Liberation, Lhasa’s urban devel- opment can be divided into two periods. The 5th Dalai Lama establishing Ganden Phodrang regime being a divicive point, the period starting 633 AD, the year when Tupo Dynasty was established until 1642—the initial stage; the second was between 1642 and the Peaceful Liberation, during which, the city stabilized and finally assumed its current scale. Religion was a major driving force behind Lhasa’s development. One example is the Koras, or prayer circuits. In history, there were three such circumambulation roads forming parallel rings surrounding Jokhang, the center of the city. The innermost is called Nang Kora aka Nangkor, while the outermost ring is Lin Kora, aka Lingkor.4 The one in the middle is Barkor Kora or Barkor. Within Lingkor is the city’s main urban area; inside there are Jokhang, Bamari, , Marpori, and Ramoche. Historically, Lingkor marked the border of the Old City. During the reign of Side Songsten, three Bouddhanaths were built between Marpori and Chagpori—and they became the symbol of entering Lhasa. The Old City is where the city of Lhasa originated; it is a recording of thousands years worth of urban history and cultural evolution. Aside from its historic and cultural value, today, the area maintains its social and economic relevance. Today, in the context of urban planning, the Old City is more frequently referred to Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters.

4The lenghth of Linkor and the count of Prayer Circuits vary in different stages of history; right now, there are different views regarding the borders of Lingkor, the boundary used here is not the largest. 1 Genesis 7

Among China’s six hundred cities, about a hundred were listed as National Historically and Culturally Famous Cities. Even compared with the other listed cities, Lhasa’s Old City’s claim is not inferior to any: It has some of the best-preserved alleyways and the city’s original layout is largely intact. Many vintage buildings are in good condition. Despite urbanization, the original appearance is well kept. The traditional life style is robust, despite the encroach- ment of contemporary culture. The Old City, in particular, has many tourist attractions, which made it economic significant, given that is the mainstay of the city’s income. In terms of urban functions, the Old City and the New City played different roles in relation to heritage preservation, tourism, local residents’ life and economic activities.

1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa

The first stage of Lhasa City Building spanned about one millennium, beginning with the construction of the Old City in the year of 633 AD, when Songtsen Gampo established his capital in this area and concluded in 1642 AD when the 5th Dalai Lama established Ganden Phodrang Regime. During this period, the reign of Songtsen Gampo was the most significant to Lhasa’s city building for having laid its foundation. The administrational, political and legal institutions matured, all vital toLhasa’s later development; without them, the city wouldn’t have been the Lhasa as we know it today. Some of the city’s most historically significant buildings are built during this period.

1.1.1 Pre-urban Lhasa and Nearby Regions

Archaeologist evidence suggests cultural ties between Tibetan civilization and region civilization as well as the northern nomads already existed in ancient times. Chugong Heritage Site in Niangre Township, north of Lhasa indi- cates that the area was inhabited as early as 2000 BC. The early residents of the area had acquired skills of producing pottery, rock tools and polished jade; there are also signs of early , husbandry, and domestication of wild animals. The pre-unification era Tibetan experienced the 44 Kingdom Period and then 12 Kingdom Period. During the later, circa the 4th Century BC, three large tribal alliances were formed, namely, the Yarlung in the mountainous region in the south, Zhang Zhung in the Ngari region and Supi in the northern bank of the River. Among these regimes, Yarlung emerged the strongest due to pro- tracted conflict weakened its two rivals, the Drigum Tsenpo and Pudé Gunggyel. As agriculture, metallurgy and irrigation technology improved, the society advanced. In the 6th Century AD, Lhasa river basin area was dominated by two rivaling tribes, namely Dajiawo tribe and Chibangsong tribe, both originally members of the 8 1 Genesis larger Subi tribe. Among the three, Da Jiawo controlled the area in today’sZhigeng, Meldro Gongkar by Lhasa River; while Chibangsong was mainly active in the Phenpo region in the northern surburb of Lhasa. At that time, Lhasa was the grazing ground of Supi tribe. As Chibangsong’sinfluence grew, it gradually gained control of the area. During the second half of the century, Yarlung made rapid progress. During the reign of Tagbu Ngasig, grandfather of the famous Songsten Gampo, a new level of sophistication was reached with mass adoption of modern measuring tools and increase of commercial activities. At the behest of Tagbu Ngasig, the regime engaged in territorial expansion, leading to occupation of the other side of Yarlung Tsangpo River.5 After Tagbu Ngasig died, his successor, Namri Tsongtsen, who was Songsten Gampo’s father, attained support from other tribes, mainly Niang, Wei and Neng, Yarlung captured the stronghold of the Subi tribe led by Chibangsong. The victory strengthened Yarlung’s grip on Lhasa and contributed to the unification of Yarlung Tsangpo River basin area. After Namri Tsongtsen gained control of the area including today’s Lhasa, a few strongholds emerged in Gyama valley of the Meldro Gongkar. In 617 AD, Songsten Gampo was born in Jampa Migyur Ling, one of the strongholds in Gyama. In 639, Songtsen Gampo took power and became the tribal leader. After having lived in Gyama for seventeen years, in 633 AD, he ordered the tribe to migrate to Lhasa where the Tupo dynasty was to be established.

1.1.2 Lhasa During Tupo Dynasty

After Songtsen Gampo established capital in Lhasa, he promulgated laws pertaining to different aspects of social life. At his behest, Siru and Qianhusuo—a two-level administration system, was established across the territory. Scholars were sent to the Western Region and to study their culture and languages, based on which, the was invented. Some aristocrats sent their children to Chang’an, the capital city of Tang China to study the Tang institutions and culture at , the Royal Academy. In 649 AD, Gaozeng Emperor of Tang China granted Songtsen Gampo two aristocrat titles—Fuma Duwei—the Royal Son-in-Law and Xihai Junwang—the Prince of Western Sea. By marrying Princess Bhrikuti Devi and Princess Wencheng, Songtsen Gampo facilitated the spread of Buddhism from and China to Tibet. This also greatly influenced the city building. During the reign of Songtsen Gampo, some significant buildings came into being, among them, Potala Palace, Jokhang, Ramoche, Bara Lubuk, all these the finest pieces of the Tibetan architecture. In the early days of the city, at Songtsen Gampo’s behest, a dam was built across Lhasa River; ponds and swamps were filled up to form a solid ground to facilitate

5Chen and Gao (ed.) (2003). 1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa 9 building activities. At that time, the Lhasa River changed course frequently, posing a serious threat to the city. During the rain season, the city was often flooded while the suburbs would turn swampy. To tame the Lhasa River, Songtsen Gampo adopted a strategy summarized as “dig in the south and fill in the north.” This effort resulted in a dam on the northern bank of the river and deepened riverbed; a channel was dug between O Tang Lake and the Lhasa River; the lake was drained and filled up. All these achieved positive results—on top of former swamps, the city emerged.6 The first major building to be produced in this period was Potala Palace, or more precisely, the Red Palace. In 635 AD, to celebrate his marriage with Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi, Songtsen Gampo ordered a new palace on top of Marpori hill. A contemporary account described the grandeur of the building: “…the walls were as tall as 36 ban. Each side was two li long. Each of the four gates was lit by lamps hanging from the tall ramparts. The houses were covered with tassels; roofs had flying eaves. The buildings are decorated with precious stones, metal rings and silver coins… It contained 999 interconnected rooms; on the rooftop, a thousands spires piercing into the sky. It is a construction of impressive dimensions. After the main structures were completed, a silvery bridge was built connecting the king’s quarters and the queen’s… a heavily decorated sky window…” After the wedding of Songtsen Gampo and Princess Wencheng, the complex was further expanded. To celebrate his marriage with Princess Bhrikuti Devi, Songtsen Gampo ordered the Jokhang Temple to be built. Princess Bhrikuti Devi was the daughter of Nepalese ruler Amshuvarma. In 635 AD, the Nepalese princess arrived in Lhasa. Her dowry included a statue of eight-year-old Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism. In addition, there were treasures including Mile , a san- dalwood statue of Buhhda, Buddhist scriptures, statues as well as a team of handmaids and artisans. In 641 AD, Songtsen Gampo married Tang Princess Wencheng. The princess, too, brought along a rich dowry, including a library covering a wide range of topics, Buddhist theology, craft books on various projects, literature and calendar making technology. She also carried seeds of various veg- etables and herbal medicines. Her entourage included artisans, medical doctors, Buddhist priests and other professionals. She also carried a statue of the 12-year-old Sakyamuni, which is one of the most important historic artifacts in Tibet and can still be seen today. The marriage between Princess Wencheng and Songtsen Gampo is highly sig- nificant for it cemented the relationship between Han Chinese dynasties and Tibet. After Princess Wencheng arrived, building of Jokhang was ordered in her honor. It is said that the location was picked by the Princess herself. In addition, she is also said to have been involved in the design and construction of another significant monastery—Ramoche. This monastery borrowed many of its design cues from Tang Chinese architecture. Jokhang and Ramoche were completed around the same time. Impressed by level of sophistication of Jokhang, Songtsen Gampo named it

6Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007). 10 1 Genesis

Trül Nang—the Dream Building. Large numbers of goats were deployed for soil transportation in the project to fill up the swamps. This earned the place its other name—Rasa Trül Nang Palace. After the construction was completed, the cele- bration lasted for months.7 Similarly for Songtsen Gampo’s Tibetan wives, the ruler ordered some other projects: Tunbugu Palace for Consort Zhang Zhung, Bara Lubuk Cave for Consort Ruyong, and Zhadifo Palace for Consort Mangsa to the east of the city. Among them, Bara Lubuk Cave to the south of Potala Palace can still be seen today. Inside, the statues were mostly carved out of the natural rock facades. While Jokhang was under construction, Songtsen Gampo and his court resided on the bank of O Tang Lake. The king’spalace contained four separated parts strategically located on four diagonal points surrounding the lake—they were some of the earliest known urban buildings in Lhasa. Following Jokhang’s completion, pilgrims traveled to the monastery to worship, leading to a great number of makeshift buildings in surrounding areas. This gradually evolved into a neigh- borhood community.8 Praying circuits were built surrounding Jokhang. Shortly afterwards, Ramoche, said to have been designed by Princess Wencheng herself, was completed too. Between the two palaces, a market formed, where people engaged in trading of silk and pelts. Jokhang had thereafter been the urban center. After Songtsen Gampo’s death until the end of Tupo Dynasty, the city’s overall structure remained largely unaffected by later-day building activities. Starting the reign of Trisong Detsen, Tibet forged and maintained good relationship with its eastern neighbor, the Tang China. This is attested by a monument in front of Jokhang, with inscription recounting that the relationship between the two regimes and the effort of the Tibetan ruler to facilitate Buddhism’s spread in Tibet. The city expanded substantially with new buildings such as Garu and Muru having built to the east of the city, Gawa, Gawawei to the south, and Tsen Khang and Tsen Khang Temple to the north expanded the boundary of the city. Until the end of Tupo Dynasty in mid-9th century, the city was the political and cultural center of Tibet.

1.1.3 Lhasa During the Sakya and Phagmodru Periods

The Tupo dynasty ended in 842 AD. Wars ravaged Tibet for the subsequent four centuries (842 AD–1269 AD) until unification was attained by the Sakya regime. By the time, the political center had shifted to Sakya region (1269 AD–1354 AD). After the Sakya Dynasty, Phagmodru Dynasty gained control of the region and the center had shifted to Nêdong (1354 AD–1618 AD) and later, during the Dynasty (1618 AD–1642 AD), to Shigatse. During these centuries, Lhasa lost its

7Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (1981). 8Pasang (2009). 1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa 11 status as the politcal center with building activities stagnated, while its religious significance remained unchallenged. In the later stage of Tupo period, civil war erupted, devastating Lhasa. The city was divided up into four rivaling tribes, namely Lumei, Ba, Re and Zheng. The conflict took a heavy toll on the city. Parts of Jokhang and Ramoche were destroyed by fire. Later, GunboTshülthrim Nyingbo, a disciple of Thakbo Lhache, led the rebuilding of the two monasteries. Thakbo Lhache handed in the management of these two temples in Lhasa to Gung Tang Zhang. In 1175, Tselpa Zhang Lodro DrakpaTsel PaTsüntrü ordered Licai Monastery to be built to the east of the city, where the Tsel PaKagyu School supposedly originated. This school later grew to be the dominant school of Buddhism in Lhasa. The Sakya Dynasty coincided roughly with in China. In 1239, Ögedei Khan, the second emperor of Yuan Dynasty launched an invasion, leading to the unification and annexation of Tibet. In 1247, Sakya Pendri ta Künga Gyentsen, Tibetan cleric, was put in charge of negotiating peace with Mongolian prince Godan in Liangzhou. As a result of the meeting, Tibet was formally annexed into Yuan; the maintained a military presence in Tibet and forced its way into the administration. A contemporary census ascertained Tibetan population to be around 130,000 households. In the wake of the annexation, postal service, taxation, and religious and political institutions further matured. In 1264, Xuanzhengyuan system was implemented. Lhasa was directly administrated by the governor of Tsel Pa Myriarchy, one of the 13 such units in the region. Sakya regime ended in 1354. The subsequent Phagmodru period roughly coincided roughly with Ming Dynasty in China. This period saw a new regime emerging in Nêdong area, the center of the Lhokha region, founded by Changchub Gyaltsen. As a result, this area gradually ascended to be the center of Tibet. During Changchub Gyaltsen’s reign, the ruler maintained a good relationship with Ming China. A major institutional change introduced by Changchub Gyaltsen was dividing the Tibet region up into myriarchies or Trikor Chuksum, each such unit having a head official appointed by the ruler himself. Meanwhile, the Yuan Dynasty institutions mainly three Xuanwei Shisi Dushuai Fu were replaced by Wusi Zang Dusi, E’lisi Junmin Yuanshuai Fu. At a local level, Si, Wei and Suo, three level administration units were established, with Suo being the smallest of the three and Si being the largest. In Hezhou, Wu Si Zang Xingdufu and Dzong system were established—Dzong Bon is the name of the head official responsible for adminis- tering a Trikor Chuksum-level unit. Lhasa, for example, was part of Nai Wu Chuksum.

1.1.3.1 The Central Government’s Administration of Tibet During the Sakya Dynasty

Prior to Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols had already established strong ties with Tibet. In 1206, Mongolian prince Godan launched an invasion against Tibet. A 30,000 strong Mongolian force, commanded by Duoda Nabo, invaded into Tibet and laid 12 1 Genesis siege on Lhasa. In the ensuing pillage following the city’s fall, Potala Palace was seriously damaged while and Kurjey Lhakhang were reduced to rubble. In 1240, Mongolian general Duoda, at the behest of Godan, launched another invasion. The advance party reached as far as Reting Monastery on Lhasa’s surburbs. Facing another Mongolian onslaught, in 1246, Sakya Pandrita, the Sakya cleric, sued for peace and met with Godan in Liangzhou. During his trip, the Tibetan cleric developed a large followings among local populations of different origins: Mongols, , Uighur, HanChinese. This greatly strengthened the ties and mutual understanding between Tibet and the Mongolian regime. Afterwards, the Tibetan religious leader appealed to the Tibetan lords and con- vinced them to succumb to the Mongolian ruler. Tibet was subsequently unified under Sakya Regime. It is not completely coincidental that Tibet’s annexation occurred during Sakya period. As early as in Tupo period, the Tibetan ruling class already built close ties with both Tang China and Nepal. The communication with its eastern neighbor left deep marks on the Tibetan society, deepening the sinofication of the Tibetan cul- ture. During this period, documented diplomatic visits initiated by either side numbers a few hundreds. When Tang China was too involved handling its An-Shi Riot, Tupo exploited the situation and invaded the neighbor. The invasion led to its occupation of most today’s province, a large chunk of province, the western Shaanxi Province, the western Province as well as the north- western province. This development further contributed to the cultural as similation. After the collapse of Tupo, some regimes on the fringe of Tibet established diplomatic relationship with Song China, which succeeded the previous Tang. Tea and horse trade between Tibet and Song contributed to the strengthening of the ties and facilitated Tibet’s absorption of the Chinese civilization. After the revival and popularization of after mid-10th century, the influ- ence of Tibetan culture grew in China, which also contributed to its annexation into China.9 Godan and both died in 1251. In its wake, Möngke, Goden’s successor, ordered a census in Tibet to be used as the basis to form his adminis- tration system—under the new model, the Yuan emperor was the direct owner of Zhigeng region of Front Tibet and Zangguome region of Back Tibet—later changed its name to Qumi Myriarchy. Möngke’s successor Kublai received Front Tibet’s Tsel Pa region (including Lhasa and Lhokha region) as his private estate, Hulagu Khan received Front Tibet’s Phagmodru region, Yasang. Meanwhile, Tangpuchi, Alibuge shared DalongbaregioninÜ -Tsang. Godan’s decedents received Sakya region. Thus the land was redistributed among the Mongolian princes. Prominent Buddhist clerics in these regions received Mongolian titles from Mongolian princes. In one case that illustrates the popularity of the Tibetan culture among Mongolian ruling class, the emperor Kublai gave his son a —Dorji.10 Tibetan

9Shi (2007). 10Chen and Gao (ed.) (2003, p. 183), Fifth Dalai Lama (2000, p. 71). 1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa 13 chieftains also received Mongolian administrative positions and aristocrat titles, such as governors of the 13 Tibetan myriarchies including Zhigeng, Phagmodru, and Tsel Pa. In 1252, during his campaign to conquer Dali regime in Yunnan, Kublai Khan sent a message from Liupanshan Mountain, Guizhou, to Tibet, requesting an audience with the Tibetan religious leader Phagpa in Liangzhou. In response, in 1253, Phagpa left Lianzhou with his brother. He would meet the Emperor in his palace in the Upper Capital of Yuan dynasty. During their conversation, the Tibetan answered the emperor’s questions and taught Sakya School meditation methods to 25 Mongolian princes as well as the emperor himself. After Kublai Khan took power, governance of Tibet became increasingly for- malized: In 1260, Tibet was incorporated into the Yuan territory. In exchange for facilitating the annexation, the Tibetan Sakya School received official endorsement from Yuan central government. From 1269 onward, 27 postal stations were established across Tibet, especially in areas surrounding Sakya; two censuses were conducted in 1260 and 1268 respectively. These became the basis of the 13 Myriarchies. A third census was conducted in 1287. Also around this time, the postal system was fully restored. In 1264, the central government established the General Management Yuan system to manage the ordained Buddhist population both in China and Tibet. Phagpa was appointed the head of the entire Yuan Empire with power extended to three regions of Tibet, though he would still need to consult both the Emperor and his Guru when it came to major decisions. In 1288, central government changed the name of Zongzhi Yuan to Xuanzheng Yuan; Phagpa remained the top leader of this government body. Xuazheng Yuan would oversee three Marshal’sOffices aka Yuanshuai Fu, among them Lhasa was placed under Wusizang Nalisu Gulusun Dengsanlu Xuweishisi Marshal’sOffice. Although Lhasa temporarily lost its political center status during the Sakya period, its significance remained unaffected. Among 13 myriarchies, Tsel Pa was the one that Lhasa and Lhokha region were placed under; it was also the largest among the six Southern Myriarchies and the second largest in the entire Tibet, consisting 3702 Huoerdui, the lowest administration unit in terms of size, popu- lation of the local population and domesticated animals. The government also made it mandatory that the subjects of Tsel PaMyriarchy will provide supply to Guansa Postal Station. Due to that Tsel PaMyriarchy was the private estate of Emperor Kublai, it was put under direct administration of the central government.

1.1.3.2 Building of Lhasa During the Sakya Dyanasty

The Sakya period saw some old buildings restored and new ones added. Some individuals, among them Tsüntrü, a head official of Tsel PaMyriarchy and founder of the School Buddhism, along with his disciples, played a significant role in Lhasa’s city-building. Among them, GadeGonpo, Tsüntrü’s disciple, traveled seven times to China to meet with the Chinese emperor. When he returned, he brought home some Han Chinese artisans. These Chinese artisans made a major 14 1 Genesis contribution to the repair of Jokhang, Ramoche and other significant buildings. In terms of new buildings, Chokor Temple was built; Perkhang (printing house), a publishing house using the Chinese printing technology11 was established. The 5th Dalai Lama thought highly of Gede Myriarchy governor, especially for his effort he put into the repair the yard of the monastery, installation of golden spires and golden vases (note: building decorations), and the production of some excellently crafted Buddha statues.12 GadeGonpoMolam Dorje modified and expanded Barkor Circuit, and built Drakra Lubuk Monastery, which featured a Han-style roof structure. He also led a project to reinforce Lhasa River Dam, which further mit- igated the flooding threat. In 1310, King of Ngari donated a large sum of gold and copper to plate the rooftops of Jokhang and Guanyinding.13 Molam Dorje’s elder son Kunga Dorje was only 15 when he was appointed the head of Tsel Pa Myriarchy. At 17, he visited Taiding Emperor of Yuan China. He received gifts including silver ingots, a seal, some gold pieces and silk materials as well as an appointment of being the head of Tsel Pa Myriarchy. Kunga Dorje would pass down in history for his erudite. During his 28 year-tenure, he oversaw the maintenance and repairs of Jokhang and Potala Palace; he also proofread and edited the Natang edition of Kagyur, resultant in the publishing of the 260-volume Tselpa Kagyur. Later, due to that Kunga Dorje fell at odds with Dasitu Jangchup Gyentsen, he picked his brother Drakpa Shirap as his successor, and retired to devote himself to Buddhism. Books that he wrote include dep der kar po, dep der mar po, dep der, and The Life of Molam Dorje. In recognition to his life’s achievement, he was granted the title omniscient Dasitu, the highest honor for men of great scholarship.

1.1.3.3 Central Government’s Management of Tibet During the Phagmodru Dynasty

The Ming government reformed Yuan dynasty’s administrative institutions char- acterized by separation of religious and secular powers. At the central government level, the Marshal’sOffices of the Yuan dynasty were replaced by Wusi Zang Dusi and E’lisi Military and Civilian Marshal’sOffice in Ming dynasty. The later two would oversee Lhasa, Shigatse, Lhokha, Ngari and Lhadak. At a lower level, three kinds of administration units, namely Duzhihui Shisi, Wei, Suo, were established. In Shigatse and Ü-Tsang War, five Xingdu Zhihui Shisi units were established, namely Duogan, Wusizang, An’buluo, Niuerzongzhai and Lingsiben. Underneath, there were another two levels of gov- ernments, namely Weis and Suos.

11Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan , Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 572). 12Fifth Dalai Lama (2000, p. 73.) 13Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 698), Tsering (1988). 1.1 Initial Construction of the Old City of Lhasa 15

At the local level, Ming government implemented the so-called Dzongpon System. Under the system, the entire Tibet was divided into 13 myriarchies. Among them, Naiwu was in the region surrounding Lhasa.14 In terms of secular officials, the hierarchical system from top-ranking Dusi to lowest-ranking Gyade was implemented; for the ordained priests, a parallel system from to Lama was established. In terms of religious policies, the Ming Dynasty abandoned Yuan’s policy of placing Sakya superior over other religions and adopted a more pluralist system characterized by a hands-off approach over local religious matters. In the Ming dynasty, three major coexisted, with their respective leaders having received titles of the same rank: Gyalwa , Dacheng Fawang and Dazi Fangwang, superior over the ranks of Zanshan Wang, Hujiao Wang, Fujiao Wang, Chanjiao Wang and Chanhua Wang, who had their own fiefs. They were local leaders that command both religious and secular authority. Among them, Chanjiao Wang was in charge of Lhasa.15

1.1.3.4 Lhasa Urban Construction During Phagmodru Dynasty

During Phagmodru period, some major projects were undertaken. The more remarkable ones include repair of Jokhang, building of three new monasteries, namely Ganden, Drepung and Sera, which were among the most significant reli- gious institutions in Tibet. In addition, multiple bridges and fords were built along Lhasa River. As a result of the growing popularity of Monlam Chenmo, an annual religious event held at Jokhang, buildings emerged in surrounding areas—this was a major development in Lhasa’s urban history. During the first five reigns of Phagmodru, Lhasa regained its status as the religious center. This is especially true when it was governed by the third ruler Drakpa Changchup. During his reign, a major repair of Jokhang was completed.16 In January, 1409, with the support of the head of Liuwu Myriarchy and Drakpa Gyaltsen, the 5th ruler of Phagmodru, hosted the first Monlam Chenmo, an event to celebrate the founding of Gelugpa. Afterwards, Monlam Chenmo evolved in to a regular event. The popularity of this religious event contributed to the growing influence of Gelugpa Buddhism. The increasing num- bers of pilgrims came to Lhasa, in particular, Jokhang, for Monlam Chenmo reinforced Lhasa’s reputation as a Holy City. The three Prayer Circuits surrounding Jokhang and the businesses mostly emerged during this period of time.17

14Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 29). 15Chonglan (1994, pp. 125–126). 16Chonglan (1994, pp. 141–146). 17Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007, p. 709). 16 1 Genesis

After Desi Tsangpa dynasty was established, kyi sho de pa, a generous donor who endorsed the Gelugpa School seized control of the valley region between chu shol and mel dro gong kar (sometimes Meldro Gungkar). In the subsequent two decades, kyi sho de pa built bridges, forts, monasteries and reinforced the dams and irrigation system, to the benefit of the status of Lhasa.18

1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa

In 1642, with the support of Güshi Khan, the 5th Dalai Lama established Ganden Phodrang regime in Lhasa. In its wake, Lhasa gradually arrived at the zenith of its political, cultural and economic development. Starting the 5th Dalai Lama until the end of the 8th, for about a century, Lhasa enjoyed peace and sustained growth. The century also saw central government’s Tibetan policy maturing—a shift from rule-by-local powers to one of direct administration; a system characterized by separation of political and religious powers gave way to a new power sharing system involving Tibetan , Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas. Also during this period, we saw the implementation of and Regency System. Another round of city-building saw some new monasteries, residences, shops and gardens having been added to the city, leading to the expansion of the size of Lhasa’s urban area. Some of the most remarkable projects include the expansion of Potala Palace, which took place in the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, the building of Dzonggyap Lukhang Garden and Norbulingka Garden started in the reign of the . These projects, along with new residences, monasteries and shops marked the height of the city’s urban develop- ment in this period of time. In centuries to follow, Lhasa maintained its status as the Tibetan political, cul- tural and economic center. As the city saw more inbound migration, its urban population constantly grew. While the area around Jokhang and Barkor continued to function as the urban center, two axles emerged, namely the Jokhang-Ramoche line, and the Jokhang-Potala Palace line-it was in these two areas the vast majority of population concentrated.

1.2.1 Urban Construction Between 17th Century and 19th Century

In the early 15th century, local leader of Naiwu Myriarchy gifted Duokang Enmo, a garden inside , to Gendun Gyatso, the abbot of both Drepung and who later became the 2nd Dalai Lama. Gendun’s successors,

18Tsering (1988). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 17 until the 5th in the line, continued to live in this garden as their primary residences. In 1642, after the 5th Dalai Lama established Ganden Phodrang Regime, he moved from Drepung Monastery to the Lhasa city proper. In its wake, Lhasa saw a period of relative stability and development, and its size expanded substantially. In 1645, the 5th Dalai Lama appointed Depa Sonamrapten to be in charge of rebuilding Potala Palace. The construction took some eight years. Upon comple- tion, the Dalai Lama moved in and made the palace his primary residence. After he passed away in 1682, his successor Sangye Gyatso ordered the rebuilding of Red Palace and monuments in honor of his predecessor. When these projects were completed in 1693, a blank monument was erected to commemorate the event. During the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, Monlam Chenmo became an established tradition. As Lhasa’s holy city status became more recognized by Buddhists of both Mongolian and Tibetan origin, the city was aswarm with pilgrims, who contributed greatly to the city’s prosperity. Many shops and markets opened to cater to the new population; in some areas, market would open until late nights.19 New buildings emerged on the fringes of the Old City and expanded its boundary westwards to yu tok zam pa, eastward to the Mosque, southwards to Risong Gongbu and northwards to Moru Nyingpa. The earliest urban administration government agency was set up around this time. It is also during this period that the Lhasa City assumed its modern shape.20 During the reign of the 6th and 7th Dalai Lamas, some new gardens were built. Among them, Dzonggyap Lukhang (originally meaning Dragon’s Lake and renamed Liberation Park) and Norbulingka (today renamed People’s Park) are two examples. Dzonggyap Lukhang is situated in an area surrounding a pond formed from soil excavation for the building of Potala Palace. The garden, built on the slope of Marpo Ri, features both hills and lake sceneries; Norbulingka, situated some two kilometers west of Potala Palace, was built in the mid-18th century. As more pavilions and buildings were built and added to it, the garden earned its reputation as the most scenic garden in Lhasa. From the 7th Dalai Lama onwards, all Dalai Lamas spent springs and summers in Norbulingka. This earned the place another name—The . In 1727, Qing government established Tibet Amban Yamen, the top governing body overseeing local matters. Since then until 1911, over one hundred Ambans were sent to Tibet as representatives of the Qing Chinese government. The Amban Yamen was originally located in Tromsikkhang, to the northeast of Jokhang. In 1733, the 11th year of Qing emperor Yongzheng’s Reign, the Yamen was relocated to Tzashen between Sera and Jokhang, about 3.5 km off the City Wall. In 1750, the 15th year of Qianlong’s Reign, the Yamen was further relocated to the north of Jokhang and southwest of Ramoche, a site originally home of Gushri Khan and Polhanai. In 1863, the 2nd year of Tongzhi Reign, the Samdrup Khangsar Courtyard was exchanged for Metok Kyetsel, Garden of Doring family and the

19Zhou (2006). 20Tsering (1988). 18 1 Genesis

Yamen was subsequently relocated to Metok Kyetsel Garden. After the Yamen was reestablished, a stone lion was placed on each side of the gate, earning the Yamena new name Dosengge Road, or Stone Lion Road21—today the name is still in use. In 1751, after the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion, the Qing government established Kashag in Lhasa, headed by the 7th Dalai Lama. As part of the new government, Nangtseshag Lekhung and Zhol Lekhung, two government agencies, were set up to be responsible for the administration of Jokhang and suburban area east of Potala Palace and Yuthog Zampa.22 After the 7th Dalai Lama died in 1757, at the behest of Emperor Qianlong, a regency system was implemented. Under the system, after the demise of a Dalai Lama and before his successor came of age, a Trulku would assume regency and exercise the power of a Dalai Lama. In history, Demo Trulku, Tsomon ling Trulku, Radrin Trulku, Kundeling Trulku were some of such regents. The Regents often owned their private monasteries; among them, the four Lings, namely Tsomon ling, Kunde ling, Zhide ling, Tengyel ling, were the most famous. Aside from the Four Lins, other important Qing dynasty religious buildings include Riksum Gonpo Monastery, Upper and Lower -Colleges, Large and Small Mosques, and Gesar Temple. The large monasteries were also large landowners who profited from land rent.23 Some government officials and local chieftains built their own residences in Barkor area. Religious activities and pop- ulation density contributed to economic prosperity of the area, which in turn attracted more merchants seeking opportunities. The businessmen were mostly from inland China, India and . Many new businesses concentrated in Telpunggang Market, Otozhingka Market in the eastern part of the town and Gyabumkhang Market and Tromsikkhang Market in the northern part as well as Shasargang Market and Sabokgang Market in the western part24—all having contributed to the urban development of the city. With its political and cultural center status further strengthened, the urban population experienced further growth. From mid-18th century to early 19th cen- tury, Lhasa population was somewhere between 35,000 and 40,000.25 According to Xi Zangzhi—or Tibet Chronology published in Qing dynasty, lay population as of 1737, the second year of the Qianlong reign (1737) numbered 23,488; ordained

21Feng (2006). • Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007, pp. 430–431). • Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 1129). 22Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 3). 23Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010), p. 352. 24Chodron (2010). 25Chonglan (1994). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 19 population of the same year numbered 36,688.26 In 1811, the 16th year of Jiaqing Emperor’s reign, the revised version of Da Qing Zhi aka Great Qing Chronology, updated the number of lay population to 22,500 and ordained one 35,172.27 By all measures, Lhasa of Qing dynasty was the most populous, largest and most sophisticated city in the entire Tibet. By early 19th century, the Old City had grown to occupy an area centered in Jokhang, bordering Mosque to the east, Temple of Three Southern Protectors to the south, Yuthog Zampa to the west, and Ramoche28 to the north. In terms of struc- ture, Lhasa is characterized by the concentric circles. At the innermost, there was Jokhang and Barkor; the outermost bordered Barkor’s Chaktselkhang to the east (today’s Telpunggang Community Committee) and Masuo Duobeng to the south (Today’s Lhasa Number Eight Middle School), kundeling to the west and Dzonggyap Lukhang to the north. Between the two, there was Tokor, a Kora circuit surrounding an area, where Jokhang, Ramoche, Chakpori, Bamari, Potala Palace located. In addition, there were other high populous areas such as Tzashen, which later was incorporated into the city proper as a result of urban expansion. Évariste Régis Huc, French missionary, who visited Lhasa in 1846, left with a deep impression about the city’s prosperity. In his book A Journey Through the Chinese Empire, 1844–1846, Huc wrote: “people are from different regions. Everyone is shouting, arguing. Everywhere you turn, you bump into someone. People are literally cheeks by jowls. Everyone tries to sell you something. Prospect of money-making is as potent as religious zeal in bringing people to the city. People of different ethnicities intermingled. The streets were overflown with pilgrims and businessmen, who represent large variety of appearances, dresses and languages. For such a large crowd, the majority are migrants. Among the permanent residents, there are Tibetans, northern nomadics, Kashimirans and Han Chinese.29” Huc was not the first Westerner that visited Lhasa. Starting 17th century, the city began to see a stream of visitors from the West as global colonization continued to gain momentum. As a result, in late 20th century, Tibet became significantly more exposed to the Western influences. From 1903 to 1904, at the behest of George Curzon, the Great Britain’s Viceroy of India, Lieutenant Colonel Sir Francis Young husband, the special emissary, and John Claude White, Political Officer of , led an armed expedition into Tibet. They traveled by way of Sikkim, Yadong, Pagri, Gyantse, committing atrocities such as Gyantse massacre. When they finally arrived in Lhasa in August 1904, the expeditionary force staged a military paradeto intimidate locals. The King’s Royal Rifle Corps and Gorkha Music Band—300 in total, armed head to toe, marched down the main lane of Lhasa. According to an account by a son of Shédra, Kalön Tripa: the locals, in anger, clamored, sang , pled for rain and protested when the British officials arrived in Jokhang

26Chonglan (1994, p. 149). 27Chonglan (1994, p. 151). 28Yin (2009). 29Évariste Régis Huc (2006). 20 1 Genesis and other holy places. During the occupation that lasted several weeks, Francis Younghusband lived in the house owned by the Lhalu Family, which was at that time owned by the nephew of the . The British renamed Barkor and Potala Palace as Piccadilly Ring and Winshaw Castle,30 and left the city until they had obtained a treaty that granted them some privileges. Among other things, the Treaty dictates that Gyangze, Gadak (Today’s Gar, capital of the ), Dromo would be opened as commerce portals. Half a million pounds were to be paid as reparations. When the news reached Qing Emperor Guangxu, the outraged emperor ordered the Tibet Amban Youtai to not sign the treaty. Throughout the modern history, Lhasa had been an area for the international forces who dueled for supremacy. Yet underneath the overt serenity, unrest was brewing.

1.2.2 From Early 20th Century to Early Post-peaceful Liberation Period

Until early 20th century, the vast majority of the Lhasa population remained con- centrated in the area internal Lingkor. This includes most aristocrat residences with the exception of Langdol Mansion, the residence of the 13th Dalai Lama’s family.31 Meanwhile, the political reform continued to be a driving force propelling the city’s modernization, including improvement of urban functionality, structural change. New enterprises founded on modern capitalist principles also emerged, most of them outside the Old City. In early Republic days, the Lhasa population stayed around 6500 households with around 3000 being Tibetan. Around 1/3 of the households were employed by the government, 1/3 were ordained Buddhist priests; the rest mostly engaged in agriculture and commerce. In addition, there were about 700 Chinese, 1200 Nepalese, 800 Kashimirans, Afghanistans and Turks households. Immigrants from Bhutan and Sikkim accounted for another 100.32 Overall, lay local population accounted for a little more than half of the total, which reflected the city’s status as a regional center for both commerce and religion. Lhasa took the lead in Tibet’s modernization. In late 19th century, the Great Britain opened a route to enter Tibet by way of Dromo. As a result, Tibet became increasingly exposed to the British colonial influence. Using India as a jumping board, the British made attempts to infiltrate into Tibet. Eventually the Tibetans, succumbing to military superiority and economical pressure, granted the terms demanded by the Britain. In the reign of 13th Dalai Lama, Tibetan government’s

30(British) French (2000, pp. 277–278). 31Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, p. 353). 32Zhu (1934). Excerpted from Zhang (2011). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 21 self-initiated modernization effort saw an uptick. This coincided with Qing China’s own Modernization Reform; both being similarly in that they were response to the Western colonization threat. In the first half of the 20th century, different forces, including the Tibetan Ambans of Qing China, Tibet governors of Republican China, and the 13th Dalai Lama all engaged in study of the West and carried out their own modernization initiatives and left their marks on the Lhasa city.

1.2.2.1 Social Reform Initiated by Tibet Ambans Prior to Xinhai Revolution

In 1906, Qing minister Zhang Yintang was appointed Amban. In 1907, Zhang proposed Qing government with several policies, summarized into Eleven Suggestions on Better Governing Tibet and 24 Suggestions on Rehabilitation. These proposals covered a wide range of areas—from military modernization to building modern weaponry manufacturing facilities to building new roads con- necting Kangding, Lhasa, Gyangze, and Dromo to establishing phone communi- cation lines between Lhasa and Batang, etc. By these policies, Zhang expected to be able to build asocial environment conducive to introducing modern culture and reshape the entire Tibetan economy. When it comes to government institutions, Zhang’s reform involved setting up specialized government agencies in charge of foreign affairs, military command, salt and tea, finance, industry, commerce, edu- cation, agriculture and police. In addition, he also promulgated the protocols con- cerning aforementioned government agencies. He argued that by reform various economic sectors, especially, salt—tea trade, and agriculture, would generate more tax income. These government agencies had been kept until the Democratization Reform. A strong critic of Tibetan traditions, Zhang authored political booklets such as Basics of Changing Tradition, Tibetan Tradition Improvement Method.He was also a champion of industry and commerce, mining and transportation, modern education and proposed some specific methods. Among his other efforts, Zhang was credited with having founded Tibet’s first Chinese-Tibetan bilingual newspaper as well as the first school, where the two languages were both taught. He was widely respected by the locals. One example is that in Lhasa, the Jinzhu Road was once lined by flower trees that Zhang planted; the locals called the trees Master Zhang Trees. After Zhang Yintang retired in 1907, his successor Lianyu continued his mod- ernization policy. In 1909, Lianyu and his deputy Wen Zengyao submitted a policy proposal to the emperor. This proposal, titled Proposals Regarding Tibetan Reform and Related Issues, outlined a series of policies concerning mining, land cultiva- tion, modernization of education system. Lianyu and Wen Zengyao’s moderniza- tion effort from 1907 to 1911 resulted in Tibet’s first modern mint, postoffice, police system, education system, Tibetan and academy, Han Chinese and Tibet language translation school, and military and police academies. However, insufficient funds and a superficial understanding of the social realities undermined the efficacy of these efforts. After the Qing dynasty ended, such progress stagnated. 22 1 Genesis

1.2.2.2 Lhasa in Republic of China Era

The 13th Dalai Lama was a significant champion of modernization in the post-Xinhai Revolution era Tibet. In 1912, modeled on the Qing postal system, the Drakkhang system was formulated. In 1914, a military reform was announced. As part of the reform, Japanese and Russian officers were hired to train the Tibetan military forces, who were trained both using the Han Chinese system as well as the British system. In 1915, the first modern weaponry manufacturing facility—Chaxi Machinary began operation. The Kashag facilitated technological advancement, resultant in introduction of electricity, modern mining, modern postal service, etc. Increasing number of Tibetan aristocrats was sent abroad for education. In 1916, Menzikang, government agency in charge of public health and calendar making, was established; in 1923, Tibet’s first modern police bureau was established; patrol police posts were installed along some important roads. In 1925, Tarkhang was established in charge of telephone and telegram communication. In 1925, Tibet’s first modern commercial bank was established. Between 1924 and 1928, Tibet’s first hydro-power station was built in Dorde Valley to the north of Lhasa. Shortly afterwards, the first electricity-powered mint was established in Tzashen. In Norbulingka, Tibet’s first electricity-powered road lamps were installed. In 1931, another power station started operation in Gyabumgang. By 1936, electrical lighting was installed in Potala Palace, Jokhang and Ramoche, Kashag Courtyard, Radrin Courtyard, Radrin Lhapdrang, and other aristocrats’ residences as well as large stores. In 1931, 13th Dalai Lama ordered that several mints situated in Meiji, Luodui, Dorde respectively to be merged with Tzashen Mint, Dorde hydro-power station—the new entity called “Tashi Lekung” became the largest Tibetan enter- prise consortium at that time. The Tashi Lekung was involved in a wide range of businesses and industries concerning power generation, minting and paper money and postal stamp printing and issuance, tax collection, money transmission and etc.33 All these achievements sped up the process of Lhasa becoming a modern city (Fig. 1.5). During the Republic Era, Nangtsishar Lekung and Zhol Lekung remained the top administration bodies of Lhasa. After Xinhai Revolution, the Kuomintang (KMT) government, in an effort to promote its “Five Ethn Group Governance System”, tried to reestablished communication with Tibet. However, it was until 1940 when -Tibetan Association set up an office in Tibet that the central Chinese government for the first time had a physical presence in this region. In 1912, the KMT government established Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Chu (MTAC). On May 10, Zhong Yong, former Qing Amban was appointed Tibet Governor. Due to foreign intervention, Zhong Yong was forced to leave Tibet. Given the importance and complexity of the local situation, in July, 1912, MTAC

33Charpa Tsiten Puntsog et al. (2008, pp. 987–991). • Spengler and Guilong (2008, pp. 28–29). • He (2013). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 23

Fig. 1.5 Bird’s view of the old city of Lhasa in 1912. Source Knud Larsen, Amund Sinding-Larsen’s The Lhasa Atlas: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Townscape, Li and Gyentsen (2005)

upgraded the MTAC to Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Bureau (MTAB). InMay, 1914, the Bureau was renamed Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Yuan. In 1928, this institution was for third time renamed, this time to Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission (MTAC). Zhongying, Lu Xingqi, a naturalized Indian citizen of Chinese origin, was twice appointed Chief Representative of the KMT government and sent to Tibet in 1912 and 1920. However, neither of Lu’s attempts to enter Tibet succeeded during to foreign intervention. In 1929, Liu Manqing, then-KMT government Public Service Department general secretary, was appointed Special Emissary and went onto a mission to Tibet. Liu later arrived in Tibet, accompanied by Kunchok Drongyi, abbot monk of Beijing Yonghe Tibetan Buddhism Temple. The purpose of the mission was to restore diplomatic relationship between Tibet and inland China, and reestablish sovereignty over the region. Discussions were held between Liu and local political figures, though little was achieved. In 1933, the 13th Dalai Lama died. The KMT government sent a delegation led by Huang Musong to the funeral; neither did their effort to resume dialogue achieved much positive result. In 1940, KMT government Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission General Secretary Wu Zhongxin arrived in Tibet to attend the enthronement ceremony of the . On April 1, Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission established its Tibet Office in Lhasa.34 The Office operated through much of the subsequent decade. Lhasa’s traditional appearance survived the Republic era largely intact. However, its urban infrastructure saw little improvement. In 1916, French scholar explorer Alexandra David-Néel, disguised herself as a pilgrim, arrived in Lhasa after a long tenuous journey. She described Lhasa as crowded and noisy, a beehive of activities. “Despite of its relative small population, the streets were often con- gested. Aside from small opening in the center area, the streets were generally wide with expensive open space in between. They were usually clean, though indoors the

34Wang and Chen (1998, p. 179). 24 1 Genesis sanitation standards were usually not high. Most families don’t have bathrooms; people often relieve themselves in the open.35” In the 1930s and 1940s, Westernization became increasingly potent in Lhasa. Some noble families moved out of the Old City to areas beyond Lingkor Circuit; European style homes became more and more common. As social stratification deepened, the upper-class’ life became more extravagant. Liu Manqing, who became famous because of her Tibet career, was born in Lhasa. In 1929, Liu traveled to Lhasa on a mission to send a letter personally written by KMT national leader Chiang Kai-shek to the local ruling class. In Lhasa, Liu actively lobbied the 13th Dalai Lama and other Tibet political figures to resume the tie with the central Chinese government. In 1940, Liu went to Tibet the second time to persuade the locals to join the Chinese resistance effort against the Japanese. In 1929, Liu met with Dalai Lama and his regent Lungshar. In her journal, Liu remember some banquets that she was invited to -from her account, people back home learnt the little-known life style of the upper class Tibetans and the close cultural ties between Tibet and China: “The next evening we had dinner—although it was not exactly Chinese cuisine, the dishes had some Chinese elements here and there. I heard that there was only one Chinese restaurant in the entire Tibet, however, the Chinese cuisine were popular among the upper class. As a result, the small number of Chinese chefs in the city was highly sought after, as the Tibetans competed with each other to get these chefs, it became a way to flaunt their wealth.” A decade later, when Liu revisited Tibet, she found that the extravagance only got worse. She also observed signs of deepening Westernization, “The women are different from last time I visited. Use of makeups has become commoner. Dresses are increasingly western. Pursuit of luxury is beyond reason—it is not uncommon that a woman wears tens of thousands silver dollar worth of jewelry and golden articles, with value exceeding a household’s annual income. The men’s dress, however, hasn’t changed much.36” Throughout the 1930s, Lhasa’s population roughly equated Qing level. The stagnation was due much to the city’s low-level productivity and lack of means of transportation. However, during religious festivals, especially Monlam Chenmo, the city usually saw population suddenly spiking, when the city was awash with pil- grims. Tents would take every inch of open ground that had yet been used. According to Huang Fensheng’s Meng Zang Xin Zhi or A New History of Mongolia and Tibet. As of 1930, Lhasa’s permanent lay population stood somewhere between 15,000 and 20,000. In addition, about 16,500 ordained priests lived in monasteries in different parts of the city. There were 300 households of Han Chinese, with a population somewhere between one thousand and two thousands. In addition, there were around 1000 Nepalese traders, and Mongolian and Bhutanese who were either priests or traders. During religious festivals such as the Birthday of the Śākyamuni,

35Néel (Franch) (1997, p. 297). 36Liu (2012a). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 25 for a few days, the city’s population could temporarily surge up to surpass 100,000.37 This factor set the city apart from the other Tibetan cities. During the World War II, international transportation was impaired and resources bound for China was forced to route through South Asia. Lhasa, sitting on this route, significantly benefited from the situation. Abundant business opportu- nities attracted some aristocrat families, among them Tsarong, Surkhang, Kashopa, Yuthog, Ransa Shenqun, Shakabpa, Zurkhang, Yuthog etc. Manyran businesses in India, Lijiang, , and Kangding.38 Up until the Peaceful Liberation, Lhasa’s sizehadn’t changed much from the mid-Qing level. Aside from Jokhang, other famous buildings include some monasteries, namely “Four Sur, Four Gang, Four Buk, Four Ling”; their styles highly representative of traditional Tibetan architecture. Among them: “Four Sur” refers to Barkor Circuit’s four sections forming four sides of the square-shaped circuit; “Four Gang” refers to Sabok Gang, Chaktsel Gang, Telpung Gang, Gyabum Gang; “Four Buk” refers to O’to Buk, Zongra Buk, Minfyur Buk, Lu Buk; “Four Ling” refers to Kunde Ling, Tsomon Ling, Zhide Ling, Tengyel Ling four private monasteries of four prominent Living Buddhas.39 These, in addition to large number of civilian residences and shops, gave the Old City a busy and crammed atmosphere. This area concentrated large numbers of businesses and handcraft workshops. A survey indicates that prior to 1949, the handcraft industry involved 26 trades, 1950 households and 5661 individual handcraft makers. By 1959, the year of Democratic Reform, 4526 individual workers from 1662 households were employed in the handcraft manufacturing industry. Weaving and tailoring were two largest trades employing more population than others. Following them, there were carpentry, stone cutting and hardware making-all associated with construction in one way or another.40 By all measures, the city continued to function as a regional industry and commerce center during this period. Information about the city’s millennium-long evolution is sparse. It was until the first half of the 20th century, after reforms initiated by the Tibetan Ambans and the 13th Dalai Lama, that the city began its urban modernization. These reforms ushered in a new type of urban administrators and government agencies such as Nangtsishag Lekung, Desi Lekung, Nyitsang Lekung and police station. Nangtsi Shag, headed by a rank-five official, was responsible for the day-to-day administration of Lhasa. This included maintaining security, sanitation, street cleaning, maintaining market order, punishing offenders, licensing new buildings, enforcing curfews as well as maintaining dams on Lhasa River, etc. However, overall, Nangtsi Shag’s power was limited and did little to upgrade the urban functionality. In 1938, Desi Lekung was established under Kashag. This was

37Huang (1936). Excerpted from Zhou (2006). 38Su (1999). 39Zhou (2006). Note: According to the original literature, Dabolin was included as one of the Four Lins, which was later changed to Xide Ling. 40Li (2000, p. 209). Originally from Zhou (2006). 26 1 Genesis another government agency specifically responsible for urban administration. Headed by a rank-four official, the main responsibility was to maintain social order, enforce market rule, overseeing lawsuits and moderating disputes between officials and civilians. In addition, there was also Nyitsang Lekung in charge of sanitation and construction materials -timber, pottery, and thatch to Potala Palace and Norbulingka, repairing the sewerage and building public toilets, preventing unlawful private construction to effectiveness of streets and alleys. In addi- tion, it was also responsible for fire prevention, thief prevention and Jokhang’s sanitation. During the first half of the 20th century, Lhasa became more differentiated from other Tibetan cities. A number of factors contributed to this development: foreign intervention, war, commercial and economic growth, modern industry, introduction of modern urban administration system and infrastructure. As a result, Lhasa’s lead over other cities became greater all the time. All these led to different development patterns on both banks of south of Yarlung Tsangpo River. Some new develop- ments during this period are: 1. The city’s role shifted41: aside from traditional urban function such as administration, religion and commerce, burgeoning manu- facturing industry42 became a new driving force. Up until Peaceful Liberation, Lhasa was the only Tibetan city with a population more than 10,000. Amidst foreign invasion and infiltration, especially that of Great Britain, Yadong, Gyangze were forced to be opened as trade portals. Increased commercial activities led to prosperity in these areas. On the northern and eastern sides of Yarlung Tsangpo River, emerged some new trade towns; however, this trend stagnated after 1918. In 1934, benefiting from improved relationship between Tibet and inland China and the opening of new trade routes, Tibetan towns bordering China, such as , saw a flush of new wealth,43 though none approached Lhasa’s level. Among Tibet’s hierarchy of cities, Lhasa’s claim to the top spot is beyond dispute. Underneath, Shigatse, Chamdo and Gyangtse and other Jiqiao-level cities44 formed the second tier. Further down below, there was the large and medium Zongxi-level towns, which was further divided up into two classes. All these cities contributed to Lhasa’s development in their own ways (Table 1.1).45

41He and Zhao (2003). 42He and Zhao (2013). 43Zhang (2011). 44Jiqiao System was established during the period of the 13th Dalai Lama Period. It was first implemented in the trade ports, commerce centers and was designed to be an administration unit superior to Zong and Xi. It is headed by Kalön Tripa and officials with Rank Four and Above. During Republic of China Era, in Tibet, there were nine Jiqiao—Lhasa, Xigaze, Ali, Gyangze, Yadong (Zhuomu), etc. Zong system was first introduced in Ming Dynasty, and is equivalent to Xi, or Xian, translated as County. Generally speaking, the jurisdiction of Zong is larger than Xi; the top officials of Zong and Xi are Zongben and Xidui. During Republic of China era, Zong was subordinate to Jiqiao. 45He (2013). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 27

Table 1.1 Distribution of Tibetan urban population in the Qing Dynasty and Republic of China Period City name Qianlong Xuantong Reign Republic of China Reign Period Lhasa 5000 50,000 40,000–50,000 households Shigatse N/A 20,000 20,000 (9000 permanent) Gyangze N/A 30,000; soldiers 7500 N/A Tingri N/A 250 households About 250 households Chamdo N/A 1200 N/A Nyallam N/A N/A Over 300 households Gyirong N/A Over 400 households Over 400 households Pagri No mention N/A About 2000 Ganba No mention N/A About 2000 () No mention Tibetan Amban and 200 local N/A soldiers Source Chen (1982), Xu and Cai (1911), Yu (1792). Originally from He and Zhao (2013)

1.2.2.3 Social Change and Construction After Peaceful Liberation

In May 1951, Lhasa was liberated. The advance detachment, office of the 18th Corps, and the independent detachment of the People’s Liberation Army met little resistance when entering the city. Towards the end of the year, the CPC Lhasa Committee was established. The administrative divisions changed a few times, though in the Old City area little was changed after 1990. In 1954, Tibetan Government set up 6 General Directors, aka Jiqiao, and 103 Myriarchies. They all subordinate to two government agencies, namely Nangtseshag Lekung and Zhol Lekung In 1956, Lhasa Jiqiao was established; in addition, three Myriarchy-level administration units were established in Dongkar, Dodlung Dechen, Meldro Gonggar. The Old City was administrated by Lhasa Jiqiao Office. In 1959, Jiqiao Office, Nangtseshag Lekung and Zhol Lekung together were responsible for much of Lhasa responsible forLhasa’s urban development. In 1960, Lhasa was officially listed as a city by the national government. In 1961 Chengguan District was established as an administration unit; the district govern- ment oversees six agencies, namelyDegyi, Barkor, Kyire, Parilku, Nachen, Tselgung Tang, twelve neighborhood committees and eleven townships. Among them, Degyi Lam, Barkor, Kyire, were under the auspices of the Old City. From 1988 to 1990, on Barkor, Kyire, Gyabumgang (In 1981 Degyi was renamed 28 1 Genesis

Gyabumkhang, Tromsikkhang and Tashi, two Lekung-level units were established; between the two, Tromsikkhang was under the auspices of the Old City).46 This move grew the total number of Banshichu (En. Agency)-level neighborhood committees in Lhasa’s Chengguan District to six. At present, the city has seven banshichu-level units, namely Tromsikkhang, Barkor, Kyire, Gyabumkhang, Drabchi, Kundeling, Garma Gonsar, administering a total of 28 neighborhood committee-level units. Among them, Tromsikkhang, Barkor, Kyire Gyabumkhang, four in total, were within the Old City area, administering 15 neighborhood committee-level units. Urbanization picked up speed after the Peaceful Liberation. By 1951, Lhasa’s population was around 30,000; the total urban area measured about three square kilometers; the vast majority of the urban population lived in the Old City area; the rest scattered across a large area surrounding it. In total, the constructed surface in the Old City area measured 230,000 m2. The buildings were generally of low quality with insufficient drainage capacity; roads were mostly unpaved.47 According to a 1952 survey, the population was around 37,000, 16,000 were ordained clerics48; the secular population accounted for 55%. Two main economic sectors were commerce and handcraft manufacturing. In 1952, the CPC Lhasa Work Committee, working with Nangtseshag Lekung and Zhol Lekung, organized local residents into launching an urban sanitation enhancement campaign. The year also saw some new public facilities coming into being, in particular, hospitals and schools. In 1953, the central government selected a number of cadres, teachers, doctors and engineers from inland China and sent them to Lhasa to help with local urban development; large amount of funding was funneled into infrastructure development. This led to new postal offices, banks and department stores. In 1956, a tarmacked road was built between Jokhang and Norbulingka; in 1958, Lhasa Locomotive Repair Factory began to operate. In the same year, Lhasa Wood Procession Factory and Lhasa Carpet Factory were established. A municipal gov- ernment office building and employee dormitory building were completed.49 After the 1959 Lhasa Riot, martial law was announced and troops were sent to clean up the streets. In its wake, public sanitation saw substantial improvement—the building of more public toilets, garbage landfills, drainage pipelines all contributed to the improvement of Barkor and the city Lhasa Riot, martial law was announced and Nachen Hydro-power Station went into operation, electrical lighting was increasingly common in the Old City.50

46Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, pp. 30–31). 47Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 554). 48The State Council Information Office of the PRC (2001). 49Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010, pp. 227–228). 50Liu (2012b). 1.2 Formation of the Old City of Lhasa 29

In retrospect, while Lhasa’s urban development followed some common patterns also seen in other cities, some unique factors were at play. One such factor is its status as the religious center, which had great implications on its appearance, layout, architectural style, cultural characteristics and distinct atmosphere. Aside from being a religious and political center, Lhasa was also an economic motor of the entire Tibet. To sum up, Lhasa’s status as political and religious center con- tributed to its industry and commerce development. Its geopolitical position and cross border trade routes made it uniquely positioned as a regional commercial center and transportation hub. Starting late 18th century, development in Lhasa Old City slowed down. Although some old buildings were lost, the city’s idiosyncratic appearance and timeless charm remained intact. However, in modern times, as local and tourist population continue to grow, the Old City began to face new challenges in both Preservation and development.

References

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As mentioned in the previous chapter, nature, religion and geology all played significant parts in Lhasa’s development. Thanks to the favorable conditions, Lhasa eventually evolved into a regional center of comprehensive functions.

2.1 Influence of Natural Environment

Whether a place is suitable for city-building depends on how well criteria are met. This is especially true in the early human civilization, when natural conditions had more decisive impact on human survival and living standards. This is why many ancient cities were along major rivers, which allowed them easy access to fresh water and expansive view. They often have mild temperature, futile soil and a wide range ofcrops. Mild terrain also facilitates construction of transportation and defense system. Overall, these conditions led to higher population-supporting capacity.

2.1.1 Natural Conditions of Tibet and Implications to City Building

Perched on top of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Tibet is known for being the “Roof of the World”. This is especially true in the early human civilization, when natural conditions had more decisive imponditions, the mountainous terrain and raging rivers presented a unique rugged beauty. Today some parts of Tibet are still inhabited. When looking at civilizations worldwide, most early human habitats were along major rivers. This is also true in Tibet, where population density is

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 31 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_2 32 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors higher along the middle and upper sections of Yarlung Tsangpo River as well as Nyang Qu Basin. This hasn’t changed much today. Geographically, Tibetan has two main characteristics: high altitude and large number of water bodies. On average, the altitude is 4000 m above sea level, however, this varied from area to area. Overall, the plateau is on a slope, higher northwest and lowersoutheast. Such high altitudes earned it a well-deserved name —“Roof of the World”. This region is also home to some of the world’s tallest mountains, such as , Karakoram- and Gangdise Mountains—Nianqing Tanggula Mountains, Hengduan Mountains and Pamir Mountains and, most famous of all, the Hymalaya Mountains. Aside from mountains, this region had many rivers and lakes. 90% of the rivers entered Indian Ocean. The mountainous terrains posed as a natural barrier barring entry of potential intruders. The geographic isolation also contributed to Tibet’s unique development trajectory. The common perception of Tibet as being one whole block is a misconception as the region processes a wide spectra of geological types, ranging from tall mountains to deep valleys, from glaciers to riverbank plains. The region is often divided into four parts according to their terrain types—the Northern Plateau, the Southern Valley, the Eastern Mountain Gorges and Himalaya Mountains. Among them, the Northern Tibetan Plateau is between Kunlun—Tanggula Mountains and Gangdise and Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains. This expansive area is the main herding field in Tibet. The Southern Tibetan Valley region, situated between Gangdise Mountains and Himalaya Mountains, is where the Yarlung Tsangpo River and several minor rivers converge. These rivers formed several pluvial plains and lake basins, making it one of the most fertile farmland in the entire Tibet. The Eastern Mountain Gorges area, aka the Hengduan Mountain Area, was situated to the east of Nagchu. The area is made up by a group of east-west ridges that change their course 90° here. Between the ridges, raging rivers, including Nu River, Lancang River, and , have been served as the borderline between Tibet and the neighboring Yunnan and Sichuan provinces; Himalaya Mountains was situated in Southern Tibet, formed by a number of east-west ridges, all standing above 60,000 m above sea level. Topographic and geomorphic conditions are closely related to the climatic patterns and atmospheric circulation. Overall, different parts of Tibet share some common climatic traits such as thinner air, low atmospheric pressure, low oxygen density, high sunlight intensity, strong radiation, low temperature, high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity. Meanwhile, there are also variances. For example, vertical variation of plantation is common in mountain areas. In general, the northwestern part is colder and drier, while the southeastern part is warmer and more humid. Half of Tibet is uninhabitable due to hash conditions. Among a few inhabitable areas, there is the long strip between Gangdise Mountains and Hymalaya Mountains, where some of the most populous cities, such as Lhasa, Lhokha and Shigatse were situated. This area is widely believed where the Tibetan civilization originated. 2.1 Influence of Natural Environment 33

2.1.2 Natural Conditions of Lhasa

As vast and diverse as Tibet is, Lhasa is rare for its favorable natural conditions— The city snugs comfortably in the embrace of Lhasa River Valley, which is part of the Southern Valley area. The altitude is in the range between 3600 and 3900 m above sea level, relatively low by Tibetan standard. The city sits on a fertile alluvial plain. Typical of southeastern part of Tibet, the climate type is mild semi-arid. The average temperature, between 6 and 8 °C, is relatively mild and stable throughout the year. The average annual rainfall is around 400 mm. Rainfall mostly occurs in night. Annual solar radiation is 190 kcal/cm2 and annual sunshine duration about 3000 h. Extreme weathers are rare. These conditions meant that Lhasa is capable of supporting a large population. In 633 AD, in pursuit of a better habitat, Yarlung Tribe migrated from to the area surrounding Lhasa. Once they settled down, under the leadership ofSongtsen Gampo, city building commenced—this city grew to be Tibet’s largest. Starting mid-17th century on, Lhasa had outgrown any other cities in the region and became a regional center with complete urban functions.

2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center

Political function is the most significant differentiator between Lhasa and other cities. The status as a political center greatly promoted the city shine duration about 3000 h. Extreme weathers are rare. These conditions meant that Lhasa is barracks and other forms of public services.

2.2.1 Tupo Dynasty: Lhasa Became a Capital

In 633 AD, under Songtsen Gampo’s leadership, the tribe left Meldrogongkar and settled down in Lhasa westwards—a new regime known as Tupo was established here. As the capital of this regime, Lhasa, during the subsequent two centuries, kept growing and saw large number of facilities having been built. However, despite relatively large population of Tupo in its heyday, the urban population remained small. This is mainly due to the general low density of population and vastness of Tibet, backward transportation means, low agricultural yield, etc., all imposing limits on the city’s capacity to support a large population. Aside fromPotala Palace (Red Castle), there were few administrative buildings in Lhasa, though the number of homes, shops, hotels, and monasteries had been growing, as population kept growing. Some of the major buildings that came into being during the two decade-long Songtsen Gambo’s reign include Red Palace, Jokhang, Ramoche and some 34 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors monasteries. Many still exist today, especially Jokhang and the circuit around it— Barkor. This laid the foundation for Lhasa city, and its status as administrative, cultural and commercial center. In its wake, the succeeding Btsan-pos continued to expand the building and add more buildings. In the 9th century during the reign of Tri Ralpachan, some monasteries were built to the east, south and north of the city, including Garu, Moru, Gawa, Gawae built to the east, south and north and etc. Together they formed the outer ring of the city. After Tupo dynasty, Tibet’s political center shifted from Lhasa to Sakya, Netong and later, Shigatse. However, although those places met some conditions necessary for city building, they were in general not as favorable as it was in Lhasa, thus it was no coincidence that in the mid-17th century, the Ganden Phodrang regime once again chose Lhasa as the capital. Such a decision was both political and religious in nature; it is also a pragmatic one taking account of the local conditions.

2.2.2 Ganden Phodrang Regime Established Capital in Lhasa

In 1642, Dalai Lama established Ganden Phodrang regime. Subsequently, Lhasa was selected as the capital city and regained its status as the center of Tibet.

2.2.2.1 Construction During the Reign of the Fifth Dalai Lama

The period between the 5th and 8th Dalai Lama is highly significant in Tibetan history because many Tibetan political and religious institutions were formed during this period. The relationship between Tibet, the Chinese and Mongols became sta- bilized. The 5th Dalai Lama’s reign also saw a period of rapid urban development that lasted until the reign of the 8th Dalai Lama. Until the Peaceful Liberation, the Old City of Lhasa saw no major changes in terms of size and population. The 5th Dalai Lama was widely acclaimed for his political acumen and skills— for this, he earned a revered title as the “Great Fifth.” Among his other accom- plishments, the unification of Tibet is the most significant one. By striking a deal with Mongolian leader Güshi Khan, the Dalai Lama established religious Ganden Phodrang regime. After China entered the Qing dynasty, the Dalai Lama paid a visit to Qing emperor Shunzhi in Beijing in 1652. By such a visit, the Tibetan cleric attained support from the Manchu leadership. In a gesture of hospitality, the emperor ordered the construction of a Gelugpa-school Buddhist Monastery in Beijing to accommodate the visiting Dalai Lama. In 1654, on his way back to Tibet, the Dalai Lama received a golden album from the Qing government, a symbol indicating recognition of his religious leadership in Tibet. The most significant construction during the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama is the expansion Potala Palace. In 1645, the Dalai Lama ordered the project with intention 2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center 35 to use it as his primary residence andoffice. The project partially concluded in 1653 and was named White Palace (Podrang Karpo) as opposed to the original Red Palace. After the 5th Dalai Lama died in 1682, under the stewardship of Sangye Gyatso, the regent of the 6th Dalai Lama, the project continued. For the entire life of the 5th Dalai Lama and a full decade afterward, the towering stately building assumed its final dimensions. It was a living symbol of the unison of religious and political powers and a monument of the Tibetan architectural achievement. Today, it remains a highlight of Lhasa’s cityscape. Also during the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, more aristocrats’ residences emerged. One example is Samdrup Phodrang, which was ordered by the 5th Dalai Lama in honor of Güshi Khan. During this period of time, the vast majority of construction took place in an area surrounding Jokhang—including large numbers of civilian residences and shops; the density of buildings and population both increased.

2.2.2.2 Post-5th Dalai Lama Lhasa Development

Expansion continued after the 5th Dalai Lama. The city reached beyond its previous borders. Beyond Jokhang—Barkor area and Potala Palace area, there emerged a new area, where some Dalai Lama’s private gardens were built. These include the 6th Dalai Lama’s Dzonggyap Lukhang Garden and the 7th Dalai Lama’sNorbulingka. Starting the reign of 7th Dalai Lama, it had become a tradition that Dalai Lama’s families moved to live in Lhasa. Their residences, referred to as “Yabshi”, were built according to the same standard accorded to the highest-ranking aristocracy. The Yabshi, along with other noble, all concentrated in the vicinity of Barkor. By the time of the Peaceful Liberation, there are 48 nobles’ courtyards in the Old City area. The large numbers of Yabshi and other noble residences owed their existence to the city’s status as a political center. However, these two are a numerical minority; the vast majority of buildings in the Old City are mostly ordinary civilians’ resi- dences and shops. Most shops also doubled as living space of the proprietors. In most circumstances, shops occupied the bottom floor, while warehouse sand living rooms were on the second or the third. These buildings served the daily needs of local residents and played a vital role to the comprehensive urban functions of the Old City.

2.2.3 The Amban System: Establishment and Continuation

The 5th Dalai Lama’s choosing Lhasa as the capital inaugurated a newera seeing the city recovering its lost status as a political, religion and business center. Before the 5th Dalai Lama’s death in 1682, the city enjoyed four decades of peaceful development. Following Dalai Lama’s death, Tibet fell into disarray, leaving a devastating impactonLhasa’s urban development. Tension arose between local cliques and the central government. The conflicts escalated, eventually propelled 36 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors the central government to intervene to strengthen its control. This led to the for- malization of the relationship between the central government and Tibet region; it also had profound impact on the structure of Tibetan governance system. First, conflicts arose among different cliques, mainly between Tibetan aristocracy and the Khoshuud princes. The first such conflict was between Sanggye Gyatso, the Dalai Lama’s regent, and Lha-bzang Khan, descendant of Güshi Khan and the de facto ruler. In 1705, 44th year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign, Lha-bzang Khan had his rival Sanggye Gyatso executed. Subsequently, in a gesture to recognize the status quo, the Qing government granted Lha-bzang Khan the title “Yi Fa Geng Shun Han” (Translate: The Brilliant, Law-abiding, Respectful and Obedient Khan). The later subsequently accused the incumbent Dalai Lama—the 6th, of being an imposter and having conspired against the Qing government. Eventually, Qing government demanded the 6th Dalai Lama and Sanggye Gyatso’s widow to be sent to Beijing for inter- rogation. In 1707 Lha-bzang Khan installed a new Dalai Lama named Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso. In the subsequent 11 years, power was in the hands of Lha-bzang Khan while the new Dalai Lama remained a puppet. Wary of the Mongolian monopoly, in 1709, the 48th year of Kangxi’s reign, the Qing China sent a minister named Langheshou to Tibet to “assist” Lha-bzang Khan with his administration. The Amban system thus started. Second, death of Lha-bzang Khan, enthronement of the 7th Dalai Lama, and Gelugpa Lama, and Lha-bzang Turmoil resumed in 1717 after Lha-bzang Khan lost to Mongolian Junggar tribal leader Tsewang Rabtan in the later’s attempt to take over Tibet and died. This turn of events compelled Qing Emperor Kangxi to militarily intervene. Eventually Junggar invaders were driven away and in 1720, the 7th Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa from his in Qinghai. In 1721, Qing government announced a cabinet system where three (later grew to five) chairmen, called Kalon Tripa. Tripas were appointed to be in charge of the administrative matters; Kancennas, son-in-law of Lha-bzang Khan, was the first chief Kalon of the regime. His office was near the southern gate tower of Jokhang. Third, Kancennas’ death The infighting among Kalon Tripas eventually culminated with the murder of Kancennas in 1727. Polhanai, a fellow Kalon and secretary of Lha-bzang Khan, commanded a force from Back Tibet to quench the riot. Polhanai’s forces quickly put rest to the disturbance. In an effort to ensure stability, Qing government appointed Polhanai the Chief Kalon. In the 4th year of Qianlong (1739), Polhanai received the title of Junwang (Duke) from Qing government in recognition of his contribution to local stability. Until his death in 1747, two decades Polhanai and the general government maintained peaceful relationship; meanwhile, the local aris- tocracy’s grip on power grew firmer. 2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center 37

Fourth, Amban and Kashag Systems Starting the 18th century, the Qing government tightened its control of the political situation. This trend started from implementing a series of New Tibet Policies, and climaxed in the 5th year of Yongzheng Reign (1727) after the conclusion of Ü-Tsang War, when Qing government eventually established the Tibetan Amban Institution. Prior to the introduction of the Amban System, a two-level administration system was in place: At the central level, Lipanyuan the top governing body responsible for handling government—ethnic group relationships, was also in charge of Tibet-related affairs. Underneath, there were six subordinate departments, including Manchu Nationality Registration, Wanghei, Dianshu Department, Rouyuan, Laiyuan, and Lixing.In addition, there were also supporting departments including Tang Gu Te Xue, Nei Guan, Wai Guan, Mulan Weichang, Tuoqin Xue, Mongolian Xue, Lama Yinwuchu, Russian Bureau, Laws and Precedents; among them, the Lama Yinwuchu was directly responsible forthe administration of Tibet. At a local level, originally the Khoshuud princes were the utmost secular authority, while Dalai Lamas were the supreme spiritual leaders. After the enthronement of the 7th Dalai Lama in 1720, the central government abolished the Khan and Desi systems, replacing them with Kashag, a cabinet-like institution. In 1727, after Kancennas’ death, Polhanai received the title Junwang (Duke) confer- ring on him the highest secular authority in Tibet. In spite of implementation of Amban System in 1727, Qing ambans took a hands-off approach initially. This lasted until the Gyurme Namgyel Incident in 1750. In the incident, Gyurme Namgyel, son of Polhanai, launched a coup to remove his rivals. Afterwards, the Qing government resolved to overhaul the existing institutions, resultant in abolition of Junwang—a title that traditionally reserved for the Khoshuud princes. With Junwang system thus ended, the power was redistributed between the ambans and the Dalai Lamas. The 7th Dalai Lamas ended, the power was redistributed between the ambans and the Dalai Lamas. The Kashag now reported to both Ambans and the Dalai Lamas. In 1751, Qing gov- ernment approved the proposal submitted by the ambans and issued the 13-Article Imperial Ordinance for Better Governing Tibet. The Ordinance defined the ranks, responsibility of the Ambans in the officialdom hierarchy and their relationship with the Dalai Lamas and the Kashag. It also clarified the relationship between the central government and the Tibetan regime. The Ordinance significantly bolstered the authority of the central government in Tibet and marked a change of its gov- ernance style. Since the implementation of Amban System, until the establishment of Republic China, a total of 173 appointments were made for this post over a time span of 158 years; among them, 90 were Grand Minister Superintendents, aka Chief Ambans; among them, 83 actually arrived in Lhasa. In addition, 83 assistant Amban appointments were made; 68 arrived. In total, there were 136 Ambans, with some 38 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors having served more than one terms; 114 arrived in Lhasa.1 The region is so remote and the journeys often lasted over two months; some died traveling; some arrived but never made it back. The Amban System had great implications on Lhasa urban development in the following ways: First, the system contributed to the general social stability, a vital condition for sustained urban development. Since the advent of the Amban System, the responsibility of the Ambans had gone through three major changes. Between 1727 and 1751, their role was relatively elusive. Polhanai was the ruler, while the Qing ambans rarely interfere with local matters. The period between 1751 and 1789 saw Ambans playing a more active role in local political scene. The trigger was the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion. Afterwards, the Qing government promulgated the 13-Article Ordinance, granting the 7th Dalai Lama secular power. The Kashag was required to take orders from both the Qing Ambans and Dalai Lamas. Between 1789 and 1845, this trend continued. During the period between the two Gurkha Wars, some incompetent Ambans were dimissed. In 1792 after the second Gurkha War, another document, namely The 29-Article Ordinace, specified appointments concerning civilian, religious, military, judicial, diplomatic and tax collecting authorities. This Ordinance, with its systematic description of the role of Ambans, marked a new level of maturity of Qing government’s Tibet policy. Second, the system led to new construction activities and expansion of urban area. The construction of Tzashen Military Camp and Lubuk Yamen, were two examples.

2.2.3.1 Lhasa Northward Expansion as a Result of the Tzashen Military Camp

By the year 1720, when the campaign against Junggar invasion concluded, the Qing Chinese government had maintained a 3000 strong force (later grow to exceed 4000) in Tibet. They were mainly deployed at passes, postal routes and military supply depots. Since then it became the norm that Qing China maintained a military presence in Tibet. After a cut in the early years of Yongzheng’s reign, the number of Qing Chinese troops was reduced to 1000, all having been deployed in Chamdo region. After Ü-Tsang War, 2000 troops were deployed in Tsang region and 1000 in Chamdo region. In 1733, after the Junggar Invasion, the number was reduced to 500, which would be replaced every three years. After Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion and two Gurkha Wars, the Qing strengthened the defense of main passes and postal routes. The Qing Chinese Tibetan garrisons were made up mainly by the Green Camp troops, who were also in charge of training and supervising local troops.2

1Chen and Gao (ed.) (2003), p. 382. 2Chen and Gao (ed.) (2003), pp. 384–385. 2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center 39

Lhasa was the most heavily-defended city in Tibet. In 1727, amidst the Ü-Tsang War, the city was guarded by two Qing brigades, numbering 6500 troops. After the establishment of the Amban System, a Yamen was established here, with a military staff including officers and guards. In the late 18th century, Fukang’an’s Amban Yamen was staffed by thirty individuals, most of them having military ranks. Before the establishment of Tzashen Military Camp, military personnel often intermingled with the locals. This became increasingly a headache as disputes among them and locals arose frequently. For example, the Han Chinese was con- fronted for slaughtering animals near monasteries. In order to strengthen discipline among the military, in 1733, six years after the introduction of the Amban system, Emperor Yongzheng ordered a military base to be established in Tzashen. Tzashen, situated on a flat area close to water source, was the place where the Khoshuud Khans reviewed their troops. In 1717, during the Junggar siege on Lhasa, the Junggar invaders also built their bases here. During the Kangxi reign, when the Qing troops arrived in Tibet to quench a local riot, they too chose this place to rest. After an inspection by Qingbao, the Qing Amban and Polhanai visited Tzashen, decision was made that the new military base should be built here and the project was overseen by the two until its completion. Construction of Tzashen began in May of 1733, and took four months to complete. According to Qingbao’s account, the compound was encircled by a ring of wall that measured 200-zhang long; it had gates on three sides: the south, east and west. The city wall was built on one zhang wide foundation and 1.3 zhang tall. It also had battlements built on top—adding an extra three chi to its height. All told, the walls formed a 1.6 zhang tall fortress made of solid rocks. On top, a five-chi wide pathway allows defenders to maneuver. Each gate had dedicated rooms to store supplies. In addition to the original 21-room design, as the building expanded, this number increased to a total of 341 rooms. Among all these rooms, there was the Ambans’Yamen.

2.2.3.2 Construction of Lubuk Yamen and the City’s Expansion Towards Southwest

Originalled located in the Tromsikkhang Courtyard, the Amban’s Yamen was relocated several times during its life cycle. First it was relocated to Ganden Khangsar, then to Tzashen Military Camp and finally to another site inside the Old City. In late 19th century, it was relocated to Lubuk area to the southwest of Jokhang and south of Yuthog Zampa. The new site included a multi-storey office building, the living quarters of the Amban and his guards. Later, as the number of buildings grew, the less-populated southwestern region was filled up. The com- pound was later expanded though it had little effect on thecity’soverall structure. 40 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors

2.2.3.3 Evolution Into a Multiple-Cultural City

The Tibetan society began to interact with the Han Chinese civilization starting in ancient times. After the advent of the Amban System, with the new influx of Han Chinese population, including officials and soldiers, the Chinese culture became even more prevalent. This is especially evident in areas surrounding the Tzashen Military Camp. For decades following its construction, the Tzashen Military Camp had evolved from pure barracks and for some time, the Ambans System, with the new influx of Han Chinese populese and Tibetan characteristics. The population, originally government officials and military personnel, evolved to include their family members, clerics, merchants, etc. In surrounding areas, facilities emerged to facilitate people’s life—shops, temples and civilian residences etc. Many Qing soldiers hired local Tibetan women as household servants; some married locals thus became more assimilated into the local culture. Gesar Temple is a product of cultural import. In the reign of Kangxi, the Qing military personnel in Lhasa raised fund for a Gesar Temple where their patron god—Guandi was worshipped. In the 57th year of Qianlong reign, Helin the Qing Amban, ordered the Temple to be rebuilt. In the same year, a new one was built in Bamari to commemorate the Qing military’s successful campaign against the Gurkha. After the Pongwari Guandi Temple was completed, it attracted large number of Han Chinese officials, military personnel and merchants alike—today this temple remainsintact. After the new Temple was built, the old one in Tzashen became neglected and was eventually reduced to rubble. On its site, Zhaji Monastery was built where the Protector Goddess was worshipped.

2.2.3.4 Mongolian Influence

The Mongols was a significant source of influence on Tibet. From Sakya dynasty to the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, for a period about four centuries, the Mongols and Tibetans maintained close ties, especially during three periods: (1) The reigns of Godan and Kublai of Yuan dynasty, which coincided with Sakya dynasty in Tibet; (2) The reign of Altan Khan, which coincided with the 3rd Dalai Lama’s; (3) The reign of Güshi Khan, which coincided with the 5th Dalai Lama’s. During the Sakya period, Tibetan social and economic center shifted from Lhasa to Sakya, before shifted to Lhasa in the reign of the 3rd Dalai Lama, and to a lessor extent, Qinghai and Inner Mongolia. During the reign of Güshi Khan and the 5th Dalai Lama, Lhasa’s status was further strengthened and became the sole political center. Meanwhile, its urban development reached its zenith during the subsequent three centuries. As the center of Tibet, Lhasa gradually acquired its functionality and size that matched its status. In 1642, with the support of Güshi Khan, the leader of Mongolian tribe, the 5th Dalai Lama established the religious Ganden Phodrang regime. Güshi Khan began to administrator Tibet while the 5th Dalai Lama retained his authority as the 2.2 Lhasa as a Political Center 41 supreme religious leader. It was until the assassination of Lha-bzang Khan, Güshi Khan’s great grandson in 1717, that the family’s seventy years of rule came to an end. During his lifetime, Güshi Khan first resided in Samdrup Phodrang, later moved to Ganden Khangsar. He finally settled down in Penjor Rapten Mansion. All three of them were high quality buildings with remarkable aesthetics. SamdrupPhobrang, in particular, is still in good condition today. Aside from the aforementioned ones, the Mongolian ruling class also left some buildings, including barracks and other supporting facilities. Most, however, didn’t survive.

2.3 Lhasa as a Religious Center

Prior to the establishment of Tupo dynasty, Bon was the dominant . This aboriginal religion played a significant role in local people’s life. Historic archives indicate that by the 5th century AD—the time when the father of Songtsen Gampo came to power, Buddhism had already been introduced to countries neighboring Tibet. By the time when Songtsen Gampo established Tupo dynasty, the religion had already gained a firm foothold in Tibet. During Tupo Dynasty and after the creation of Gelugpa, Lhasa began its ascent towards its status as a holy city. Prior to Gelugpa, Buddhism’s dissemination experienced two phases of growth. This is referred to by historians as the First Stage and the Second Stage of Popularization of Buddhism in Tibet. The First took place in Tupo Dynasty, when the imported religion first gained a foot hold despite its local rivals, mainly the native Bon religion. Tension between the two lasted over a long time during which a number of anti-Buddhism purges occurred. The Second Period took place in the tenth century, when Buddhism thrived across Tibet but different fiercely competed with each other. As the secular regimes’ relationship with the religious forces became increasingly interwoven the two eventually merged and a new form of governance emerged. Also during this period, the Tibetan Buddhism center was moved to (today’s Qinghai) and Ngari region. Much of Lhasa’s status as a religious holy city was due to Jokhang. The monastery was built in early Tupo period. In its wake, the status of the city waxed and waned in the subsequent years—for a long period, it lost its religious status until the rise of Gelugpa. Construction of monasteries and religious activities played a decisive role in this process and greatly shaped the city’s development.

2.3.1 Importation of Buddhism

2.3.1.1 Songtsen Gampo’s Introduction of Buddhism

During the reign of Songtsen Gampo, the Tibetan ruler received a gift of an Avalokiteśvara statue presented by the Buddhist community from South Indian, 42 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors which suggests that Buddhism was already active in the region. Also during his reign, Tibet established diplomatic relationship with the culturally more advanced and devoutly Buddhist neighbor—Nepal; this relationship was cemented by the ruler’s marriage with Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi. The princess also brought with her a statue, which was supposedly a realistic portrait of the eight-year old founder of Buddhism—Sakyamuni. It had since then been placed in Jokhang. Six years later, when Tang Chinese Princess Wencheng arrived to Lhasa also to marry the Tibetan ruler, she brought along with her large numbers of books, herbal medicines, seeds, as well as Buddhist priests—the last having contributed to the popularization of Buddhism in Tibet. The Chinese princess also brought along a statue of Sakyamuni, said to be a portrait of the 12-year-old Sakyamuni. This one was placed inRamoche. Eighty years later, the statue was relocated to Jokhang at the order of the Princess Jincheng. During the reign of Songtsen Gampo, members of the aristocracy such as Tunmi Sambodra, were sent to India for education. Inspired by the Indian languages, Tibetan scholars invented their own script, a giant leap forward for Tibet’s cultural development. It promoted the codification of laws, translation of Buddhist literature, and the public education. During the reign of Tride Songtsen, the Tibetan King married Tang Chinese Princess Jincheng. In its wake, more Buddhist monasteries were built in Lhasa, including Zhama Zhensang, Zhama Gaqu, Qingpu, Renan, Masageng, etc. Large numbers of Buddhist literature were kept in these monasteries. Lhasa thus became the center of Tibetan Buddhism.

2.3.1.2 Monastery-Building During Tupo Dynasty

At the same time Buddhism was introduced to Tupo Tibet, monasteries began to be built, further promoted the integration of the religion into the Tibetan culture. Lhasa’s cityscape became dotted by monasteries of various schools and different sizes. Usually surrounding these buildings, neighborhoods emerged, giving rise to commercial activities. Monasteries became a large category of architecture in the city. Among them, the most significant one is Jokhang, a building that greatly influenced the layout of the Old City. Jokhang was built during the reign of Songtsen Gampo and became the city’s gravity center. Surrounding Jokhang, civilian residences, hotels, shops and other supporting facilities emerged. Most Tibetan rulers treated Jokhang as a holy place, and dedicated great amount of efforts to its upkeep. After the 11th century AD, secular rulers, Dalai Lamas and other upperclass clerics oversaw several rounds of repairs and expansions and the monastery emerged taller with more stories and supporting buildings, ramparts, corridors, galleries’, Lhadrangs, fences, houses on the southern side and prayer circuits. In the 13th century, during the reign of Dalai Lama, the Monastery assumed its final scale; its structure had been stable since then. The last changes introduced to the building occurred in 1950, when Jokhang’s northern part, the Dalai Lama’s living quarters, was demolished and rebuilt. 2.3 Lhasa as a Religious Center 43

The Khamsum Zilnon (Note: transliteration of a palace or a chapel in Jokhang) were also rebuilt. This is the Jokhang that we see today.3 Another building comparable to Jokhang is Ramoche. Ramoche was also built in the Tupo period. In the 10th century, during the Hou Hong period, Ramoche was built and subsequentlyexpanded. In late 15th century, the head of Tselpa admin- istration (an administration unit that includes Lhasa) financed the repair of Ramoche and the construction of Upper Tantric College. In late 17th century, 5th Dalai Lama ordered the construction of the patio on top of the roof; the originally pottery tiles were replaced with copper-plated ones, and later, replaced again, with gold-glided ones—this greatly enhanced the monastery’s appearance.4 Like Jokhang, a booming community also formed surrounding Ramoche. As the community grew, it eventually filled up the space between Jokhang and Barkor. By the end of Tupo, there had already been many monasteries. These include Garu, and Moru, to the east, Gawa and Gawa’o to the south and Trinkhang to the north—these collectively formed the outline of urban Lhasa. For two centuries, Buddhism became an integral part of local residents’ daily life, and heavily influ- enced the city’s structure.

2.3.2 Rise of Gelugpa

2.3.2.1 Monlam Chenmo and Dalai Lama Institution

Three events that occurred in the reign of 5th Dalai Lama critically affected the development of Buddhism in Tibet: The first is the fast rise of Gelugpa, a school of Tibetan Buddhism that eventually became the dominant ; the second is the Dalai Lama’s meeting with Qing Emperor Shunzhi, resultant in central Chinese government’s recognition of the Dalai’s religious authority. The third is the implementation of the 13-Article Ordinance in 1751, which marked Tibet’s polit- ical institutions reaching a new level of maturity while Dalai Lama’s authority reached beyond the ordained to the lay population as well. Gelugpa was founded by Je Tsongkhapa around late 14th century and early 15th century. Its early success owed much to the support of two powerful political figures, namely regional leader Dragpa Gyentsen, the “Lord of Chan Hua”—a title he received from Ming dynasty, and Lhasa River basin region tribal leader the Kyishopa. As growth continued, this school eventually attained dominance in Tibet. In 1409, Je Tsongkhapa hosted a prayer gathering, known as the Monlam Chenmo. The event drew a large audience of Buddhists. In the same year, was built, serving as the primary venue of worship for Gelugpa followers.

3Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010), p. 484. 4Charpa Tsiten Puntsog et al. (2008), p. 97. 44 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors

This turned out to be a landmark event in the development of Gelugpa. By the time that Je Tsongkhapa died in 1419, the construction of three major Gelugpa monasteries, namely Ganden, Drepung and Sera, had already concluded. Among them, Drepung completed in 1416, and Sera in 1418. Monlam Chenmo became an annual event, which contributed to Gelugpa’s popularity in Lhasa and prosperity of Jokhang and Barkor area. Je Tsongkhapa was not recognized by the central Chinese government during his lifetime. Neither did he pick a successor. After he died, two of his disciples shared his mantle. Both were originally from Shigatse region. One, Gendün Druppa, came to be known as the 1st Dalai Lama. He was also the founder of Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse; his successor Gendün Gyatso, originally resided in mon- astery of Tashilhunpo before moving to Lhasa, where he took up residence in Ganden Phodrang of Drepung Monastery. Starting the second reincarnation, Dalai Lamas began to live in Lhasa. The 5th, Dala Lamas moved his residence to the Old City area. Several buildings in the Old City, Larang Ningba, Samdrup Phobrang, Ganden Khangsar, were his old abodes. Circa 1642, the 5th Dalai Lama took up residence in Ganden Phodrangof Drepung Monastery. Ganden Phodrang, literally meaning “God’s Palace”,isa three-story flat-roof building. It was the Seat of three generations of Dalai Lamas— the 3rd, the 4th and the 5th. The 5th Dalai Lama moved from Ganden Phobrang to Lhasa before Potala was completed, and taken up residence in Labdrang Nyingpa on the side of Barkor South. In 1653, after Potala project was completed, Dalai Lama moved to the Palace and had since then lived and worked there. According to the tradition, Dalai Lamas don’t leave Potala even after they die—their tombs are built on top of the Palace. The word Dalai Lama first came into popular use starting the 3rd generation. In 1578, the 3rd Dalai Lama, whose secular name is Sonam Gyatso, received the title “Shengshi Yiqie Waqier Dalai Lama” from the Mongolian Tümed leader Altan Khan. Later, he was invited by the Mongolian Khan to proselytize in Inner Mongolian region. As a result, Sonam gained popularity among the locals and became one of the most revered living Buddhas among the Mongols. The 5th Dalai Lama’s visit to Beijing and meeting with Emperor Shunzhi in Beijing was highly significant. It inaugurated a new erain which the Chinese government began to recognize the authority of Dalai Lamas. In 1652, the 5th Dalai Lama, accompanied with delegates sent by the 4th Panchan Lama and Güshi Khan, visited the Emperor in Beijing. When he returned in 1654, the Qing Emperor Shunzhi granted him the title of Dalai Lama, and thus established Dalai Lamas’ religious authority in Tibet and Mongolia. The 1st to 4th Dalai Lamas were rec- ognized retroactively.

2.3.2.2 Monastery Building After the 5th Dalai Lama

By 1409, three major Gelugpa monasteries had been completed, namely Ganden Monastery, Drepung Monastery and Sera Monatary. Given that these monasteries 2.3 Lhasa as a Religious Center 45 were not located in Lhasa proper but suburbs, their influence on the city was through their subsidiaries inside the city. Among the most remarkable monasteries post-the 5th Dalai Lama, there are Four Lins, which were private champels of the four most prominent aka . In 1959 there were a total of 62 Gelugpa monasteries in Lhasa. In 2000, with the approval of Lhasa Chengguan District government, 38 Gelugpa monas- teries were restored and reopened to the public. In addition, there were monasteries of other sects, namely Nyingmapa, Sakya and Kagyu. According to a 2000 survey, within the Old City of Lhasa there were two Nyingmapa monasteries, two Sakya ones, and one Kagyu one.5 In addition, there are two mosques, both built during Qing dynasty. Some monasteries rent their own properties to lodgers, or to accommodate monks. During a long history, Gelugpa manasteires were restored and reopened to the public. In addition, there were quite unique about this city. Among all the Lhasa monasteries, the crown indisputably rested with Jokhang. During the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, the monastery attracted large crowds of pilgrims who were here to attend the Monlam Chenmo. Monlam Chenmo took place every year from the lunar calendar January 3rd to the 25th. During this period, monasteries were in charge for maintaining social order: The Martial Monks, equipped with iron rods, would be sent by Drepung and Loselling to portal the streets and maintain order. The event greatly contributed to the status of Jokhang as the highest religious institution and Lhasa as a regional religion center. It also led to the popularity of praying and Kora-praying. The 5th Dalai Lama pro- mulgated a set of rules concerning bureaucracy, protocol concerning appointment and dismissal of clerics, Buddhist scripture study and other areas with respect to monastery governance.6 All these have been observed there after in Gelugpa monasteries. Aside from its architectural aesthetics and religious significance, Jokhang is also important for its location. It is the center of three Circuits, the backbones of the Old City. Along with Lingkor, Barkor, the three constituted the center block of the Old City. Lingkor, on the other hand, marked the outermost border of the city for a long time. As recent as 1940, the area between Lingkor and Barkor remained fairly undeveloped. According to Liu Shengqi, who worked at the Tibetan office of the KMT government and Tibetan Affairs Commission,7 “When I walked past this grassland (Norbulingka), the road became increasingly narrow. At some points, it got so narrow, even by local standards, that were hard to discern. Few could imagine that this is the holy prayer circuitLingkor. Inside this circuit lays Lhasa’s central area.”

5Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.) (2010), pp. 579– 581. 6Ya (2001), p. 38. 7Shen and Liu (2006), p. 203. 46 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors

As tea and horse-trade often took place near Jokhang, a busy market was formed in this area. Prospects of money, along with religious appeal made the Jokhang area an attraction to the religiously and pecuniarily-motivatedalike. Today, in addition to tea and horses, local specialties, such as Tibetan incense, metal tools and other handcraft products, are also traded in large quantities. Large numbers of specialty stores dealing jewelry pieces, Tibetan papers, knives, scabbards, bracelets, sniffing tobacco pots, and others also concentrated in this area.

2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network

Situated between China and South Asia, Tibet was on a passage connecting two subcontinents. In ancient times, transportation routes concentrated in the following types of areas: Areas close to major rivers, Lhasa for example; lowland areas on the edge of the Plateau; areas with suitable geomorphological conditions; and areas with some of the above-mentioned characteristics. These early transportation routes enabled commerce and cultural exchange, which introduced outside influences to Tibet. One influence came from China originated in the Yellow River Basin region; another is India from South Asia. Mid-Asia and West Asia were also sources of influence. In Tibet, these influences clashed and reshaped. This reached a high point during the Tupo Period. In Tibet, starting in the pre-history period, exchanges mainly took place in Southern Tibetan Valley region as well as the northern plateau. The main routes concentrated in the eastern and northeast ends of Tibet. They include one that run past the Eastern Tibetan Three River Valley and the area where Yellow River and River originated—in this area the terrain was relatively flat; another runs past the western Tibet, where several rivers originated. Internally, during the Tribal Era, different tribes, including three major ones, namely Zhang Zhung, Yarlung and Subi, waged wars against each other while also engaged in trading. Communication was thus established and strengthened. Although Lhasa had relatively favorable natural conditions, it only became the regional communication center much later after it became a city. During Tupo dynasty, several new routes were opened and facilitated the communication between Tibet and neighboring countries and regions. In Yuan dynasty, at the central government level, the General Politics Yuan and Military Ministry were two top governing bodies responsible for transportation in this region. In Qing dynasty, this responsibility was shared by and Ministry of the Military. In Qing dynasty, communication between and Tibet was further strengthened. All these efforts promoted Lhasa’s status as a center of administration, religion and commerce, accelerated its urban construction, and increased the city’s population. In the following chapter, we will look closely into the effect of transportation to the development of Lhasa. 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network 47

2.4.1 Outbound Transportation During the Tupo Era

During the Tupo period, four regimes heavily influenced Tibet, namely Tang China to the east, Arabia to the west, Tartar to the north and India to the south. Interaction between these powers took place on these routes, including Tang—Tupo Line, Tupo—Nanshao Line, Tupo—Sichuan Line, Tuobo—Northwest Line, as well as Tupo—Central/South Asia Line.

2.4.1.1 Tang-Tupo Line

Tang-Tupo Line is a main transportation line between Tupo and Tang China. It links up Tang capital Chang’anon one end and Lhasa on the other. Starting from Shaanxi, it enters Tibet through Qinghai. After reaching Lhasa, it continued southwards, extending further, reaching Nipal (called Tupo-Nipal Line). The Tupo-Nipal Line, the primary link between Tupo and South Asia, is often con- sidered an extension of the Line. The Tang-Tupo Line was a product of Tang China’s effort to strengthen its control over the Hehuang Region and bolster its ties with Tupo Tibet. Its 4000 km length is traditionally divided into the Eastern Line and the Western Line. The Eastern Line starts off Chang’an, Xi’an of today’s Shaanxi province. Going westwards, it runs past Shancheng in Qinghai, Longzhou, Qinzhou, Weizhou, Wuzhou, Lanzhou and Hezhou. After Qinzhou and Weizhou, this line was furcated into two branches—one runs pastHezhou and ends in Shanzhou; the other runs past Lanzhou and ends in Shanzhou. Between the two, Hezhou-Shanzhou line has better conditions and sees more traffic. On the Tang Chinese side, along the line postal stations were established for military defense purposes as well as the communi- cation between the capital and the Hehuang Region. Over time this line gained the status as the “Official Line” for being traveled by the government personnel. The collapse of Tupo reduced the military significance of the Eastern Line, however, its role as a commercial and trade line remained until near pre-modern era.8 The western section of the line starts from Shancheng and enters Tibet by way of Qinghai. This stretch is developed based on the ancient line linking Tibet with Hehuang Region dating back to Qin and Han Dynasties. It consists of five smaller sections—the first starts from Shancheng and ends in Chiling, i.e., from Qinghai developed based on the ancient linelinking Tibet with Hehuang Moutain. The second travels in parallel to Dafeichuang River and ends at the Northern Ferry Port of Yellow River. The third starts from Yellow River, running past Qinghai Bohai, aka Yueling Lake, and ends in Zhonglong Yi, aka Qingshui River; the fourth starts from Zhonglong Yi, running past Maoniu River, aka Tongtian River, Jiezhi Chuan, and enters Tibet by way of Yushu, Qinghai—often referred to as the The Big Road

8Ran Guangrong’s Tibetan Ancient Transportation Analysis, Tibetan Human Rights Online (http:// www.tibet328.cn), 2012.6.2. 48 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors to Tibet according to contemporary literature; The fifth starts from Tanggula Pass passing through Suoqu River Valley, Northern Tibetan Plateau and arrives in Lhasa River Valley and eventually Lhasa City. The Tang-Tupo Line was significant in the culture and personnel exchange between Tupo and Tang China. Agricultural products, handcraft items and art pieces were transported in large quantities between the two. Along the line there were some booming trade towns, such as Chiling (today Riyueshan in Qinghai) and Longzhou (today Longxian County in Shaanxi), both having become prosperous thanks to tea-horse trade, earning the line its name Tea and Horse Line.

2.4.1.2 Tupo—Nanshao Line

During Tang dynasty, Tupo maintained active communication with Nanshao kingdom (Note: in today’s Yunnan province). There were main lines that connected Tibet and Nanshao Kingdom: The Eastern Line (aka Internal River Line) and Western Line (External River Line). The Eastern Line situated on a strand of lowland including a number of river valleys between Jinsha River, Nujiang River and Lancangjiang River. This area is home to a group of tall mountains, collectively called Hengduan Mountains. This line starts from Lhasa and runs eastward past Gongbu Region, then Markam and Batang of the southeastern Tibet, finally reaching Southwestern Yunnan region downstream of Lancangjiang River and Jinshajiang River. Through its military campaigns against Nanshao, Tupo gained control of the southwestern part of Yunnan where they built the Shenchuan Iron Bridge across the Jinsha River. A Tibetan administrator was appointed, and this area became an important passage between Tupo and Nanshao. The western line passes through Gaoligeng Moutains and continues westwards before ending in Nanshao. The main effect is to ensure commercial communication between Tupo and Nanshao.9

2.4.1.3 Tupo—Shichuan Line

In Tang dynasty, the importance of Tupo—Sichuan Line is second only to Tang— Tupo Line. Many battles were won and lost by different regimes in their efforts to gain control of this important route. This line includes two main routes: One is Xishan Line, which runs along the Minjiang River in Western Sichuan; Guanxian being a strategic city on this path. It furcates into two branches—the first runs past Garze, Dege, and enters Eastern Tibet; the other going upstream in the

9Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 79–88. 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network 49

Minjiang River Valley, passing Songzhou and turning northward, passing Songpan Grassland, before joining Tang-Tupo Line before entering Tibet. The other is the Southern Line, which starts from Ya’an, Sichuan. The Line includes two separate lines, one being Lingguan Line, the other Hechuan Line. The Lingguan Line starts from Ya’an, passing Lushan, Lingguan, and ends in Yecheng, which is supposed to be part of Tupo but its specific location is no longer known. This line also includes a stretch, which ran along Qingyi River and joined Xishan Line in Weizhou. The Hechuan line starts from Ya’an, enters Tupo through the .

2.4.1.4 Northwestern Lines

In history there were multiple passages connecting Tupo and Northwestern China and Mid-Aisa. They facilitated the introduction of Buddhism to China as well as transportation of merchandise and personnel. According to Japanese scholar Takao Moriyasu, there were two lines that connected Tupo Tibet and Northwestern China and Mid-Asia. One starts from mid-Tibet and ends in Karakoram of Northwestern region and Pamir Plateau. This was the primary line of communication between Tupo and mid-Asia. The other one ran past Tibet northeastern and reached Qaidam Basin. In reality, aside the two lines, there were also two less-known ones. One reached westward, running past Bruzha, turning around Congling (the Chinese for the Pamir Mountains region) and arrived in Bruzha in northern Kashmir. In addi- tion, there is also the one that ran past Zhang Zhung, Guojiashimiluo and arrived in Tianzhu (ancient India)—collectively, they are referred to as Five Tupo Lines. There were two main passages between Mid-Tibet and Western Region, running past theTarim Basin between Kela Kunlun and Pamir Plateau, before entering the Western Region. The other runs past Kunlun Mountain and Kela Kunkuan Ridge (Also referred to as Yudian Southern Mountains)before entering Western Region; the second passage is often referred to as the Tupo—Yudian Line, which is the primary line connecting Tibet and the Western Region. The two can be dated back to the time of Zhang Zhung regime. They reached as west as Karakoram and today’s India, Pakistan and Kashmir, as north as Pamir Plateau and as west as Congling. Yutian was a regime established in the 2nd century. The kingdom remained the center of Buddhism for a long period and was a significant to the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet. As early as the second half of the seventh century, Tupo established diplomatic relationship with Yutian. During the reign of Tridu Songtsen, some Buddhist monks from Yutian were invited to go to Tibet to preach sermons. The Five Passages of Tupo refers to various lines connecting Tibet with Mid-Asia by way of Kashmir. In the Neolithic age, sporadic communication existed between Tibet and Kashmir; however, it was until the conquest of Zhang Zhung by Tupo, that the two became closely connected. The war expanded Tupo’s territory to border the Kasmira Kingdom of northern India. These passages also contributed greatly to the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet. 50 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors

2.4.1.5 Tupo-Nepal Line

Buddhism was a major driving force behind the emergence of thesepassages. In Tupo era, Buddhism was introduced to Tibet by way of the South Asia and Mid-Asia. The Mid-Asia route runs past Yutian before entering Tibet. The South Asia one enters Tibet by way of Nipal. The later was also a main trade route where the majority of commodities was transported between India and Tibet and is believed to be an extension of the western Tang-Tupo route (some say the south one). The Eastern (some say the Northern) route reached Chang’an, the Tang Chinese capital. In history, two Tang Chinese princesses that married Tibetan rulers traveled to Tibet on these roads. It is likely that diplomatic ties between Tupo Tibet and Nepal existed prior to Songtsen Gampo’s marriage with Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi. This is con- firmed by an inscription in Gyirong where the princess supposedly sojourned on her way to Lhasa. The inscription, found at the Paba Monastery in Gyirong County—a monastery built to welcome the Nepalese Princess, indicates that Gyirong passage was a main line of the Tupo-Nepal Southern Passage, as well as an important line between Tang China and Nepal, India and other South Asian countries.10

2.4.2 Postal Service During the Yuan and Ming Dynasty

During Yuan dynasty, a transportation network centered on Sakya region (today’s Shigatse) emerged. In 1260, the Mongolian Kublai appointed DrogönChögyal Phagpa, the fifth leaders of the Sakya School as the state priest. At the emperor’s behest, Yuan general Dashiman commanded an armed expedition to and subjugated Tibet. Subsequently, postal connection was established between the two regimes. In Ü-Tsang, seven postal towns were established, including Zhiyingsuo, Xiake, Ziba, Xiapo, Geng, Guansa, and Jiawa; in Tsang region, there were another four, namely Zhiyingda, Chundun, Daerlong and Zhongda. Between these postal towns, there were also checking points, usually within one day’s horse ride from each other. Each was assigned a fief, which contributed evies and conscripts. For instance, Guansa was assigned Tselpa Myriarchy. In the year of 1251, during the military campaign to subjugate the Southwestern China, a route was built to allow Yuan troops to circumvent the heavily defended Sichuan to attack the soft underbelly of Yunnan, and eventually reaching Vietnam and Myanmar.11 In Ming dynasty, multiple routes linking China proper to Lhasa were estab- lished; these routes fell into two categories: one by way of Sichuan and the other Qinghai. Starting Yuan dynasty, postal stations were established in large quantities. The Sichuan Line (aka the Southern Line), was the official tribute route—according

10Huo (1995). 11Writing Groups of the original and revised versions (2009), p. 91. 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network 51 to the government policy, the gifts for the Ming emperors from Ü-Tsang would be transported to Beijing on this route. It connects Chengdu on one end and runs past Yanto two categories: one by way of Sichuan and the other Qinghai. Starting Yuan dynas and joins the Qinghai Line in Dege before entering Tibet; the second runs past Lizhou, going westwards, past Dadu River, Yajiang River, Litang, Jinsha River, Markam, and reaching Tibet in Chamdo.12 Likewise, the second route, namely the Qinghai Line, also includes multiple lines: the first starts off from and goes westward along Huangshui River, running past Riyueshan mountain and finally arrives in Handong near Qinghai Lake,13 then running across Bayankela Mountain and entering Tibet from Yushu; The second starts off from Hezhou, subsequently going westwards, past Guide and across the Yellow River before reaching Bili, where it joins the Xining Line. The third starts off from Yaozhou, subsequently running in parallel to Yaoshui River westward and passing what is today’s, past Guide lian Autonomous County, Zeku County before ending in Chuanzang (today’s Qinghai Tongde County), joining Hezhou Line and entering Tibet—this route is referred to as Hequ Southern Line. The last starts from Yaozhou and enters Tibet in Songpan and Maozhou—By Ming Dynasty Chenghua Reign this wasthe route chosen by the China-bound tribute convoys from Ü-Tsang. On these routes, tea and horses were traded in large quantities; specialized government agencies in Tianshui, Hezhou, Hezhou and Yaozhou were established to admin- istrator trading activities. In addition to these, in Ming Dynasty, some new passages were established between China and South Asian countries.14

2.4.3 Outbound Transportation from Lhasa in Qing Dynasty

In Qing dynasty, some new routes were added. During this period, Lhasa continued to act as a communication hub and the city’s status as Tibetan political and eco- nomic center was further reinforced. This, in turn, promoted its economic and cultural development. During this period, a national postal service system covered much of the country. At the central government level, Lipan Yuan and Ministry of Military was the highest governing body of Tibetan postal service. At the local level, Tibetan Ambans were top administrators, except in region, this role was doubled by Sichuan Governor, in Amdo region, the Xining Minister.

12Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 141–142. 13Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 146–160. 14Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 146–160. 52 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors

In Qing dynasty, five major national postal routes were established with Jingshi Huanghua Postal Station in Beijing being the ridius. Once leaving Beijing, they branched off towards five directions. In 1719, the 58th year of the Kangxi Reign, postal stations began to emerge in Tibetan region. At that time, Kham-Tibet, Qinghai-Tibet, Yun’nan-Tibetwere three major routes connecting Lhasa and China proper. Kham-Tibet Line starts from Huanghua Postal Station in Beijing. After leaving Beijing, this route crossed the Great Wall in Juyongguan Pass, before entering Shaanxi province, Gansu province and Sichuan province, finally joining the Chuan-Kham Line before entering Tibet. The Qinghai-Tibet Line starts from Beijing, running past Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai before entering Tibet; Yun’nan-Tibet Line starts from Beijing, running past Henan, before finally entering Tibet from Zhongdian in today’s Yunnan province. These three routes played a significant role in central government’s control of Tibet. Kham-Tibet Line starts from Dajianlu (today Kangding, Sichuan) in the Kham and stretched some 2490 km before reaching Lhasa, with 84 (later increased to 102) Tai-level postal stations and 13 Xun-level ones.15 Along the Kham-TibetLine, six Liangtai were established, namely Dajianlu, Litang, Batang, Chamuduo, Lali, Lhasa, each governed by officials appointed by the central government. Yunan-Tibet Line starts from Zhongdian, Yuannan, stretching some 1540 km before reaching Lhorong of Tibet. There it joins the Kham-TibetLine, and even- tually arrives in Lhasa. Due to the mountainous terrain along this route, the Kham-Tibet and Qinghai-Tibet Lines, which are on milder terrains, were traveled on more often. Qinghai-Tibet Line starts in Xining, running past Qinghai and ends in Lhasa, stretching some 2060 km. Compared with Kham-Tibet and Yunan-Tibet Lines, Qinghai-Tibet Line to avoid the Mongolian-controlled territory, took a detour, resultant in 750 km extra length. In Qing dynasty, the Ambans were often opted for Kham-Tibet Line to travel between Lhasa and Beijing for the shortest distance. Postal services in Tibetan region were divided into four classes, depending on priorities and urgency. The top class could reach a speed of 600 li per day, achieved by 24-hour non-stop horse relays. With that speed, a 13,000 li trip, which was the distance between Beijing and Lhasa, can be completed within 24 days, including 11 days between Dajianlu (Note: Kangding, Sichuan province) and Lhasa. The postal system facilitates the communication between the central government and local ones, and shortened the time it took for information transmission, thus improved the local political stability and cultural ties, and promoted the economic development of the area where the routes passed through. Take Dian-Zang Route for instance, in Qing dynasty, the convoys traveling along the route, contributed greatly to the local business prosperity. At its peak, horse bands shuttling between

15According to the Qing dynasty postal system, Zhan is a unit established for the purpose of relaying military intelligence.Tai, or alternatively Juntai, Liangtai, was an institution in charge of managing transportation and storing grains, silver, uniforms, arsenal, responsible for investigation of crimes with authorization of the amban and supervise the mint of coins. 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network 53

Lijiang and Lhasa involved over 10,000 horses, carrying over 1000 tons of cargo in a two-way trip. These postal routes also served as venue where trades and other forms of exchanges took place. In Qing dynasty, trade between Tibet and China Proper was mainly carried out on the Sichuan-Tibet, Yunnan-Tibet and Qinghai-Tibet Lines, and all ended in Lhasa. Towns along the routes such as Songpan, Dajianlu, Luding in Sichuan and Deqin, Zhongdian, Adunzi in Yunnan, Xining, Dange’er in Qinghai became prosperous due to commerce activities. Tea, textile, footwear, cotton, tobacco, silk from Sichuan, cloth, copper, sugar from Yunnan were transported to Tibet in large quantities; antlers, musk, gold, sheepskin, saffron, Tibetan incense, wool, fritillaries, cordyceps were shipped from Tibet to inland China. Kham-Tibet Route was the most significant among all of them. Not only was it a main venue, where border tea trade was conducted, it was also of strategic military value as a route that most Qing Ambans used when traveling to and back from Tibet. Tea, mostly having entered Tibet through the Sichuan-Tibet Route, would be further shipped to Bhutan, Nepal, and Kashmir.16 Thus Sichuan-Tibet route was also an important link connecting China and South Asia.

2.4.4 Republic of China Era—Lhasa as an Important Link Connecting China

2.4.4.1 Communication Between Lhasa and Neighboring Provinces

During the Republic of China period, three kinds of routes connecting Tibet and China Proper emerged: The first are routes traveled by Tibetan officials and Buddhists. These included Qinghai-Tibet Line, Sichuan-Tibet Line and Yunnan-Tibet line; the second are those traveled by the Chinese emissaries and neighboring provinces’ officials, who often took the Sichuan-Tibet Line and Qinghai-TibetLine; the third are trade routes between Tibet and neighboring pro- vinces. The third category, more numerous in number, conducted most commerce. During this period, communication between Tibet and Inland China centered around four groups of routes, namely the Sichuan-Tibet Line, Qinghai-Tibet Line, Yun’nan-Tibet Line and Xinjiang-Tibet Line. Meanwhile, the outbound routes all ended in provincial central cities, which further reinforced the status of Lhasa as the transportation hub of Tibet. Among these routes: Sichuan-Tibet Route, or Chuan-Zang Route, included three lines: The Northern, Southern, and the Chuan-Zang Commerce Route. The Northern started from Chengdu, running past Kangding, before entering Tibet in Chamdo, and finally

16Chen and Gao (ed.) (2003), p. 545. 54 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors arrived in Lhasa. The Kangding-Lhasa section ran past Daofu, Luhuo, Garze, Dege, Geli, Tuolang, Chamdo, , Tsomola, Meldro Gongkar, and Dechin before entering Lhasa. The Southern line also started from Chengdu, then ran past Yarze, Dege, Geli, Tuolang, merce Route. The North Chamdo; the Chuan-Zang Commerce Line had two sub-lines. The major one started from Chamdo, running past En Commerce Line had two sub-lines. The major one started from past Yarze, Dege, Geli, Tuolang, Meldro Gongkar, Deqing and eventually Lhasa. The other one started in Chamdo, running past Uzi, Datan, Lagou, Jiangdangqiao, Lalibao, Hakacuoka, Sanba, Meldro Gongkar and eventually Lhasa. Qinghai-TIbet Route includes three lines: The First started from Xining, running across Tarim River, then past the Yellow River Origin area, Danglaling, Pangduo, and eventually reaching Lhasa. The second started from Xining, running past Yushu, Leiwuqi, Dingqing, Suoxian, Nagchu, eventually Lhasa; the third was the Qing-Zang Commerce Route, which started from Linxia, running past Xunhua, Degui, Maduo, Yushu, Dingqing, Baqing, Nagchu and eventually Lhasa. Yunnan-Tibet Route started from Kunming, running past Lijiang, Adunzi (aka Deqing), Yanjing, Ningjing and finally ending in Lhasa. This route also included three lines: One started from Lhasa in one end, running past Longmarong, Nakezang, Sali, Bakaer, Yutian, Hetian; the second started from Lhasa, running past Longmarong, Gongzhan, Wengbo, Yukaer, Guluke and the rest of Xinjiang; the third is Yun’nan-Tibet Commerce Route, starting from Yutian, running past Shadong, Ga’er and eventually ends in Lhasa. These routes reinforced Lhasa’s status as a regional political and communication center and facilitated the commerce between Tibet and China Proper. The trading activities are responsible for some of the most prosperous trade cities such as Shigatse, Chamdo, Gyangtse, Yadong, Karma Dake in Tibet, Xining, Huangyuan in Qinghai, Lapuleng Temple in Lhasa, Kangding in Kham region, Deqing and Zhongdian in Yun’nan.17

2.4.4.2 Lhasa in International Transportation Route During the Second Sino-Japanese War

The unique geographic conditions played an important role in Tibet’s grown importance in the Anti-Japanese War. Japan’s blockade severed China’s seaborne communication with the West, compelling it to seek alternatives including opening a land borne route to India and the Indian Ocean. The Tibetan Pro-China upperclass at that time were generally of the opinion that the KMT government should upgrade the Sichuan-Tibet and Kham-Tibetlines. After Yun’nan—Myanmar route was closed due to the war, KMT government attempted to reestablish a communication line between Chongqing, Chengdu and

17Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), p. 219. 2.4 Formation of the Transportation Network 55

Chamdo, Southern Tibet and Indian’s . Facing resistance from the Tibetan local political forces, the KMT government was forced to work with the US and open an international airway—the Hump. Limited by the meteorologist conditions, the aerial transportation line alone couldn’t deliver all China’s needs for war resources. Towards the end of 1941, the British government proposed to the KMT gov- ernment with a jointly built Sino-India Roadway. In 1942, the KMT government counter-proposed with a different route starting Sikkim, running past Lhasa, Chamdo, Garze, and Kangding and eventually reaching Sichuan. Transportation convoys were organized in India and war resources, such as fuel, medicine, cotton products, and communication equipment were shipped to China in large quantities. The KMT Ministry of Transportation also worked with the Kham-Tibet Trade Company in their launch of joint-venture called Kham-Tibet Transportation Limited Company, headquartered in Kangding. The company also operated in Lhasa and Kalimpong through its local branch offices. Eventually, a route was built starting from Kalimpong, India, running past Gyangze, Lhasa, Heihe, Leiwuqi, Yushu, Kangding and Ya’an and eventually reaching Chengdu. After the route was completed, the transportation was managed by the well-known Tibetan trader family Pomdatsang.18 The Sino-India Roadway not only helped ensure war supplies, but also con- tributed greatly to the economy of Lhasa, making the city the commercial center of not only Tibet, but Yun. The compnay also operated.

2.4.4.3 Communication Between Lhasa—Tibet and Neighboring Countries

The postal system and postal routes established in Qing dynasty remained in use during the Republican era with little change. Lhasa remained the radius of the system, with roads branching off towards Chamdo, Shigatse, Ngari, Lhokha, Nagchu, and the Thirty-nine Ethnic Group Area, etc. During this period, passages connecting Lhasa and the neighboring countries concentrated in Shigatse and Ngari region; they included Lhasa—Yadong/ Line, Lhasa—Nyalam/Gyirong Line, Lhasa—Saga/Zhongba Line, Lhasa—Pulan/ Zhada Line, Lhasa—Ritu/Gaer Line.19 Among these lines, Lhasa—Gyangze/ Yadong Line was the business and the most significant one. Yadong opened as a trade portal in the late 19th century; the signing of the Lhasa Treaty in 1904 further reinforced its status as the most important India—China border trade town and home to a large population oftraders. In terms of new development, during this

18Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 204–213. 19Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences (2001), pp. 219–229. 56 2 Lhasa City’s Formation and Multiple Historical Factors period, a seaborne route was established connecting Lhasa and coastal Chinese cities including Hong Kong and Shanghai by way of Gyangze, Yadong and India. Thus from Tupo to Republic of China Era, Lhasa was the center of trans- portation in Tibet and beyond. This is largely due to its political, cultural and commercial significance, which in turn promoted and reinforced its status as the regional center, where population and resources concentrated.

References

Charpa Tsiten Puntsog, Ugyen Nordrang, and Puntsog Tsiring. 2008. Tibetan General History— Turquoise Prayer Beads, 97. Tibet Academy of Social Sciences, China’s Tibet Magazine, Tibetan Ancient Books Publishing House. Chen, Qingying, and Shufen Gao (eds.). 2003. General History of Tibet. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House. Department of Transportation of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Tibet Academy of Social Sciences. 2001. A History of Tibet Transportation System. Beijing: China Communications Press. Huo, Wei. 1995. On Ancient Traffic of Tibet, and Western Asia based on Archaeological Materials, and the Introduciton of Buddhism to the Western Tibet. China Tibetology 1995 (4): 48–63. Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.), and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Shen, Zonglian, and Shengqi Liu. 2006. Tibet and Tibetans. Translated by Liu Xiaoqing. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Writing Groups of the original and revised versions of A Brief History of Tibetan Ethnic Group. 2009. A Brief History of Tibetan Ethnic Group. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House. Ya, Hanzhang. 2001. A Biography of Dalai Lamas. Beijing: Sino-Culture Press. Chapter 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Since inception, the layout of the Old City of Lhasa stayed relatively stable. For thousand years, however, changes did occur due to external influences. Among them, Buddhism was a significant one, especially its cosmology, system of rituals concerning praying and worshiping, all having contributed to the city’s unique appearance.

3.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Paucity of systematic design, planning and standards was the case throughout most of the Tibetan history. Urban designing philosophy drew inspiration from local religion and value system; towns of different administration levels often shared similar layouts thus were not differentiated enough; development was mostly spontaneous. When it comes to construction, although traditional Tibetan archi- tecture demonstrated a high level of sophistication, lack of scientific approach, such achievement was mainly a result of accumulated experience through long period of practice. Thus the Old City of layout embodied the Tibetan religious, artistic, and social values; not only did it have a unique appearance, but also convey great cultural value, which making it a true treasure. Jokhang and Potala Palace were the dual-centers of the Old City; culturally speaking, the Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters is the most significant district of the Old City. Between Barkor and Lingkor, the cobweb of roads and alleyways formed the framework of the city. Hidden in the maze, some areas are rarely set foot on by visitors. Meanwhile, there are crowded and noisy markets. The white walls and black windows, monasteries’ golden rooftops, the azure blue sky gave visitors a visual feast and a profound aesthetical experience.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 57 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_3 58 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

3.1.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

The Old City is sometimes summarized as One Heart, Two Ring Roads and Two Blocks. The heart refers to Jokhang, the ridius of a larger area including Barkor and Lingkor Circuits. The Two Blocks refer to Jokhang–Barkor–Ramoche Block and Potala Palace–Zhol Block respectively. Given that the inner one of the Three Circuits, the Lingkor Circuit, is inside Jokhang. As a result, Barkor, technically the second ring, is often regarded the inner one. In the city, Jokhang, Ramoche, Potala Palace, and Yuthog Zampa were three most important nodes. Together, they formed the axis of the city. Jokhang, the One Heart, is the religious center of the entire Tibet equivalent to Mecca in the Islam world. Every year, it attracts large number of pilgrims. Without Jokhang, there wouldn’t have been the community surrounding it, neither would there have been the Lhasa Old City as we know it. The Two Rings refer to the Barkor and the Lingkor that border the Old City respectively. Two Blocks refer to Jokhang–Barkor area, and Potala Palace area respectively. During the entirety of the Tupo dynasty and starting mid-17th century onward, Lhasa was the religious, administration and commerce center of Tibet. The majority of the religious and business activities took place in Jokhang–Barkor Area, while the city’s administration function concentrated in Potala and Zholareas. Starting the early 15th century, the Monlam Chenmo became an annual festival, attracting large number of piligrams. In mid-17th century, Potala Palace was reconstructed, which further stabilized Lhasa’s “Two Blocks” structure (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2).

Fig. 3.1 Space structure of the Old City of Lhasa. Source Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 15) 3.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa 59

Fig. 3.2 Beijing East Road (Courtesy Li Qing taken in May 20, 2007)

Jokhang–Barkor area and the Potala area was connected by a bridge called Yuthog Zampa. It is located on the side of today’s Yuthog Road. On its side, there is the residence of the 10th Dalai Lama’s family. Since all Dalai Lama’s families were collectively called Yuthog, this bridge is called Yuthog Zampa. Yuthog Zampa is a roofed bridge with obvious Han Chinese design cues. According to folklore, it was built in the 7th century AD. According to historical archives, in 1750, a pavilion was built on top of the bridge. The green-color glazed tiles-covered rooftop earned the bridge another name—Glaze Bridge. In Qing dynasty, this bridge was where the Tibetan officials received newly arrived Qing ambans. Prior to 1949, the waste of the entire city would be discharged into the river underneath Yuthog Zampa,1 though it is no longer in use today. In 1916, French female adventurer Alexandra David-Néel arrived in Lhasa. In her book, she wrote: “… Han Chinese style … pained red, with a green tile-covered roof.2 It is likely that the bridge has been looking like this since 1750, when it was rebuilt. The locals were very proud of the bridge, seeing it as a marvel.3” (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4). Liu Shengqi once worked at theMonoglian-Tibetan Affairs Committee during the Republican Era. In his memoirs, he wrote about the customs related with Yuthog Zampa: The local customs held that one should never pass this bridge on departure, but should when returning. Today, this practice is still followed by the locals.

1Suo (2008), Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 2David-Néel’s(1997). 3Tsybikov (1993). 60 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 3.3 Yuthog Zampa—the bridge that connects Old City and Potala Palace. Source F. Spencer Chapman photographed in 1936, Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 122)

Fig. 3.4 Yuthog Zampa today (Li Qing 2012-6-23)

In 1993, Yuthog Zampa was demolished and reconstructed. Prior to the reconstruction, it was renovated and turned into a restaurant, and later a jewelry shop. Due to the city’s constant expansion, the original gap between Jokhang area and Potala area was filled up with new buildings. Yuthog Zampa, no longer the only link that it once was, remained a symbol of tradition, and a construction known for its unique architectural style. 3.1 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa 61

3.1.2 Factors that Influence the Layout of the Old City

The layout of the Old City of Lhasa was deeply influenced by Buddhist view of the universe and the Tibetans’ unique way of praying. The Tibetan Buddhism inherited some ancient Indian , which postulates that earth is cubic and is surrounded by an spherical universe. In the center of the universe, there is a mysterious mountain called Sumeru; sur- rounding it, the universe shapes like a doughnut. The universe has a radius of 50,000 yojanas. Near the center, there is around area, 25,000 yojanas in diameter, where four large continents and eight islands situated. , translated in Chinese as Tancheng is the spiritual symbol representing the universe in large numbers of Buddhism literature. The most common representation of is a square with four openings. Inside, there is a circle with a point in its center. Inside the circle, there are five concentric smaller circles. The innermost one is a fire pattern, representing the fuel for Avidyā (a word meaning ignorance, misconceptions, misunderstandings, incorrect knowledge). The larger one is the Diamond Belt, which symbolizes perfection and eternity. The third is Lotus Circle, representing the spiritual rebirth. These three belts correspond in reality with the three concentric praying circuits surrounding Jokhang. Among the three concentric roads, the outermost one marked the boundary of the Old City. Another important factor is Tibetan Buddhist way of praying. Tantric as a Buddhist section has its unique form of worshipping called Kora—Practitioners walk in circles surrounding holy objects such as Buddhist statues, monasteries, city walls, sacred mountains or lakes for spiritual benefit. Today, this practice is still popular in South Asia. In Tibet, practice such as walking surrounding Jokhang is very common and this cultural factor exerted a great influence on the shaping of the city.

3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area

Jokhang and Barkor represent the center of the Old City. Given their short distance, the two are often perceived as one entity rather than two. Together they are the most scenic part of the Old City. Jokhang’s square-shaped contour contrasts sharply with the circular Barkor and curvy alleyways; tall golden roofs are brought out vividly by the low plain silhouettes of the civilian residences surrounding it. The crowds of pilgrims and the rich diversity of merchandise gave the holy place an air of worldliness. While this area is visually appealing, it is also highly functional and met the local residents’ daily life needs—perhaps the most distinct characteristic of the Old City (Fig. 3.5). 62 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 3.5 Jokhang Monastery and Barkor Area. The red block indicates Jokhang; the yellow ring surrounding it is Barkor. Source Qiping et al. (2013)

3.2.1 Jokhang’s Historical Evolution

Jokhang’s significance reaches far beyond its architectural excellence—it is a religious symbol, a visual delight, the soul of the city and its birthplace. Without Jokhang, there wouldn’t have been Barkor, nor the praying circuits and Old City as we know them.

3.2.1.1 Jokhang’s Original Structure

Among the large numbers of Buddhist monasteries in Lhasa, Jokhang enjoys unparalleled prestige: Its status as a sacred place was recognized by different sects of Buddhism starting ancient times. First built in 647 AD during the reign of Songtsen Gampo, it survived generations of kings, regime changes and Dalai Lamas. Over time, it attained its current scale of about 25,000 m2 footprint. In 1961, Jokhang entered the list of National Key Artifact Preservation Units. In 2000, the site was listed as a World Cultural Heritage. Aside from being a sacred religious symbol, Jokhang is also an excellent architectural masterpiece. Among other claims, it is the longest-surviving Tibetan wood-mud structure in existence. Stylistically, it combines a wide range of features borrowed from Tang China, Nepal and India: for example, the main praying hall bore great resemblance with Temple of India. In total, it consisted of over twenty buildings housing a rich coterie of cultural artifacts including Buddhist portraits, murals, scriptures, wooden statues, and so forth. 3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area 63

According to Tibetan folklore, prior to the construction of Lhasa, Tang Princess Wencheng ran a geomantic calculation. Her calculation indicated that Lhasa lacked eight Auspicious Elements; worse, it had five Evil Signs, because the city was possessed by a dimoness—the Lhasa Lake was the heart of the dimoness. The Princess thus ordered the lake to be filled up and a temple to be built on top in order to suppress the evilness. In addition, she ordered four smaller temples in sur- rounding areas to be built, including the Katsel Monastery, Trangdruk Monastery, Tsangtsen Monastery and Trongpagyam Monastery. Their locations corresponded with the dimoness’ four extremities. In addition, two other monasteries were built on locations corresponding to the dimoness’ two joints. Upon completion, the foundation began to be laid for the main temple. However, according to the his- torical archives, the dimoness continued to cause disturbance, and eventually compelled Songtsen Gampo to evoke his divine power. With the help of gods, the construction was completed in two days and nights. According to Sonam Gyaltsen’s Chronicle of Tibetan Kings, Songtsen Gampomorphed into various Manifestations; wielding supernatural force, he completed the city walls in four days, carpentry in six, rooftops in two days, and the Lower Compound seven; later. On the four gates, according to the folklore, the Tibetan king painted Mandalas to please the Buddhist lamas, Vajvakilaka to please the “script announcers”, Reversed (Translator’s note: Reversed Swastika is a religious symbol before made popular by the Nazis) to please the Bönpos, the followers of Bon religion. Finally he drew some fishing net patterns for the lay people. In the end, everyone, the god and the people alike, were pleased by this magnificent building. Afterwards, Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi sent some capable artisans from Nepal to continue to work on Jokhang. Within a year, the main hall was completed. Around the same time, the construction of Ramoche was completed. After the construction of Jokhang and Ramoche, Songtsen Gampo, accompanied by his two wives, ascended the rooftop of the Potala Palace to see the two new monasteries from afar. They then descended to visit to the two monasteries. According to the folklore, the new Jokhang had a floor as polished as a mirror, leading the king to believe that the filled-up lake reappeared. The legend held it that this is the reason that Jokhang is also called the Palace of Divine Manifestation. The Tibetan king was equally impressed by the newly built Ramoche and ordered a grand religious ceremony to be held to celebrate the completion of the two projects.

3.2.1.2 Construction After Songtsen Gampo

After Songtsen Gampo died, Jokhang experienced cycles of expansion, ruin and restoration. As Buddhism grew, the tension between it and the aboriginal religion, namely Bon, grew. Trongpagyel, the regent of the young king Trisong Detsen, was hostile to Buddhism. At his order, Jokhang was turned into a slaughterhouse, where “mutton hung from the Buddha’s hands”. After the young king came of age, persecution against Buddhists halted; Jokhang was restored and expanded. The final ruler of Tupo, was originally pro-Buddhism, but later made an 64 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa about-turn. He originally built the four statues on the four corners of Jokhang, but after he turned against the religion, he ordered Jokhang to be turned into a slaughterhouse for the second time, an act that earned him considerable notoriety. In the mid-10th century, Phapa Sherab, the abbot monk of Zangkar Monastery in Ngari, initiated a large-scale repair to bring Jokhang back to normalcy; afterwards, the eastern side was extended and many new Buddha statues were built. However, the monastery was once again damaged in 1116, amidst the conflict between two Buddhist sects. In 1220, Lhagyelkap Lama ordered the construction of the external walls and eaves of the main building. In mid-13th and 14th century, head of TselpaMyriarchy (Note: top governor of the Lhasa region) ordered the building of the statues of Gyelwa, the Empress, and Goddess of Auspicity, etc. In 1310, King of Ngari region appointed Rendor, a man reputed for his wisdom, in charge of building the golden rooftops of the Śākyamuni Hall and Avalokiteśvara Hall. In 1340, Wangchuk Tsundru, governor of Sakya, ordered the building of the statues of Five Great Prophets and GyelweZimchung on top of the RedMahogany Hall. In Phagmodru era, the third ruler Drakpa Changchub, responded to the request of Je Tsongkhapa and expanded the monastery by adding 12 “yard pillars” and ten “corridor pillars”. Around 1409, the year of the first Monlam Chenmo, Je Tsongkhapa, the founder of Gelugpa, performed the ritual of “Presenting the Five Buddhas Crown to Shakjamuni”, part of the Monlam Chenmo, at Jokhang. In Yongle Reign of Ming dynasty, Yang Ying, a Ming eunuch official, accompanied by 120 fellow officials visited Lhasa and held a ceremony at Jokhang; a monument was placed in the middle of the main building to commemorate their visit. In the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, Jokhang received further maintenance and expansion; the glazed roof tiles were replaced with gold-glided and copper-glided ones; four ramparts were added to the existing structure, and four gods’ resemblances were installed on the two sides of the main building. During the subsequent reign of Polhanai and the eighth Dalai Lama, further expansion was undertaken. In 1950, the Dalai Lama’s residence inside Jokhang was rebuilt along with a new building called Khamsum Zilnon. Since then the monastery’s appearance has stayed relatively the same. After the Peaceful Liberation, especially after Reform and Opening-up, preser- vation of the Tibetan cultural artifacts gained further priority. Starting the 1980s until the end of the Tenth-Five-Year-Plan period (2000), the government earmarked a total of 1.3 billion yuan for financing conservation and maintenance effort with regards to Tibetan cultural artifacts. During the period, Jokhang received several major repairs: In 1970, 0.7 million yuan government funds were earmarked for the repair of the Central Hall; in 1990, another three million was spent on a structure reinforcement project of Jokhang. Between 1994 and 2000, Potala Palace, Jokhang and Norbulingka were listed as a world-class cultural heritage, while the govern- ment’s effort to protect them continued. During the Tenth-Five-Year-Plan period, the government earmarked 0.57 billion yuan for the preservation of the historical heritage, repairing 22 sites including Jokhang, Tashilhunpo Monastery and Drepung Monastery. Between July, 2009 and June, 2011, a fund of 18.17 million 3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area 65 yuan was spent on the repair of Jokhang, in particular, replacing the fractured, disfigured and termite-damaged wooden parts in the main building. In addition, A-Thousand-Buddhas-Corridor and the Northern Corridor received treatment to repair and prevent termite damages. Arga—a traditional way of producing rammed earth was applied during the rebuilding. The rotten parts of the roof were replaced. Between the first half of 2011 and the second half of 2012, the government ear- marked 120 million yuan for the maintenance of the golden rooftop of the Jokhang, and for the first time the murals on the exterior facades were repainted. In total, over 4000 m2 of construction was renovated for a total investment of 10 million yuan. The project lasted about three years. This effort of maintaining the structure con- tinued, which contributed to the preservation of Jokhang’s cultural value.

3.2.2 Barkor Area

Barkor Circuit was one-thousand-meter-long surrounding Jokhang. Starting from the main gate of Jokhang, and walking clockwise, one would walk past the four sides of the rectangular road, first the Barkor North, then Barkor East, Barkor South, and finally, the Barkor West—which today is Jokhang Square. After Jokhang was built, over time, centered around the monastery emerged a cobweb of alleyways. This was the original Barkor area. During Trisong Detsen’s reign, to commemorate the good relationship between Tupo Tibet and Tang China, a monument was built in front of Jokhang. As pilgrimage increased, Kora, or Circuit Prayer, a practice involving walking in circles around a supposedly holy sites or objects, became popular. As a result, circuits surrounding Jokhang began to be referred to as Kora Circuits. In the 15th century, Monlam Chenmo began to be held regularly. This event further enhanced Jokhang’s religious prestige and attraction to pilgrims. In the early 19th century, the Barkor Circuit surrounding Jokhang emerged, which contributed to the prosperity in its surrounding area. This prosperity lasted into the Republic of China Era. In the entire Old City, this area had the highest density of buildings and monasteries. In the past, the streets were full of pilgrims coming from different directions. Today, aside from pilgrims, the place is also a tourist attraction. The historical relics in the area abore witness to the long bygone era; in 1995, Barkor was listed as a Lhasa city municipal-level cultural heritage preservation unit.

3.2.2.1 Cityscape of Barkor Prior to the Peaceful Liberation

Commerce in the Barkor area started the reign of Songtsen Gampo. Over time, the area experienced substantial growth, in particular, in the second half of the 17th century, when trade between Lhasa and the surrounding countries became more prosperous. 66 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Due to paucity of documented accounts of social life, commercial and con- struction activities in Lhasa, today’s researchers rely heavily on ones produced by Western explorers. It is through these writings, we are allowed an intimate glimpse into the Old City’s history. In 1882, Sarat Chandra Das, an Indian intelligence officer came to Lhasa and made some observation of the city. Chandra Das came in May. He wrote that he walked past the Yuthog Zampa, aka the Turquoise Bridge, and saw large numbers of shops run by locals and Han Chinese alike. Each had a pyramid-shaped object in front of the door, where pine branches and dry leaves were set on fire—a practice that the locals believed would please the gods. On the street to the south of Jokhang, multi-story department stores run by Nepalese and Chinese lined the road. There, silk, porcelain pieces and tea bricks were on sale. 15 years later, Japanese monk Kawaguchi Ekai left home and traveled to India, Nepal and eventually Tibet. He became the first documented Japanese visitor to Tibet. During his three-year stay in Tibet, Ekai meticulously documented his life in the city, such as how he was impressed by the prosperity of Barkor, he compared the area with Ginza district of Tokyo and surprise by the discovery of the Japanese matches and porcelain pieces—the famous Kutani ware, in the households of local aristocracy. Shortly after Ekai left Lhasa for home, in 1904, Sir Francis Younghusband, commanding an armed expedition, forced his way into the city. Younghusband’s conquest ushered in a brief period of military occupation. Edmund Campion, a writer with Daily Mail, was embedded with the Expedition. His reports includes some snippets describing Lhasa streets, local population and other details such as a Kalön Tripa making a public appearance on the street, etc. Campion saw that aside from Tibetans, there were also Mongols, Nepalese, Kashmirians and Chinese traders. “A horse-riding Kalön Tripa showed up and the crowd receded towards both sides, clearing up a passage in the middle. The lord dressed in bright yellow silk. His horse-riding entourage followed him. Their hairdos were so extravagantly done that they paled those of the European opera actors. In time of permissive weather, the open ground on both sides of the round stoned street would be turned into an open-door marketplace; colorful cloth and porcelain ware are mostly traded items. … The Nepalese wore flat-topped brown hats; their deep brown robes darker than the Lamas’. Kashimirian shop-keepers wore headscarves, dressed in blue cloaks…”. Such prosperity lasted into the Republican Era, especially during the Anti-Japanese War, when Lhasa became a regional transportation hub, critical to China being replenished with military supplies. This coincided with a period of economic growth, when many local merchants made their fortunes. In their co-authored book Tibet and Tibetans, Shen Zonglian and Shen Shengqi remembered the Barkor favorably: “Barkor Circuit is fairly wide. It encircled an imperfect rectangular area, where there is the city’s largest monastery—Jokhang. The circular street, less than a mile long, surrounded a new market. With a few monasteries and aristocrats’ courtyards in its vicinity, the street was a favorite place for many locals for a leisurely stroll. … Although Barkor was unpaved and had no road lamps, one may even tempted to say that it was a little dirty and the stray dogs 3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area 67 are too many, it was an important venue where the annual revelries took place. Not only was it a main street in the city, for many years, it was the only street.”

3.2.2.2 Distribution of Merchants Prior to the Peaceful Liberation

Aside from Tibetan locals, the Lhasa population also included a significant per- centage of traders in Barkor area coming from neighboring provinces, including Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Yunan, as well as those from other countries, such as Nepal, Kashimir, India, etc. The Nepalese are known to be the first foreign settlers in Lhasa; the earliest Nepalese settlers are believed to have traveled to Lhasa as early as in Tupo era more than a millennium ago. The first Kashimiran was believed to have come in the 14th century AD. They established trade between Lhasa and their home country. Some settled down in the city, and grew to become the Kashimiran Muslim communities that are still existent today. A 2004 census indicates that the Muslim population in the city numbered around 300. In addition, in the mid-19th century, the city began to see its first merchants from Beijing and Hebei. They formed close-knit communities, referred to as Ping Bang, Dian Bang, Chuan Bang and Hui Bang (Note: meaning the Beijing Gang, Yunnan Gang, etc.), according to their origin. These businessmen brought a rich variety of resources from home and greatly enriched the life of the locals. Statisitics indicate that between the 1930s and 1940s, in Barkor area surrounding Jokhang, there were nearly a thousand business establishments, which accounts for one third of the total number in the entire Tibet. Such a high number underscores the importance of Lhasa in the Tibetan economy. Zhu Shaoyi, a secretary to Wu Zhongxin, chairman of Mongolian and Tibetan Committee of the KMT Chinese Government, spent five months in Lhasa starting November 1939. He made some observations of the city, including merchants, in his book What I Saw in Lhasa.By Zhu’s estimate, at that time there were around two thousands Han Chinese living in the city; among them, 50–60 were from Beijing; their businesses included seven department stores, dealing silk, porcelain and other items from Beijing. Their establishments were mostly prosperous and often had clean and tidy appearance. He also mentioned that there were between 200 and 300 Chinese Hui Muslims forming a close-knit community. In addition, there were over a hundred merchants from Yunnan, mostly tea traders; among them, successful ones were wealthy enough that they had a capital of hundreds of thousands of silver dollars. However, they also suffered a negative reputation for beings lothful. Over a thousand Sichuan Chinese were employed in butchery and corpse collection trades—all low-paying, low-prestige occupations. In addition, there were about 150 grocery stores run by Nepalese grocers. The city also had a community of street peddlers from all areas and locals alike. In the early 20th century, the Barkor businessmen’s community demonstrated a new trend of grouping into different smaller communities depending on the resi- dents’ origins. For example, the Nepalese lived mostly on both sides of Barkor North, where they ran stores dealing silk, watches, cloth and candies; Barkor Easte 68 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa and South were an area shared by peoples of different origins; with Nepalese on the Northern part, Beijingers on the middle section, and Kashimirans and Hui Chinese close to the Southern end, dealing jewelry, art craft, food, clothes, daily life items, local produces, high-end furs and Tibetan hats. The eastern side and southern side of Barkor were mostly Kashmirans, who sold high-end firs and Tibetan-style hats; occupying the Barkor West area was mainly Tibetan merchants, who dealt all kinds of small items, such as paper, pens, ink, traditional paints made of plants and minerals, and imported indian decorative items, etc. The Shasarzur Alley (literally meaning fresh meat coner) which joined the Barkor Northern Street was a place where the Northern Tibetan merchants concentrated, dealing northern Tibetan and mutton, butter, cheese, etc. Pior to this, there was a small butchery shop; after cattle and goats were butchered, their meat would be sent to produce market on Shasarzur Road. Aside from shops, there were also restaurants, teahouses and wineries. Aside from areas next to Barkor, merchants also lived in alleyways branching off the main street. Together, they formed the kennel of the Old City. For example, the Yun’nan community mainly concentrated along Kyire Alleyway to the northeast of Barkor; mostly engaged in tea trade. At least starting in , tea-horse trade route was established between Yun’nan and Lhasa. These Yun’nan busi- nessmen in Tibet had their own business chambers. The Chuan Bang–Gang of Sichuan, were an organization of the Kham-region Tibetan merchants. They con- centrated near Banag Zhol to the east of the Barkor, dealing cattle, mules, leather, butter, deer antlers, musk, knives and swords, articles of precious metal such as gold, silver and copper. To the West of Barkor, there was the community of traders from Qinghai and Gansu provinces, mainly dealing mules, firearms, donkeys, liquor, and horse gears. To the southeast of Barkor, there was once a fresh produce market. To the east, there were the Chinese Muslims who were often in the trade of butchery, and grain grinding and restaurants, and retail. As the Barkor became more prosperous, specialty markets emerged, often run by locals in surrounding alleyways. Along Tsonag Alleyway near Barkor East, there was the Lhasa’s largest fresh produce market—the largest beef supplier in the city. Butcheries are run almost exclusively by the Chinese Muslims. Its very name Shatromwo meant in Tibetan languagemeat market. To its east, there was O’tozhingka Alleyway, where located a flea market of second-hand clothes, fur- niture pieces and Tibetan tea were traded. To its north, Kyire Alleyway is known for the leather processing and leather product workshops. To the east of Kyire Alleyway, there was Banagzhol. It earned its name, literally meaning Black Tent, mainly due to that many early pilgrims, who visited the city pitched their tents in the area. This is also an area where the Chamdo businessmen concentrated, most being tea traders. To the south of Barkor there was Todlungdechen County, where farmers sold their monk boots, leather bags and grass stuffed cushions. To the West, there was a pottery market. Today, due much to the social and demographic change, the level of specialization of different areas became lower. All these Tibetan, Han Chinese and Muslim Chinese merchants lived within relative small confines. Over time, as they intermingled with the locals, they 3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area 69 became more integrated into local society. Today in Lhasa, there are cemeteries exclusively for Han Chinese or Chinese Muslims. The Chinese Muslims cemetery located at the foot of the Nache Township, Zangre Village. Established in the 60th year of Qianlong Reign in Qing dynasty, it was originally exclusively for Qing Chinese servicemen. There were also two Muslim cemeteries, including one in the northern suburb, western northern of the Doede Village, Dorde Township. This cemetery was established in the 16th century, originally a burial ground for the Chinese Hui Muslims. The cemetery later expanded twice, once in the 55th year (1716) and 58th (1793) the Kangxi Reign respectively; the second one was in the northern suburb, north to the Autonomous Region Art School, which was estab- lished in the early Qing dynasty. Aside Kashmiran Muslisms, there were also Ladakh, Nepalese, Shikk and British Muslims. Given the long history of exchange between the Tibetan and Han Chinese dynasties, a large percentage of the Tibetan population in Lhasa has partial Chinese ancestry. When Tang Princess Wencheng came to Lhasa, many of her servants and the artisans came with her settled down in O’tang area. Seventy years later, by the time when Jincheng, another Tang Chinese princess arrived, the O’tang area had developed into a small Han Chinese neighborhood of hundreds of residents. In the 13th century, Gade Gunpo, the governor of Lhasa, several times brought artisans and technicians from China to Tibet. In the Ming dynasty, Yongle Reign, Tsongkhapa’s eldest disciple Shagya Yeshe visited Beijing twice to meet with Yongle Emperor and brought back a group of Han Chinese Buddhist monks. In Qing dynasty, due much to the increase of the military presence, the number of Han Chinese population increased. Some veterans married local women and engaged in agriculture or commerce. The number of Han Chinese kept growing, with the majority coming from Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi and other western provinces. In Republic of China era, the Beijing businessmen increased, many socialized with local aristocrats, and the number of the Chinese government personnel in Tibet also grew. In the pre-1949 Tibet, some of the largest merchant families were local aristo- crats. Some of them lived in the Barkor area. By the 1950s, Pomdatsang, Samdoktsang, Radrintsang, Tsarong, Kundeling, Jokhang, Zurkhang, Thunpa, Lhalu, Ngakbo, Yabshi Phuntsok, Sampowere the largest merchant families. Collectively, they owned a capital in excess five million silver dollars, accounting for 43% of the total amount of capital owned by the over 900 businesses in Lhasa— 11.63 million silver dollars. In 1959, among the 41 largest wholesalers in Tibet, 23 were run by aristocrats and government officials and nine by clergy. Together, they represented the 78% of the Tibetan wholesale industry. Big wholesalers often buy their merchandise from the British India. In addition, a relatively small number were Han Chinese, mostly silk and tea traders. The three ruling classes were in possession of large number of production resources, business profit, an example of the giant gap between different social classes in Old Tibet. Today, the merchant communities were more diversified in terms of origins and their living places are more dispersed. For example, the Barkor North is a place traditionally lived by the Nepalese with high concentration of Nepalese shops. 70 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Today, it is no longer dominated by the Nepalese. Although Zhamokarpo,a century-old shop Nepalese imports store, is still in business, most shops in this area are non-Nepalese. In the Western part of the Barkor North, one can see stores specialized in jewelry, clothing materials, copper items, Nepalese and Indian imported specialties such as perfumes and incenses. The Eastern stretch was mainly for Nepalese and Tibetan apparel and paintings. There were also stores dealing art pieces and other handcraft products. There were also some restaurants. In the southern stretch of Barkor East, located the reputed “Yellow House” (aka Makye Amye), a Tibetan Restaurant said to be where the 6th Dalai Lama fre- quented; on the Southern part, there were shops for clothing materials, religious items, Thangka, and Nepalese apparel. There were also some medium-sized stores catering to tourists, including Songni Chenbo, Namse Department Store. The merchandise that they delt was highly diversified; the majority dealing local Thangka paintings and religious ritual utensils. Some, mostly owned either by Tibetans or Lhasa locals, dealt Nepalese and Tibetan apparel; other trades include restaurateuring, sale of shawls and China-made souvenirs, employing mostly non-Tibetans. To the east of Barkor East, there was an area traditionally lived by Hui Chinese Muslims; today in this area, signs of Muslim tradition are still obvious, such as butcher’s shops and halal restaurants. But even in this traditionally Muslim area, one can still see Tibetan stores, where one saw furniture, grocery and Tibetan sweet tea. Outside Barkor, the majority of businesses are run by the Chinese; most of them dealing clothing produced in inland China, daily life items, and food. After the Peaceful Liberation, Barkor enters a period of rapid change: more state-owned shops were set up, while former foreigner-ownedones closed. Overall, the area remained prosperous. According to historical data, in late 1980s, on Barkor, there were a total of 1012 stores and 2105 businessmen; among them, 30 were state-owned, employing a total of 727 employees; 46 private collectively-owned stores, employing 237, and 936 family-run businesses, employing a total of 1141. Since late 1970s, effort was made by the government to improve the general conditions of the Barkor area, with focus being on repairing dilapidated houses and upgrading public facilities. Until mid-1980, the appearance of Barkor remained mostly unchanged. In the subsequent years, the infrastructure received great care and improvement. 1.23 million yuan was invested by the municipal government leading to the road surface of Barkor covered with granite plates. However, such efforts also led to unintended changes to the buildings and layout, eventually affected the area’s original appearance. Some historically significant buildings were demolished.

3.2.2.3 Ramoche

Ramoche, constructed in the mid-seventh century, was about 500 meters to the north of Jokhang. The monastery’s design is said to be conceived by Princess Wencheng herself and the building was conducted by artisans that the princess brought from China. The construction completed about the same time as Jokhang. 3.2 Jokhang and Barkor Area 71

Like Jokhang, Ramoche’s design was also strongly inspired by the Tantra Bhuddism theories. When it was completed, the size of the monastery was on par with Jokhang. Its main gate faced eastwards, alluding to the princess’s home—the Tang capital Chang’an. In total, Ramoche has a footprint of around 4000 m2. Its primary structure is a three-storey tall building. The ground floor was partisaned into three Halls, namely the Gate Hall, Praying Hall and Buddha Statue Hall. They are surrounded by a prayer circuit. When Princess Wencheng first arrived, she brought with her a statue of Sakyamuni when the founder of Buddhism was supposedly at an age of 12. Originally the statue was placed inside Ramoche. During and after Ming and Qing dynasty, Ramoche was revered as the Upper Tantra College by the Gelugpa School. In 1962, the monastery was listed as one of the Tibetan Autonomous Region’s most significant artifact preservation sites. In 2001, it was listed by the State Council as part of the national key cultural relic preservation project. The size of Ramoche expanded overtime though it also experienced several setbacks. The original Ramoche had two parts—Dragkhang and the Inner Circuit. Structurally, it was similar to Jokhang. Between the 10th and the 13th century, the Conference Hall was added to the structure. Between the 15th and the 16th century, the Protector Hall was built; between 17th and 18th century, the Entrance Galary and outer praying circuit were added. In 1474, Je Tsongkhapa’s second-generation disciple appointed Ramoche the Upper Transic Collage, serving as the top academy of this sect. Subsequently, hundreds of Buddhist monks moved to the monastery for education. Aside from the lowest floors where the Buddha’s statues were placed, most buildings were added in more recent times. When the anti-Buddhism ruler Langdarma came to power, at his order, the monastery was turned into a slaugh- terhouse (Fig. 3.6).

Fig. 3.6 Ramoche (Courtesy of Li Qing on Oct. 22, 2005) 72 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

In history, the area in the east of Ramoche was once swampy. There was a narrow river flowing through the south of the monastery and Chagpori, and eventually converging with the Lhasa River. On the section near Ramoche, there were two stone bridges, both having been demolished in a modification project in the 1960s to drain away and fill up the swamps. Although the bridges were gone, today, they still appear in the names of some hotels or restaurants in this area. The area surrounding Ramoche is a place where many historically significant incidents occurred and buildings existed. The most famous cultural heritage sites here include Ganden Khangsar (today part of the TsomonLing, Tzashen Military Camp, Zhide Ling and slightly further, Gyudmelam Street (meaning Lower Tantric College Street). It is said that Je Tsongkhapa once preached in what later is known as Jebomkhangarea near Ramoche. In the early 18th century, a five-storey Buddhist was built in this area. This Pagoda contained over 100,000 statues of the cleric. Its name Jebomkhangliterally means in Tibetan language “the place where the master’s statue is”. In the 19th century, the tower was demolished, whilst the statues were relocated to the top of a yellow-painted wall in the middle of a street. Around the same time, a three-story monastery was built on the site of the by-then demolished pagoda. A two-storey statue of Maitreya Buddha was placed inside. Today, this monastery had been transformed from a place of worship into a granary, owned by the Chengguan District Food and Grain Bureau. Overtime, in the area surrounding Ramoche emerged a densely built residential community and some of the city’s busiest markets. In the Republican Era, many traders from northern Tibet moved to live here. To its west, there was a small slaughterhouse; fresh meat was transported everyday to the meat markets in Shasarzur near Barkor North. The street in front of Ramoche was known for an area for restaurants, earning its name Zakhang Zhung, meaning Restaurant Street. Today, surrounding Ramoche, there are many civilian residences and shops. Unlike Jokhang and Barkor, where businesses mainly cater to tourists; businesses in this area primarily serve the locals’ demand for daily items and clothing. It is not as noisy as those tourist areas. This quietness enhances the area’s spiritual serenity and organic aura.

3.3 Potala Palace and Zhol Area

Famous architecture pieces in the Potala Palace area include Potala Palace, Zholcomplex, Chagpori complex and Dzonggyap Lukhang Garden. Many gov- ernment agencies along with their staff once concentrated in this area. Stylistically, these buildings tend to be more formal and solemn than buildings in other areas, as they are reflective of their administration function. Yet they are dwarfed by the massive Potala Palace towering above them. Such contrast contributes to this area’s special visual effect. 3.3 Potala Palace and ZholArea 73

Potala Palacehas long been seen as a symbol of power. Its prodigious dimen- sions convey a sense of authority. Standing tall and aloof, the Palace overlooks Jokhang and Barkor. The contrast of heights gave visitors a sense of spiritual transcendence. Today, Potala Palace and Jokhang–Barkor are two special areas in an otherwise busy city, attracing large numbers of visitors for their unique blend of spirituality and secular liveliness.

3.3.1 Potala Palace

The name Potala Palace came into popular use in Republic of China era. The building’s history can be divided into two separate stages. Its first iteration was called the Red Hill Castle built in the reign of Songtsen Gampo; by the end of Tupo dynasty, most of the original Red Hill Castle were ruined save for two parts, namely Chögyel Drakpuk and Phapa Lhakhang. During the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, the Palace was rebuilt. For the subsequent half a century, two new constructions, namely the White Palace and Red Palace, were added to the original structure. This would come to be the Potala Palace as we know it today. After Songtsen Gampo established capital in Lhasa, he ordered the construction of Phabongkha, literally meaning “palace of rocks”. This building, situated in the northern suburb of Lhasa, served as the ruler’s personal residence as well as the place where he met his ministers. Later to celebrate his marriage with Nepalese Princess Bhrikuti Devi, Songtsen Gampo ordered the construction of Large Palace (aka Red Hill Castle) on top of Marpori(meaning Red Hill). This new building was famous for its enormity, with each side measuring over 500 meters; the completed palace had a total of one thousand rooms, including nine hundreds in the Red Hill Castle and the original one hundred of the King’s quarters. This would turn out to be the precursor of what we today know as Potala Palace. Later, on top of Chagpori to the south of Potala Palace, a nine-storey Draglha Tashi Palace was built. This later became the queen’s quarters, where the Princess Bhrikuti Devi resided. The king’s and the queen’s quarters were linked by an iron-chain bridge. In 641 AD, after Songtsen Gampo married Princess Wencheng, the ruler ordered an expansion of the Palace. The completion marked the conclusion of Potala Palace of its first phase. Sonam Gyentsen’s book Tibetan KingsAnnalsand the 5th Dalai Lama’s book Tibetan MinistersAnnals both contain accounts of the original Potala Palace. According to these accounts, contrary to popular belief, Potala Palace was not built before the marriage of Songtsen Gampo with Princess Bhrikuti Devi, but after. According to them, after the wedding, Songtsen Gamposatbesides the Buddha statue that the Nepalese princess brought and prayed day and night. His wife, Princess Bhrikuti Devi, concerned with her husband’s health, interpreted as sign of anxiety over border unrest and convinced him to build a fortress-palace to counter such threats. As a result, three thick stonewalls were built on top of the Red Hill. Inside the building, there were 999 rooms. The rooftop of the palace was decorated 74 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa with erected swords and spears—among every ten, one would have a red flag attached to it. Ditches were dug out outside the southern wall, covered by wooden plates and a layer of bricks to protect against fire. The gate was wide enough that a horse could pass. The design had the acoustic effect of magnifying noise, a feature that served as an alarm system. Such a fortress was a formidable defense system back then. The Nepalese queen’s private quarters were later built to its south. GendünChöpel, contemporary Tibetan scholar wrote a book White Annals on the history of Potala Palace, its style and its relationship to Tibetan architecture culture. According to Chöpel, the red color and arrow/spear motif likely borrowed the designing cues from the tradition of Tupo rulers wearing red hats and red turbans. He also pointed out that this was present in many other buildings as well. “The Ruler built the Red Palace and decorated the rooftop with arrows and spears. Subsequently, arrows and spearheads were common for buildings, so were the red walls. Red became a color reserved for rulers—red gowns, red palaces, red head- wear and red flags.4” As for Potala Palace’s structure, Chöpel believed that the design of Potala offered a model for later-day Tibetan monasteries. According to him, “The details of the building were meticulously documented in Dawang Jiaoming Anthology. Today, the only way to learn about its original design was a mural on a wall of the Eastern Gallery of the Hill-top Hall. The 5th Dalai Lama, in his book Lhasa Index, mentioned the mural. Today, the details were all lost to aging and accumulated smoke stain. We know for certain that at least during the lifetime of the 5th Dalai Lama, people were still able to see the original shape of the Palace on the mural. It is highly likely that this is the blueprint (of Potala Palace). … At that time, a monk named Drase lived in the Palace and taught Hetuvidyā—this was documented by some Tibetan history books. It is likely that at that time the Potala already assumed an appearance typical of Tibetan monasteries.5 The palace suffered serious damage in the later stage of Tupo period. In 797 AD, during the reign of Trisong Detsen, a lightening-caused fire ruined part of the complex. By the reign of Langdarma, only two parts, namely Dragpuk and Phagpa Lhakhang survived. Until the mid-17th century, little effort was made in terms of restoration. In 1642, the 5th Dalai Lama established Ganden Phodrang Regime. In 1645, at his behest, a project, overseen by Sonam Rabtan, commenced to rebuild the Palace. Large number of laborers and artisans were conscripted; 114 Han Chinese artisans were sent by the Qing Emperor to render assistance. Some revered Chinese Buddhist monks contributed to the design. Eight years later, the White Palace was completed. One year prior to its completion, the 5th Dalai Lama visited Emperor Shunzhi of Qing China. The following year, he received a title from the Qing government. After the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa, the construction of White

4Chöpel’s(1981). It may be a mistake that in this book the author believes that the Red Palace was built for Princess Bhrikuti Devi. Most historians agree that the Red Palace was built for Songtsen Gampo, while Zhala Zhaxi Palace was built for Xizun Princess. 5Chöpel’s(1981). 3.3 Potala Palace and ZholArea 75

Palace completed so he moved from his former residence Labdrang Nyingpa to the new Potala Palace. This was the start of a tradition that all his successors would take up residence in the Palace. In 1682, the 5th Dalai Lama died. In 1690, Sangye Gyatso, the regent of the 6th Dalai Lama, ordered an expansion of the Palace, leading to the construction of the Red Palace and the Golden Tower, the -tomb where the ashes of the 5th was kept. Afterwards, all Dalai Lama’s ashes were stored in the same fashion. The construction took some three years. To celebrate its completion, a monument was placed in front of it—known as the Characterless Monument. Since then, the structure of Potala Palace remained largely unchanged. In 1933, the Tibetan local government funded the construction of the stupa-tombs for the 13th Dalai Lama. The project took three years to complete; this structure marked the completion of the entire modern-day Potala Palace, which measures 360 m (east-west) long and 140 m (south-north) wide, and has a footprint of 135 l. With Zholand Dzonggyap Lukhang garden included, the complex has a footprint over 600 l, making it not only the largest construction in the city but the entire Tibet. Today, it is also a world famous architecture. Tibetan Buddhists treated this palace with great respect, referring to it as the Second Mount Putuo, a sacred mountain in Buddhist literature; this is also what its name Potala suggests (Fig. 3.7). In the history of Tibet and Qing China relationship, Potala Palace played an important role. In 1795, the Emperor Qianlong abdicated and subsequently announced to dedicate himself to Buddhism. The emperor ordered a Thangka portrait of himself, dressed as Buddhist monk, to be sent to Lhasa. In 1798, the 8th Dalai Lama ordered a shrine to be built in the Zimchong khamsum Zilnon to place

Fig. 3.7 Potala Palace (2009-6-29, Li Qing) 76 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa the emperor’s Buddhist monk portrait. A signboard was placed in front of the portrait; its inscription read: May His Greatness Live a Long Life of Ten Thousand Years. This has thereafter become the place, where the ritual was performed. Through this method, the Dalai Lamas from the 10th to the 12th were elected. After Peaceful Liberation, as one of the most important historic architecture, Potala Palace received increasing amount of recognition for its historic and cultural value. In 1961, it was included on the list of the first National Significant Legacy Preservation Projects. In 1994, it was listed as a World Cultural Legacy project. In July 1990, having received approval from the State Council, 150 million yuan government funding was spent on repairing and maintaining the building. The project took some five years to complete. Starting in 2002, during the subsequent seven years, 380 million yuan was spent. Aside from project, other traditional buildings such as Norbulingka and Sakya Monestry were also included in the project. In recent years, to better protect the Palace, the number of daily visitors was restricted.

3.3.2 Zhol

Over time, the surrounding area of Potala Palace became increasingly occupied by the government agencies, supporting facilities and residences of the personnel. These buildings were collectively referred to as ZholZhol-Zhol in Tibetan language means low buildings underneath taller ones. These buildings, along with Dzonggyap Lukhang Garden and Chapori to the southeast of Potala, formed an area of buildings similar to the area surrounding Jokhang, which served religious, res- idential and commercial functions. Historically, Zhol area referred to the area between Potala Palace to the south and Beijing Middle Road to the north. Since 1970, especially mid-1980s after Potala Square was built, the northern part of this area until the south of Beijing Middle Road underwent great amount of changes. This had a great impact on the historic appearance of Potala Palace area. In 1971, effort was made to fill up the swamps to the south of Potala Palace, on top of which, a square was built. As one of the 42 projects outlined at the 2nd Tibetan Work Symposium, in 1984, the Cultural Palace was built to the west of Potala Palace. In 1994, as one of the 62 Aid Projects outlined at the central CPC govern- ment Third Tibetan Work Symposium, a 110 million yuan Potala Square expansion project was carried out involving relocation of 670 residents and 15 businesses. The three White Towers between Potala Palace and Chagpori were restored to restore the historic look of Zhol in 2000, the square was near-completion—it bordered the western side of Khar Nga Dong Road, and eastern side of Chagpori with the TAR government courtyard to the south and Potala palace to the north; in total, this had an area in excess of 230,000 m2. On the square, one can see the Monument of the Peaceful Liberation. Around it, there are teahouses, restaurants, shops that cater to 3.3 Potala Palace and ZholArea 77 increasing number of tourists. In recent years, neon lights were installed in area near Potala Palace, creating a lively night view. Small businesses were barred in the square and surrounding area, where lawn and a large LED TV screens were placed to add lush greenness and expansive view to the area. Given the closeness and functional connection between Potala Palace and Zhol, the later was traditionally regarded a part of Potala Palace and is essential to the latter’s world cultural heritage status. Most buildings in Zhol area fell into three categories: urban administration-related buildings, including court of law, prison, tax collection bureaus and mint; facilities that serve Dalai Lama and his court; and residences lived by families of aristocrats, officials, low-ranking employees and their housekeeping staff. In 2002, the government launched another effort to restore Zhol. Circa 2005, 30 million yuan was earmarked, 303 households were relocated from Zhol, and 22 dilapidated buildings underwent maintenance. Effort was also made to improve the transportation conditions and environment. A wide range of experts’ opinions were solicited, based on which, cultural and historic artifacts and materials were collected and put in display at exhibition centers. Today, about 50,000 m2 worth of buildings were preserved; 22 vintage ones were open to the public. Important buildings in the area include Five Courtyards, Tongbo Residence, Bixi Residence, Lungshar Residence, Kansu Residence—all aristocrats’ residences; Xueqire, Yinjingyuan, Qiancang—all public service facilities. In addition, there were also government agencies including Zhol Lekung, Lhasa Prison and the Mint; most built in the 17th century: The Five Compounds are Phuntsok Rabten, Naluo, Geerben Ningba, Gengtang Dare and Nirena. They collectively account for 1020 m2 of construction footprint. Today, they are workshops producing tkangka paintings, metal items, and wool and cotton fabrics. In addition, Thunpa Residence was originally the residence of cleric official Thunpo Kyenrab Wangchuk was originally an aristocrat residence with a footprint of 510 m2. Bixi Courtyard, the residence of Bixi Family, occupies an area of 540 m2; it been turned into a Tibetan education system-themed museum. Lungshar Courtyard was originally home of Tsipön Lungshar, the 13th Dalai Lama’s Regent. Lungshar was known as a champion of modernization in the first half of the 20th century. Due to resistance from the conservatives, Lungshar was persecuted and lost two eyes as a result. He died in 1940 in this courtyard. Kansu Residence was originally home of Ngawang Tenzin, a monk official with a footprint of 900 m2. Ngawang Tenzin, held the position “dron nyer”, meaning chief recep- tionist and “Qiaoji Kanbu” (Rank Three Monk Official) during the period between 1933 and 1950; he was later dismissed on charge of negligence. Zhol Chipra was built in the 17th century. Originally the Dalai Lamas’ horse stall, it was later turned into a dairy farm where milk and yogurt for the Dalai Lamas was prepared. The complex consisted of multiple courtyards with a constructed footprint totaling 2800 m2. Scripture Print House, established in the 17th century, has a constructed footprint of 760 m2. Another complex, named Changtsang, 1490 m2 large, was originally where the ritual of holy drinks to the 78 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Protector Gods was performed in preparation for the rebuilding of Potala Palace in the mid-17th century. Today, ordinary people can have casual drinks in this place. Zhol Lekung is a complex that housed several government agencies. With a footprint of 5280 m2, orders of the Dalai Lamas were carried out here. Today, parts of this complex had been restored, including offices and granaries. The prison was built after the 5th Dalai relocated the local government to Potala Palace. In addition, there was the Nangtse Shag Prison, which was subordinate to the Nangtse Shag Lekung. The Mint was a subsidiary of the Treasury—the two-storey courtyard was where the currency were minted and stored. Below are some photos taken at the same place but in different times. The change of Potala Palace over time is obvious (Figs. 3.8, 3.9 and 3.10).

Fig. 3.8 Potala Palace and the Zholin 1904. Source photographed by J. Claude White on August 3, 1904. The image is reprinted from Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 22)

Fig. 3.9 Potala Palace and the Zholin 1959. Source Illustration page from Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle, compiled by Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010) 3.3 Potala Palace and ZholArea 79

Fig. 3.10 Potala Palace and Zhol Circa 2008 (Li Qing; taken on May 26, 2008)

3.3.3 Significant Cultural Heritage

Aside from Potala Palace, some other famous historic heritage sites located in this area are Bara Luphuk Cave, Dzonggyab Lukhang Garden, Bamari Gesar Monastery, Kangxi Monument, Qianlong Monument, and Tadrak Lukhong Military Feats Monument. All these are of high political and military value.

3.3.3.1 Bara Lubuk Cave

Bara Lubuk Caveis situated right next to the Chagpori Eastern Street. 20-m above the ground, the Cave had a footprint of only 27 m2. This building dates back to early Tupo period. The construction is believed to have started in 640 AD, at the order of Consort Ruyong, aka Khymotsun, one of Songtsen Gampo’s wives. The project, which took some 13 years to complete, featured a total of 71 statues. These statues include both religious figures, such as Sakyamuni, Buddhas of the Three Ages, Amitābha and real ones such as Songtsen Gampo, Princess Wencheng, Princess Bhrikuti Devi, Gar Tongtsen Yülsung(Note: a prominent general in the reign of Songtsän Gampo). Stylisticly, the statues bore an obvious resemblance to the Indian Gandhara statues, and exemplified the early Tupo era architectural style and achievement. The Grotto also went through cycles of ruin and rebirth. In 1962, the 10th Panchan Lama funded its restoration. In 1979, Thubten Wangchuk and other Tibetan dignitaries funded another restoration effort. 80 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

3.3.3.2 The Monuments of Emperor Kangxi and Qianlong

Emperor Kangxi Monument and Emperor Qianlong Monument were originally at the front gate of Potala Palace. In 1965, the two were relocated to inside the gate of Dzonggyap Lukhang for better preservation, before they were returned to Potala Palace in 1995, placed at the southern gate this time. In 1996, the two were listed as historic artifacts, entitled to TAR-level preservation. The official name of Kangxi Monument is “Monument Placed at the Order of His Greatness to Commemorate the Victory of Settling the Tibetan Unrest”. The inscription, penned by Kangxi Emperor himself in 1721, recounted the campaign against Junggars. In 1724, E’lai, a Qing minister ordered the production of the monument. It had since then been sitting outside of the gate of Potala Palace. The monument was made in Han Chinese style, featuring a stone turtle pedestal and sheltered by a pavilion; towards the upper end, there is engraved cloud patterns and dragon pattern. In the reign of Qianlong, the rooftop of the pavilion was covered with colored glaze tiles. After the death of the 5th Dalai Lama, political disarray ensued. For three decades, Tibetan local political elites, Mongolian Khoshutsand Junggars—three forces dueled against each other for supremacy. In 1705, Sanggye Gyatso, the regent of the 16th Dalai Lama, was killed by Lha-bzang Khan, the Khoshut ruler. In 1717, Lha-bzang Khan lost battle to the invading Junggars and was killed in the process. The death of Lha-bzang Khan ended the rule of Khoshut Mongolian Khans that was set forth by Güshi Khan. In face of Junggar onslaught, Qing government launched two campaigns in 1718 and 1720 respectively, successfully expelling the Junggars from Tibet. In celebration of the successful campaigns, a monument with inscription handwritten by Emperor Kangxi himself was built. The writing com- mented on Dalai Lama favorably: “All people at home and abroad know that the Dalai Lamas’ loyalty and the people under his guidance has been law-abiding and religiously observant.” Emperor Qianlong Monument, aka the Ten Feats Monument, was installed in 1792, the 57th year of the emperor’s reign. This monument, sheltered by a Han Chinese-style glaze titles-roofed pavilion, carried an inscription written by Qianlong Emperor himself. It enlisted ten major military victories during the emperor’s reign, including twice defeating invading Gurkhas. In the second, the Qing defensive was so successful that their troops wedged deep into the enemy territory and at one point, reached near Katmandu, the Gurkha-controlled Nepalese capital. This monument was built shortly after this campaign. The inscription reads: “Yesterday, I granted terms to the Gurkha. Order was issued to my troops to return home. The Poetry (Note: an ancient Chinese book) has a reference saying that A Fulfilled Reign should include Ten Military Achievements, and I think mine may have qualified.” The Emperor went on by recounting the campaign—“FuKhang Nga and the rest, against all odds, commanded an army including the Suolun corps, the Tibetan corps from Sichuan, traversed the snow-covered Xining and entered the enemy territory in May. They were able to recover the Tibetan land lost in previous battles.” In June, a greater victory was achieved. After the two successful 3.3 Potala Palace and ZholArea 81 campaigns, for over half a century, there was no major border action. Today in Nepal, one can still see the vestiges of old defense works.

3.3.3.3 Barmari Gesar Temple

After the Qing army returned to Lhasa from the Gurkha frontline, a Gesar Temple was built on Barmari Hill to the south of Potala Palace to allow Chinese servicemen to worship their patron god. At the behest of FuKhang Nga, then-Amban, and embassador Hotogtu, regent of the incumbent Dalai Lama, 7000 taels of silver were raised from the servicemen to finance the construction. A monument was placed inside the Temple, recounting the military campaign and expressing hope for maintaining peace. Due to similarity between the legends of Guangong with Tibetan legendary hero Gesar, the building was often referred to by the locals as Gesar Lhakhang.

3.3.3.4 Dzonggyap Lukhang

Dzonggyap Lukhang Park, situated to the northwest of Potala Palace, is well-known for its scenic beauty. Its name literally means Behind the Lushen Hall, a building that is part of the Potala Palace. In Tibetan culture, Lu Tsen is a reference for all divine beings that inhabit both the earth and water. Due to that Lu Tsen was often translated as dragon by the Han Chinese, thus Dzonggyap Lukhangis sometimes called “Dragon King Pond”. Dzonggyap Lukhang was originally built around an artificial lake, originally a crater formed as a result of soil excavation to provide materials for Potala Palace’s rebuilding. During the reign of the 6th Dalai Lama, a three-storey shrine was built on the lake island, dedicated to Lushen, a traditional Tibetan deity. In addition, a 20-m long five-arch stone bridge was built connecting the lake bank and the island. It is said that this was the place, where the 6th Dalai Lama met with his friends. During the reigns of the 8th and the 13th Dalai Lamas, the garden received several rounds of maintenance. After the Democratization Reform, Dzonggyap Lukhang was renamed Liberation Park. In 2006, the government funded an upgrade of the garden, subsequently, it was divided into several sections: Tibetan Customs Area, Ecology Area, Water Entertainment Area, Dragon Pond Area, etc.

3.3.3.5 Dadrak Lukhung Accomplishment Monument and Character-Less Monument

Dadrak Lukhung Feats Monument on the Potala Palace Square is believed to be built in the 8th century during the reign of Tupo ruler Trisong Detsen. The inscription recounted the achievements of a Tibetan general named Dadrak Lukhung. The monumner’s name—Zhol Doring Chenmo literally means Stone 82 3 Layout of the Old City of Lhasa

Monument Beyond Zhol. Along with the Potala Palace’s Character-less Monument, the two are the oldest existing Tupo-era monuments. The Dadrak Lukhung Feats Monument was a plain, oblong stone slab standing on top of a three-layer pyramid-shaped pedestal. Based on what is written in the inscription, it is likely that the monument was built after Tupo launched an offensive against Tang China in 763 AD. In 1996, the place became a TAR key cultural heritage unit. Dadrak Lukhung is believed to have lived in the reign of Trisong Detsen and received the title Kalon Chenmo for his excellent service. According to the inscription, despite his many achievements, the general remained humble, consci- entious in carrying out orders, diligent in performing his duties and led a simple life. In the middle of the campaign to overtake Tang Chinese capital Chang’an, Dazha’s army conquered a regime called Achai, a protectorate of Tang China. Historic archives indicate that the Tibetans looted large numbers of population and during their occupation. The news sent shock waves to the Tang Chinese. However, three years later, Trisong Detsen, suspicious of Dadrak Lukhung’s loyalty, used anti-Buddhism as an excuse, stripped the general of his military command and exiled him. Dadrak Lukhung died on his way to his exile destination in northern Tibet.

3.3.3.6 Marpori Cliff Inscription

On the rock faces of Marpori Hill, there are Qing dynasty inscriptions. Among the oldest ones, there were the 1720 Kangxi 59th year “Military Feats to be Remembered by One Hundred Generations”, “Bring Stability Back to Tibet”, “Reputation That Last One Hundred Generations” and Kangxi 60th’s “Achievement that Will Benefit 10,000 Generations”, “Establish Reputation on the Foreign Land”, “Earn Respect That Will Last a Thousand Years”. In addition, there was the Emperor Yongzheng’s “Calm Riot Inscription” and a Yongzheng 7th year Inscription. The first recounts how conflict arose between the Tibetan Kalöns, in particular, how Kancennas, the Kalön lost to his rivals and was murdered—this incident triggered a military campaign resultant in Qing occupation of Tibet. The second was a poem:

Southern Mountain is a ribbon band, Wind and trees are flags, Extend the awe to the exotic soil, Maintain peace for eternity. Overall, the historic heritage sites in Potala Palace area were mostly government administration-related, and were not deeply related to local daily life, unlike the Jokhang–Barkor areas. References 83

References

Chöpel’s, Gendün. 1981. White Annals, Zunfa Marster (trans.), 11. Northwest University for Nationalities. David-Néel’s, Alexandra. 1997. Voyage d’une Parisienne à Lhassa, 296. Tibet People’s Publishing House. Larsen, Knud, and Amund Sinding-Larsen. 2005. The Lhasa Atlas: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Townscape. Translated by Li Ge and Muya Jiancai. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.) and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle, 368, 699. China Tibetology Publishing House. Qiping, Jiang, Liu Yaoshao, Zhou Man, and Jin Mei. 2013. Understanding and thinking of circuits in the Old City of Lhasa. South Architecture. 1:32–35. Sinding-Larsen’s, Amund. 2005. Lhasa Historical Old City Atlas Collection: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Cityscape. Translated by Li Ge and Munyag Chogyi Gyentsen. China Press of Construction Industry. Suo, Qiong’s. 2008. Barkor Area in the Old City of Lhasa, 111. China Tibetology Publishing House. Tsybikov’s, Gombojab. 1993. A Buddhist Pilgrim to the Holy Places of Tibet, 98. Tibetan People’s Publishing House. Chapter 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Buildings in the Old City area fell into the following categories: civilian residences, monasteries, shops, government administration buildings, and public service ones. Civilian residences are the most numerous of all. Today, most traditional Tibetan- style residences built prior to 1950 are under government preservation; some are listed as historic heritage vintage courtyards; and a few have been developed for commercial purpose.

4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa

Traditional Tibetan architecture types include palaces, monasteries, civilian resi- dences, gardens, Dzong fortresses, etc. In the Old City, the most common types are palaces, monasteries, administration institutions and civilian residences. Among them, civilian residences are the most numerous. The design of these buildings is reflective of Tibet unique climate and topography. They generally used local materials, and were observant of Tibetan religious and cultural customs. All con- tributed to the unique aesthetics and sense of harmony.

4.1.1 Characteristics of Traditional Tibetan Buildings

The Tibetan people developed a highly stylized while technically sophisticated building craft through their struggle to adapt to the environment over time. This is also reflected in the urban planning as the Tibetan cities demonstrate certain level of sophistication. Some universal concepts and methods were developed when it comes to location, structure, color and material—the buildings are generally

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 85 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_4 86 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa optimized to take advantage of local conditions and make use of materials. One thing remarkable is that the buildings formed a hierarchy; perking on top of it are the Buddhist monasteries. The philosophy behind Tibetan architecture is profoundly influenced by Buddhism and indigenous religions. These influences came from theories, such as Heavenly Ladder, Demoness, Center Theory, Diamond Theory, Next Life Theory, etc. These legends and theories were manifested in the overall layout of the Lhasa City and the construction of various types of buildings. According to the Heavenly Ladder Legend, the first Tibetan king and his successors, six in total, were collectively named The Seven Greats. The legend holds that the Seven Greats all became deities. Influenced by this legend, many Tibetan buildings were on top of hills to show respect to these legendary rulers now dwelling in heaven. A more pragmatic explanation is that such a design is conducive to the security of the building. The She-devil Legend can be traced back to Princess Wencheng, who, in preparation for construction of Jokhang, ran a calculation indicating that the shape of Tupo resembled a Demoness. The princess’ countermeasures include placing monasteries on all strategic positions surrounding the lake. There is a strong cor- respondence between this theory and the inland Chinese Fengshui Theory. The Center of the Universe Theory, a Buddhist view, postulates that the world centers on a mountain called Mount Meru. This mountain is surrounded by eight Continents and eight Islands. As a result of this theory, buildings often chose layouts that mirror this perceived world order. In a typical monastery structure, the main building would be in the middle, in correspondence to Mount Meru. Within the external wall, individual buildings represent the four large continents, eight islands and celestial bodies. This theory was also manifest among civilian resi- dences, at the center of the house, there would be a wooden pillar representing Mount Meru. The King Kong Theory, a Tantric Buddhist view, also had a profound influence on Tibetan architecture. One example is the Kora Circuits. Staring mid-10th cen- tury, as the influence of Tantric Buddhism grew, it was increasingly recognized as a superior approach towards “Happy World of the Further Shore”. Aside from gen- eral Buddhist teachings such as kindness, Tantric Buddhism also proposed a set of rituals including kowtowing and Kora praying. One result is the many circular回- shapped passages in many Tibetan monasteries—practitioners walk on these pas- sages while praying. Aside from monasteries, such designs also appear in civilian residences. In addition to those Koras surrounding buildings, there are also ones surrounding lakes, mountains, monasteries and towers. Jokhang, for example, had multiple concentric Kora circuits. Another is the Afterlife Theory or Karma—According to it, life is eternal cycles where good deeds in this life leads to better things in the next. Followers renounce materialistic pleasure for spiritual detachment. Reflected into architecture philoso- phy, simplicity and pragmatism are preferred than elaboration. This aesthetics is responsible for the charm of many buildings. 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 87

Other factors, such as climate, availability of materials, means of production and life style all influenced architecture forms. In Lhasa, Shigatse and Lhokha, the majority of buildings were either mud-wood or stone-wood; in Ngari region, and Northern Tibet, tent homes were common; in eastern Tibet, wooden huts and chimney-like stone towers, called Diaofang were popular. Diaofang was one of the most ancient Tibetan architecture forms. Thekharro archeological excavation indicates that this form was in existence as early as 20– 30th centuries BC. There are different types of Diaofang. The most common ones include solid style, patio style, du khang style, gallery style. These forms can be found among residences of aristocrats and civilians alike. Among them, Solid style is the simplest. Because rooms rely on windows for lighting, this form is mostly adopted by small residences, palaces, praying halls, and buildings where Buddha’s statues are placed. Patio style achieves improved lighting conditions by having a yard in the middle. The first floor of is often used as prayer room while the second floor and above are often used as the living space. In some cases, the ground floor is used as granary and the yard is built on taller floors rather than on the ground. This form is most common among palaces and aristocrats’ residences. Du khang style is usually adopted by monasteries. This form often includes prayer hall and Buddha statue hall. It was also adopted by some palaces. This form often involves a tall and relatively large internal building, surrounded by a ring of external buildings. The central building was usually two-storey or three-storey tall, where sky window was opened for better lighting. The space between the two is partitioned into small yards. Gallery style was most common among Gratshang, monasteries, palaces, resi- dences and other more sophisticated buildings. It features a rectangular courtyard with rooms on four sides with galleries extended from the rooms. In terms of materials, in Lhasa, Shigatse, and Lhokha region, the majority of civilian residences are either mud-wood or stone-wood. In general, they are two or three-storey tall, with flat roofs. Red and white are two most common colors—the external walls are often whitewashed while the door and windows are mostly painted red. The eaves, usually painted in different colors, were often shaped to be curvy.1

4.1.2 Color Characteristics

Aside from size and built quality, color is another indicator of the owner’s social status; and how the building itself holds up in the hierarchy system.

1Gai (2013). 88 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Colour selection followed a strict protocol. Different colour indicates different ranks and social stauts. In terms of importance, gold is the most prestigious. Then there is red, yellow and white. When multiple colours are present in one building— The Gold-Red-Yellow combination is the most prestigious, followed by Red-Yellow-White. Monasteries and palaces are generally painted in warmer colours. (i) A typical Tibetan monastery often includes the following components: The Assembly Hall, the Praying Hall, the Dhammapala Hall, the Living Buddha’s Private Quarters, the Education Hall, Debate Hall, Monks’ Living Quarters; some also includes tomb towers where ashes of prominent monks are kept, and Buddastupa. When it comes to colour use: The brighter and louder the colours, the more prestigious the monasteries. Three colours are most common —red, yellow, and white. The door and window frames are usually black. The eaves are mostly blue or green. The exterior of the main buildings are usually red or white. Benpar—frieze made of tamarisk branches, are often placed on top of the stone walls. The Shrine and Protector Hall are often painted in red while dra tsang and regular Buddhist dorms are more often white. The Living Buddhas’ Private Quarters are usually yellow, a colour associated with importance. In addition, some special rooms are also painted yellow, such as ones lived by Dalai Lamas or Panchan Lamas. (ii) Red—white combination is common among palatial architecture. Red Benpar Walls are often applied, while door and window frames are usually black. The highest-ranking buildings usually have gold-plated roofs, and intricate patterns of various colors are often found on windows. After Gelugpa rose to promi- nence, Prayer Halls became the standard component of palaces. That most of them were painted yellow earned Gelugpa the Yellow School. When it comes to the exterior walls, three color combinations are mostly common: red-yellow-white, red-yellow, and red-white. (iii) In the architectural hierarchy, aristocrats’ residences are second only to palaces and monasteries. This is reflected in the fact aristocrats’ residences were barred from exceeding monasteries in either height or size, neither were they allowed to use certain components such as gold rooftops, gold bottles and other gold-glided items; most aristocrats are not allowed to use red Benpar, with one exception—the residences of the Dalai Lamas’ families. (iv) Gardens are on the same level as palaces and monasteries. Though inside, variations can be observed in selection of different components. (v) Most civilian residential buildings had stone exterior walls; while some had whitewashed surfaces, the low-ranking ones were more likely unpainted. The roof eaves were often painted red. Traditionally, before the Tibetan New Year —the first ten days of local calendar December, the exterior walls would be repainted. The windows and doors would be painted in multiple colours. There are strict protocols governing use of paint, pattern and combination of colours, leaving little room to individual preference. 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 89

Some colors and components are exclusively used in monasteries, palaces and the Dalai Lamas’ residences: Red is usually reserved for the walls in both monasteries and palaces. Yellow is strictly for the Dalai Lamas’ residences. Red Benpar can only be used in monasteries, palaces and residences of the Dalai Lamas’ families; the more the layers of Benpar, the most prestigious the building.2

4.1.3 Characteristics of Residences in The Old City of Lhasa

Vintage buildings in the Old City make up for much of the area’s traditional appearance. The majorities of such buildings are highly stylized and have great value atheistically and culturally. In terms of choice of location, forms, structure, use of materials and color, Lhasa buildings have unique characteristics even when compared with other Tibetan regions. As we mentioned, a building’s relative prominence is suggested by its size, level of sophistication, color and built quality. Generally speaking, religious buildings such as monasteries ranked higher than palaces, then aristocrats’ residences. Due to Lhasa’s status as both the capital and a holy city, it’s no surprise that it has the largest number of religious and palatial buildings among all Tibetan cities and these buildings are all built with great craftsmanship. Here is a list of characteristics of buildings in the Old City of Lhasa: First, the selection of sites was influenced by the natural conditions. High alti- tude, strong radiation, low humidity, diurnal temperature variations determined a building’s orientation, height, layout and choice of materials. In terms of orienta- tion, most Tibetan buildings are south-facing. In terms of height, the majority are two-storey or three-storey Gallery style (Galary-Courtyard)-type. In terms of use of materials, unpolished granite and rammed earth are two common and easily accessible materials. They are often found in buildings’ external walls. Thicker walls, often with thickness between 40 and 80 cm, provide better thermal isolation. Many buildings are symmetric, though due to unevenness of the city, this is not always the case. Generally speaking, in a courtyard, or a complex, usually the most significant component is the central building, which is also the largest. Individual building tends to be symmetrical, though the compounds are often not. Second, the structure is strong and stable. Traditional Tibetan buildings often feature wedge—shaped walls thicker at the bottom and tappers towards the top. The lowered center of gravity means greater stability. Another common feature is the “pillar-beam network” structure; a technique borrowed from Han Chinese archi- tecture and came to become common in Tibet. The gist is having a building formed by units of two cross beams joining at a bracket, with supporting pillars underneath. A larger building usually contains multiple such units without compromising the

2For information about Tibetan and Lhasa Region’s Building Colour Theme, one should read Chang (2009). 90 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa entire structure’s stability. It is so popular that locals often use the number of pillars to measure the size of a room. Another feature is Benpar walls. The structure is made of branches and is lightweight compared with stone or dirt walls; because of its lightness, Benpar also serves to lower the center of gravity of the walls. Atheistically, it conveys a visual effect of symmetry, order and stability, all con- sistently emphasized among Tibetan architectures. Third, they were arranged in the courtyard-style. The majority of traditional residences in the Old City area are two-storey rectangular courtyards; larger ones sometimes contend two or more courtyards. Individual rooms are connected by ring-shaped galleries, forming a yard in the center. The gallery is usually two-meter wide, supported by pillars on the inner sides. The staircases are built inside the gallery. In a courtyard, often more than one staircases were installed. Gallery, as an extension of the main building, often forms space where manual housework is performed. The living room is where the house owners live, and the valuables are kept. This room usually has the best lighting, best view and are generally elabo- rately decorated. Inside, there is often one or multiple exposed pillars. A pit toilet can be found in the yard. These buildings usually have flat roofs, where clothes are hung for drying. The center is usually 15–20 cm taller than the edge area to dis- sipate rainwater. Fourth, materials were often locally sourced. Most traditional buildings use soil, wood and stones, all easily accessible in the natural environment. The houses are either mud-wood or stone-wood, and often feature weight-bearing designs for more evenly distributed weight. Rammed soil and stone were used to build weight-bearing walls. Inside rooms, wooden structure was often used to give greater weight bearing capacity. The per-storey height is generally low, well within the range between 2.2 and 2.4 m. The floor and the rooftop are made in rammed soil formulated according to traditional formula known for excellent endurance. Starting 1940s, under the influence of India and Britain, modern materials, such as concrete, steel and glass were adopted. Today, these materials become even com- moner and are often used for maintenance and repair of the traditional buildings. Fifth, they were influenced by local religions. This is manifest as exemplified by patterns of sun, moon, and reversed (卐). On top of the rooftops, some decorative motifs such as treasure bottles, incense pots can often be found. Sometimes, piers were built at the corners where tree branches were planted, with prayer flags attached to the upper end. Sixth, they are decorated with rich colors. White, black, yellow, and red are the most common ones. Colors all have symbolic meanings: White, for instance, represents good luck, black dispels evil; red symbolizes Dhammapala the Protector, yellow represents land and fortune, blue represents sky, green indicates river and water. Generally speaking, palaces have louder colors, while civilian residences are plainer; aristocrats and monasteries are somewhere in between. The exterior walls of civilian residences are often white, contrasted with black window frames. Inside, pillars are usually painted red, while the door frames, door lintel, window lintel, and 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 91 wall surface, rooftop, pillar top parts are usually painted in multiple colors, and the wall’s four sides are often decorated with colorful prayer flags.3 Traditional resi- dences’ exterior walls are usually repainted in white every year either in autumn or winter. In history, no buildings were allowed to exceed Jokhang in height. Aristocrats’ residences were limited to be three stories maximum, commoners’ two. Crimson Benpar are exclusive to monasteries and high-ranking aristocrats’ residences.4 However, in more recent times, these rules were sometimes violated and some buildings can be four-storey tall. For a long time, within the Old City, traditional civilian residences lacked modern conveniences, such as indoors sanitation facilities or kitchens- cooking was usually done in the living rooms. As a result, most residences were crowded, smoke-tainted and messy, despite the clean external appearance. In 1846, French missionary Évariste Régis Huc wrote in his diary, exclaiming that “the level of comfort that these houses offer is a far cry from what the clean and orderly exterior suggest. Rooms are generally dirty, walls covered with smoke, air permeated with a nauseating stink, furniture pieces and utensils were placed randomly”.5 In winter, bonfire was the main form of indoors heating. Half a century later in 1900, Russian explorer Tsybikoff, commissioned by the Geographic Committee of Russia, arrived in the city in disguise as a pilgrim. He noticed that in winter, people would cover their windows with sheets of paper or cloth to improve heat insulation.6 Until the Peaceful Liberation, this hadn’t changed; while traditional characteristics were preserved rather well, little has been done along the line of providing dwellers with modern comfort and conveniences. In recent decades, great effort was made in the upgrade the Old City, leading to significant improvement of the locals’ living conditions.

4.1.4 Different Forms of Old Lhasa Buildings

Starting 17th century, Lhasa has been in constant expansion with more residences, shops, monasteries and government buildings constantly added. Starting the first half of the 20th century, modern building types previously unseen began to emerge —schools, post offices, hospitals, and other public facilities. All these buildings, including aristocrats’ residences and Living Buddhas’ private monasteries, civil- ian’s residences collectively formed the city of Lhasa.

3Wang (2005b, pp. 83–86), Li (2012) and Zhang (2004). 4Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 65). 5Huc (2006). 6Tsybikov (1993). 92 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

4.1.4.1 Aristocracy Residence

Aristocrats’ residence is a large category of architecture. Although most were no longer in existence, the survived ones remain highly representative of this category. Examples include Yabshi Family’s Punkhang courtyard, Depon Family, Ladrang Nyingpa, Shadra Yard of Midra Family, Pensho Yard, Pomdatsang Yard. Among those that are of lesser pedigrees, there are Gyime Yard and Butang. a. Tibetan Aristocracy Tibetan aristocracy is a social class that received hereditary privileges. Their titles were granted either by the central Chinese government or Dalai and Panchan Lamas—some aristocrats were members of the clergy. Originally, there were a total of 175 aristocrat families. Over time, this rank expanded to include more. By the 1950s, the total number of aristocrats in Tibet recognized by the central government and local Kashag government grew to 197,7 accounting for 30 percent of the total number of aristocracy in the entire Tibet. Among the Tibetan population, aristocracy was a numerical minority. However, the upper crusts are in possession of a preponderance of production resources. The 1959 national census classified 5% of the entire Tibetan population as aristocrats as opposed to 15% non-aristocrat clergy, 20% farmers, and 60% herdsmen.8 In pre-Liberation Tibet, government, aristocracy and senior priests owned the majority of production resources, including almost all farming land, herding grounds, forests, mountains and pack animals. Meanwhile, the majority, namely serfs and slaves, owned little to no production materials. They were also subject to compulsory labor, exploitive levies and usury and even themselves were regarded property of their masters. According to a 1959 statistics, among the 3.3 million ke of farming land, 24% were owned by aristocrats and 38.9% by governments.9 Thus aristocracy, in the broad sense, was the largest land-owning class in possession of 2/3 of the entire farming land in Tibet. The Tibetan aristocracy falls into four classes.10 Perched on top was Yabshi, who were Dalai Lamas’ family members. Underneath, there were Depon and Mizha. In total, there were five Debon Families, namely Geshi (aka Doring), Thunpa (aka Lhadrang Nyingba), Ragashag (aka Duokawa), Pala (aka Pajue), and Lhagyari. There were over thirty Midra Families,11 who were family members of Kalön Tripas. Aside from the two, this class also included larger number of lessor members.

7Su (1999). 8Grunfeld (1990). 9The State Council Information Office of the PRC’s Modernization of Tibet, November, 2001. 10According to ’s categorization, Tibetan Aristocrats have three ranks. The first is Yabshi: since the seventh Dalai Lama, there have been six Yabshi Families, the second is Diben, by the time of the Peaceful Liberation, there were five; the third is the average one. By the time of Peaceful Liberation, there were around 200. However, the majority were never politically active (2008, pp. 36–38). 11Yangdzom (2005). 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 93

The aristocracy went through many changes over time in both structure and geological distribution. The fall of Tupo regime led to the extinction of prominent families such as Tadrag and Shulu. Fewaristocrat families survived long enough to the relatively modern times—among the few that did, there were Lhagyari, Doge, Tunpa. In Sakya period, a new aristocracy system was established; most came into being in the Phagmodrureign. Depon, originated in the first half of the 18th century, were the offsprings of the Polhanai’s cabinet members, produced by Polhanai’s decades-long rule of Tibet. In Qing dynasty, a large number of new titles were issued. Meanwhile the system became more formalized. In 1751, Qianlong Emperor issued a decree barring titles equivalent to or higher than Class One Lord to be given to the Tibetans. As a result, the highest-ranking Tibetan aristocrats were Class Two Lord and Taiji (divided up into four subclasses). In addition, Jasac, originally an hon- orary title, received more privilege that they equal the first class Taiji. The aristocrat title was passed down following the pattern of “one level lower each generation down the line”.12 The Dalai Lamas themselves are sometimes seen as members of the aristocracy. They and their families left great influence to the history of Lhasa. The 5th Dalai Lama moved to Lhasa in 1642. Afterwards, all his successors took up residence in Lhasa. In 1729, the 7th Dalai Lama’s family members moved to and settled down in Lhasa and were bequeathed with estates—this evolved into a tradition. For Dalai Lamas, the city was not merely a place, where they exercised political power, received education, but also where their families lived. Today, many traditional buildings and gardens such as Samdrup Phodrang, Punkhang Yard, Potala Palace, Jokhang, Dzonggyap Lukhang, and Norbulingka can be attributed to the Dalai Lamas and their families. b. Aristocrat Residences Aristocrat courtyards are a major architecture category. This has much to do with the fact in the 18th century after Gurkha War, many Tibetan aristocrats moved to the city and built residences in what’s today’s Chengguan District. These residences are in general larger, of high quality and situated in optim allocations compared with the commoners’ residences. They also serve as status symbols. In Republic of China period, especially after the 9th Panchan Lama fled to inland China in 1923, the aristocracy resided in Back Tibet moved to Lhasa and its surrounding regions.13 In 1950, there were 48 aristocracy courtyards in the Old City area. The majority were situated on both sides of Barkor. By the end of 2000, this number had been reduced to 17; eight was considered to be in good condition.14 In 1959, amidst the Democratization Reform, the government confiscated many properties near Barkor

12Petech (2008, p. 15). 13Petech (2008). 14Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 94 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Table 4.1 List of Lhasa’s Aristocrat Yards

Source Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle, p. 489, compiled by Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010)

Table 4.2 Main Types of buildings in the Old City of Lhasa Types Layout Volume Colour and decoration Large Large The most important Great colour variation inside temples complexes building has multiple-layer and outside. The decoration consisting roofs, while the less includes statue, mural, multiple important ones have flat engravement, and bronze courtyards roofs. The main building animal sculpture at some can be as high as four-storey turning points Aristocrat One main A typical one consists of a Simple colours outside the residence courtyard main building and wings. architecture. Important linked with The distinction main one rooms decorated with rich multiple small and the rest are very clear. colours. Decoration ones The buildings tend to be includes mural and two to three storeys tall engravement Urban A relatively Usually two-storey tall with Simple colours; minimal residence small flat roofs. Sometimes single decoration courtyard floor Source Lhasa City Urban Planning Survey Bureau. Originally from Liu et al. (2009b) to punish those owners that participated in the riot; those who refrained from participating were rewarded were paid. These properties were redistributed among former slaves and other lower classes. Some were turned into workshops to produce items such as teapot pads and aprons (Table 4.1).15 The majority of former aristocrat residencies concentrated in a 800 m radius area surrounding Jokhang. In terms of layout, size, use of color and decoration, most were between large monasteries and regular commoner residences16 and the quality was superior to the later (Table 4.2).

15Liu (2012). 16Liu et al. (2009a). 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 95

Table 4.3 Aristocrat residences in the Old City of Lhasa Name Time of construction Pedigree Area (m2) Taktser 1940 Yabshi Aristocrat 3039 Punkhang 1843 Yabshi 1805 Pansho 1920 Yabshi 1660 Manzhuo 1920 Mizha 107 Pala Rebuilt in 2002 Diben 1865 Labdrang Nyingpa Mid-17th century Diben 1047 Botang 1930 Average 566 Shédra 18th century Mizha 2484 Gorkha Nyingba 17th century Special 1244 Pomdatsang Rebuilt in 1914 Mizha 1835 Kusangtse 1907 Mizha 1430 Kyime 18th century Average 414 Note The data regarding Manzhu Courtyard’s area might be wrong, but we decided to use it here anyway Source The data were provided by Lhasa Urban Planning Bureau. The Table originally appeared in Analysis of the Old City of Lhasa, Southern Architecture, May issue, 2009

The aristocrat residences were generally built to high standards and offered dwellers better means to defy harsh conditions. The layout is optimized for thermo-insulation: south-facing windows were usually larger to allow in more sunlight; the others were smaller to reduce heat loss. Other features include: prayer halls usually have taller windows, which conveys a sense of mythical and spiritual aura. The galleries form a circle to facilitate Kora praying. In terms of window size and construction materials, weight is often increased at the bottom, while reduced at the top for optimal stability. Also, taller buildings usually have higher windows.17 Some aristocrats’ residences had been around for over a century. The size, number of stories, height, number of windows were all indicative of the social status of their previous owners; the more pillars and beams they had, the more prestigious the owner of the prosperity. In terms of building parts, the more elab- orate and polished, the higher the social status of the owner.18 In terms of color, Dalai Lamas and the high-ranking priests’ residences’ exterior walls are usually painted in red and yellow, and the interior is colorful (Table 4.3). When compared with commoners’ residences, the aristocrats’ are generally taller and have more storeies. According to a survey on 48 aristocrat courtyards con- ducted in summer 2003, 14 out of 48 had a surface area in excess of 1000 m2. The majority are three storey-tall, with per storey heights between 2.5 and 3.4 m; and building height about 9 m. In addition, 32 residences had footprint of less than 1000 m2. 22 had two-storeies, each measuring between 2.3 and 3 m tall. Nine

17Liu et al. (2009). 18Liu and Liu (2011). 96 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa exceeded eight meters in height.19 Judging by both the number of stories or per-storey height, they are inferior to the former, as reflective of the owners’ status.

4.1.4.2 Religious Buildings

As a religious center, the Old City area had many religious buildings, including monasteries and private champels aka Lhakhangs. In 1959 the year when Democratization Reform was carried out, there were around 329 monasteries in the city. Among them, 177, slightly less than half, were associated with Gelugpa. Among the rest, 67 were Nyingmapa, 59 Kagyu, 7 Sakya, and 5 Bon. In addition, there were two mosques and one Gesar Temple. Most located in the Old City. However, during the , many were seriously damaged. Among the 51 larger ones that survived, 38 were Gelugpa. After the Reform and Opening Up, under new policies, two hundred previously shutdown monasteries were restored and reopened. In 2000, in Chengguan District alone, there were a total of 45 Tibetan Buddhist and Bon religious institutions— including monasteries, Lhakhang, Ritro, Gapa, and Tenkhang. In addition, 20 were restored, funded by local residents.20 These buildings, distributed across the city, constituted Lhasa’s cityscape and is significant to local residents’ daily spiritual and cultural life. According to Tibetan Buddhism tradition, a Buddhist monastery has three Essentials: Buddha, , and Monks. Depending how these three criteria are met, religious buildings are classified into Ritro, Gapa, Tenkhang and Lhakhang. Today, all religious buildings are referred to as Monasteries regardless their differences. Yet strictly speaking, a Tibetan Buddhist monastery should include the following components: Tsomchen (main hall), Lhakhang (prayer hall), Lhabrang (living quarters for the senior monks), Drakhang (living quarters of low-rank monks), , and Cross-Street Towers. The religious buildings of different areas had different characteristics, despite their obvious consistency in material selection and style. The most basic charac- teristics include: First, monasteries built in different historical periods show variations. The earlier monasteries were usually built in a round shape, with a primary building used as venue of congregation placed in the center. They also often fea- tured ring-shaped corridors for Kora praying. The praying hall usually had windows placed rather tall. They also tended to be smaller in size, and carried stylistic resemblance from their Indian, Nepalese and inland Chinese counterparts. For example, Jokhang’s primary building features designs typical of the Indian Nalanda Monastery, while Chala Lupu Grotto also had unmistakable design cues borrowed

19Wang (2005a, pp. 49–50). 20Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 97 from Indian buildings. In general, monasteries prior to the 13th century AD were more similar to the Indian ones than the Chinese, while those built between 13th and 17th century had stronger Chinese influences. After Je Tsongkhapa died, a strict set of protocols were implemented to guide the construction of major Gelugpa (aka Yellow Hat School) monasteries. After the 5th Dalai Lama’s reign, monas- teries became increasingly standardized; the decorations and engravings became more intricate and elaborate. Second, wooden components are common. They include wooden beams, rafters, columns, brackets, supporting pillars, decorative engravings, etc., though in dif- ferent periods, variations in terms of size, height and ratio, etc. can be observed. Third, large numbers of monasteries were Diaolou, structures of mud, rocks, and wood. Different kinds of Diaolou share some common characteristics such as flat rooftops, short intervals between beams and thick walls. Many monasteries feature ring-shaped Kora circuits either internal or external the central building. Jokhang’s main building, for instance, has two such circuits, one inside, one outside (Table 4.4).21

4.1.4.3 Government Facility and Public Infrastructure

Government buildings and other types of public buildings in the Old City fall into two categories—one are those in one way or another associated with the Dalai Lamas, Ambans and Kashag, including Potala Palace and the supporting facilities in the underneath Zhol area, the Amban Yamen, Qing military barracks, and other administration-related buildings. The other was modern buildings built in a period starting the first half of the 20th century. They include hospitals, schools, postal offices and banks (Fig. 4.1). Nangtseshag is a typical government building. An old municipal prison, this three-story compound had a history spanning three centuries. The first floor is half-underground with dim lighting. The second-floor was a jail, where minor and female offenders were kept. The third, also the top-floor, was where the judges and guards stayed. It is in many ways an epitome of the old Tibetan serfdom. Despite a small size, the building was built to exacting standards, and is majestic with remarkable aesthetics. Today, only a small number of the former urban administration buildings sur- vived. The few that did can be found in area around Potala Palace and Zhol and the Old City. Some, such as Nangtseshag, no longer serve the same function as they once did. Many have been reopened for tourism, public education and other purposes.

21Wang (2005b, pp. 34–38). 98 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Table 4.4 Introduction of temples in the Old City of Lhasa Names Location Affiliation Brief intro 1 Jokhang Barkor Area Gelugpa Built in mid-7th century; Tibet’s earliest wooden structure; expanded multiple times; with a footprint of 251,000 m2 2 Barmari Gesar Gyabumkhang Gelugpa The building was built at the Lhakhang Community behest of abbot monk Dacha Jilong in 1772. Later became part ofGengde LingMonastery and dedicated to Guangong 3 Drara Luphug Gyabumkhang Gelugpa First built in 1490 as part of Monastery Community Gengde Ling. A Sakyamuni Statue was placed inside 4 A Thousand Gyabumkhang Gelugpa 14th century. Funded by Doring Buddha Cliff Community Pondrita. A thousand Buddha; Inscription mainly Akshobhya 5 A Thousand Gyabumkhang Gelugpa Funded by three retirees in 1993. Buddha Cliff Community Part of Gengde Lin Inscription Temple 6 Khang’adong Gyabumkhang Gelugpa Built by Ciwang Dramdul in Yulring Community 1983. Part of Miriqiong Lhakhang Nunnery; mainly dedicated to Sakyamuni 7 North Rigsum Gyabumkhang Gelugpa Ordered by Songzan Ganbu in Gunpo Community mid-7th century; part of Geri Monastery. Mainly dedicated to The Western Rigsum 8 Tsephak Gyabumkhang Gelugpa Built in the year of 660 AD, at Lhakhang Community the behest of Songzan Ganbu and Princess Wencheng; mainly dedicated to Amitayus 9 Khang’adong Gyabumkhang Gelugpa Built in 1988 with fund raised by Mani Community Danzeng Qupei and two other Lhakhang prominents in Lhasa; part of Pubu Rizhui Monastery. Mainly dedicated to A Thousand Hands aka Goddess of Mercy 10 Tsomon Ling Gyabumkhang Gelugpa One of the Four Lings. Monastery Community Established in 1777 by the first Living Buddha of TsomonAwang Chuchen. Part of Sera Monastery. Mainly dedicated to Buddha of Longevity (continued) 4.1 Characteristics and Categories of the Old City of Lhasa 99

Table 4.4 (continued) Names Location Affiliation Brief intro 11 Ani Balang Gelu Origin said to be the place where Tsamkhung Resident Songzan Ganbu meditated. Built Nunnery Community by Gengjue Duodan in 15th century AD. Mainly dedicated to A Thousand Hands Guanyin 12 Moru Nyingpa Balang Gelugpa The main building was built in Community the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama. Muru Zangba Lhakhang was the earliest building of the complex 13 Moru Tsangpa Balang Gelugpa Built in 817 AD, by Chireba. Lhakhang Community Part of Muru Monastery; dedicated to worshiping of Aya Zangbala 14 Rapsel Balang Gelugpa Part of the Sera Monastery; Tsenkhang Community dedicated to Tuduo Wangjiu 15 Lho Rigsum Balang Gelugpa Part of the Gandan Monastery, Gunpo Community dedicated to the Risong Gongbu Rinpoche 16 Moru Pelgong Balang Sakya First established by Gengka Trezur Community Duoji Danba Rinpoche around Lhakhang 340 AD, part of the Qude Monastery in Gengga County, Lhokha Prefecture 17 Champa Balang Gelugpa Built by the 3rd Dalai Lama Lhakhang Community Sonam Gyatso; part of Dazi County Luobu Monastery; dedicated to Miwang Qiangba Buddha 18 Barkor Mani Balang Nyingmapa Built prior to Jokang, one of the Lhakhang Community oldest building on Balang Street Nyingpa 19 Barkor Mani Balang Nyingmapa Invested by businessman Baima; Lhakhang Community first opened in 1988; part of Sarpa Nanming Zhuilin Monastery 20 Nechong Balang Gelugpa In mid-7th century by Songtsen Lhakhang Community Gampo part of Drepung Monastery. Dedicated to Guru 21 Drobtog Drobtog Nyingmapa Nunnery established in 1945 by Lhakhang Lhakhang Kanwangqi Raoluobu. Part of Qushui County Xiongse Monastery. Dedicated to Tangdong Jiebu 22 Sakya Balang Sakya Established in 1988 with funds Lhakhang Community provided by Shigatse . It is part of the Saya Monatery. Mainly worship Saya Gengga Ningbu Buddha (continued) 100 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Table 4.4 (continued) Names Location Affiliation Brief intro 23 Drode Balang Gelugpa Part of the Qulin Monastery in Lhakhang Community Riwu, Lhokha Prefecture 24 West Rigsum Barkor Area Kagyu Established by Songzan Gambo Gunpo in the middle of the Seventh Century. Part of Yangrigang Monastery, Meldro Gongkar county. Mainly worship Risong Gengbu 25 Kamtsen Gundeling Gelugpa Founded by Jamyang Choje in 1416; dedicated to Dangba Xianggu Bhudda 26 Tengye Ling Tromsik Nyingmapa One of the Major Four Ling Khang Monasteries in Lhasa. In 1498, created by Delie Jiacuo, part of the South Monastery. Mainly worship Zimare Buddha 27 Namkanub Tromsikkhang Gelugpa Fund raised by the locals, part of Lhakhang Community the Upper Tansic College 28 Dechen Rabten Tromsikkhang Nyingmapa Fund raised by locals in 1986. Lhamo Community Part of the Upper Tantric College. Mainly worship Bandan Lamu 29 Karma Shar Kyire Gelugpa Part of the Sera Monastery. Dedicated Ge’a Maxia 30 Banagshol Kyire Gelugpa Part of Monastery in Dazi khang Community County; mainly worship Luojueyun Danjiebu 31 Zhide Ling Gyabumkhang One of Lhasa’s four Ling Community monasteries; personal property of Razheng Rinpoche 32 The Great Heba Ling Islam Construction between late Ming Mosque and early Qing 33 The Mosque Near Ani Islam 1901 Tsankhung Nunnery Source Urban-Rural Construction and Environment Preservation Bureau of Lhasa Chengguan District

4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Vintage Courtyards, a category of Old City buildings, refer to traditional Tibetan buildings built prior to 1950. The majority were courtyards, ergo the name Vintage Courtyards. In August, 2011, a survey conducted by the Cultural Relics Bureau and the Housing and Urban-rural Construction Bureaus of both Chengguan District- level and Municipal-level, compiled a list including a total of 56 courtyards with 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa 101

Fig. 4.1 Zhol in the mid-20th century. Source Tibetan society during Qianlong Reign by Zhang and Chen (2007)

high cultural, historic and tourist significance in the Old City.22 In September 2011, Lhasa municipal government released a list including 56 buildings under municipal-level preservation,23 including some courtyards with high historic value. These buildings account for a large percentage of historic buildings under gov- ernment preservation list.

4.2.1 Vernacular Buildings

The Old City concentrates large numbers of historic buildings. These buildings are in many ways representative of traditional Tibetan architecture, specifically, the architecture of the Yarlung Tsangpo River mid-river section. These buildings embodied the highest accomplishment of the Tibetan architecture culture, its ability to adapt to natural conditions and other social cultural characteristics. Residences in the Old City include the following types: (a) Aristocrats’ resi- dences, (b) government officials’ residences, (c) properties owned by three major monasteries, (d) homes owned by businessmen and rich residents’ and (e) civilians. Aristocrats’ residences, especially those of prominent families, share some dis- tinct features: Their walls are generally thicker; the main building is usually three or four-storey tall. They often have full or partial circular galleries. The main building served as the living space for the owner, his family and close household servants.

22Li (2012). 23Li (2012). 102 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

The lower floors were often used as granaries and storage space. Some had rooms rented to lodgers. Servants usually lived on the second floor, which was also where the cooking was done and food was stored. The third floor was where ceremonies were performed and the masters and their children lived. The top floor was usually prayer house or living quarters for the owners, while the yard and gallery were sometimes rented out or used to accommodate guests. To provide government officials with housing, a system was implemented in the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama. Buildings, most either two storey or three-storey tall, were built to accommodate government officials. Unlike the aristocrats’ residences, inside an official’s compound, there was no clear distinction between primary buildings and secondary ones. The first storey was usually constructed using stones, while from the second floor upward, mud was more commonly used. Internally, the floor was polished rammed soil. Three room sizes are common—depending on the number of pillars, there are one-pillar rooms, one and half pillar ones, and two pillars ones. Households lived next to each other, with gallery being used as public passage. The design is highly standardized. Many monasteries also have “public houses” that include lodger rooms as well as rooms to accommodate visiting monks here to participate in the Monlam Chenmos. These houses were usually built in similar fashions—they are mostly two to three-storey tall courtyards. The opening in the middle was public space. Aside from the independent congregation hall, the rest were in rows, and the shapes of the facades were fairly standardized.24 Shop and handcraft workshop owners often preferred their homes to be street-facing as their residences often doubled for shops and storage space. The sizes were often not much larger than the residences of ordinary civilians’ and those of the Buddhist priests’. In terms of form, they were mostly two-storey courtyards, with shapes either perfect square or oblongs. There were also one-storey ones, which were often used exclusively as residences rather than commerce space.25 The vast majority of Old City residences were owned either by civilians or low-ranking Buddhist priests. They were usually two or three-storey tall; inside, they were more densely built than the aforementioned varieties; the quality and decoration were generally of lower standards; these buildings serve primarily to meet daily needs. The layouts are often flexible and show more diversity.26

4.2.2 The Vintage Courtyards

Among nearly 400 Vintage Courtyards in Lhasa, 56 were deemed to be of high historic and cultural value. To ensure they are properly protected, government

24Munyag Chokyi Gyentsen (2009, pp. 120–122). 25Wang (2005a, p. 56) and Munyag Chikyi Gyentsen (2009, p. 122). 26Wang (2005a, p. 55). 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa 103 implemented some preservation programs, providing special care to these valuable buildings. Most of the 56 high value vintage courtyards had received regular repairs, maintenance, structure reinforcement or modification. These projects achieved positive results in both improving the living standards of locals and meeting their daily needs while protecting these buildings themselves. In recent years, more rules were put into effect to guide the preservation and repair. Some buildings were also listed as city-level Cultural Artifacts (Tables 4.5 and 4.6). Despite the reduced number of Vintage Courtyards in the Old City, thanks to the government’s preservation efforts, the original appearance of the area maintains relatively well—Thanks to these efforts, many buildings whose names are men- tioned in history books can still be seen today. In 1846, French missionary Évariste Régis Huc came to Lhasa. He was initially favorably impressed by the neatness and cleanness of the city—“the residence buildings are multistory and generally tall. The rooftops are flat though built with gentle slopes to avoid water pooling. Most parts of the windows and doors are painted either in red or yellow; the body of the buildings is usually whitewashed … The Lhasa residents are rather diligent when it comes to painting their houses. Some are done on daily basis. These houses are carefully maintained and cleaned; many look brand-new despite their real age.”27 In 1913, Tada Tokan, a Japanese Buddhist monk, traveled to Tibet by way of Bhutan. After having obtained a personal approval from the 13th Dalai Lama, Tokan was accepted into Sera Monastery, where he studied Buddhism for the subsequent decade. His journal includes a detailed account of house-building in Lhasa and vivid description of the local courtyards: The builders laystones one layer on top of another from the very foundation, using mud as adhesive. The high quality houses are built using stones, but majority were bricks. The windows and doors had wooden frames … the laborers were singing while toiling away, adding mud between layers of stones. Some were lifting heavy slabs of stones from the ground and transporting them. Some were giving the stones some hammering to strengthen it. When the wall was around 6-inch tall, they began to install pillars. The pillars determine the sizes of rooms. Afterwards, crossbeams were installed. The exterior walls have no pillars—one can get a sense of the size of the room by measuring the distance between the wall and pillars … Each side of the wall has three or four rooms. Inside, the rooms were partitioned using brick walls.”28 “When one began to build the ceilings, stone boards were laid between the cross beams. The gaps were filled up with mud; once the floor was completed, people began to build surrounding walls. In Tibet, the majority of buildings are either two-storey or three-storey tall.29 The walls taper off towards the top. The taller a building, the thinner the walls get on its upper end.

27Huc (2006). 28Tada (1987, p. 77). 29Tada (1987, pp. 76–77). 104 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Table 4.5 The first 93 courtyards on preservation list No. Preserved No. Preserved courtyards No. Preserved courtyards courtyards 1 Numa 32 Rongtra 63 Gandan Khangsar 2 Kame Tara 33 Risur Shar 64 Tsomonling Monastery 3 Gakyi shar 34 Risurnub 65 Sangdong 4 Gebushar 35 Phorongka 66 Pansho 5 Nyangrongshar 36 Phala 67 Kyonatsang 6 Minkyiling 37 Drokhang 68 Gyatso Tashi 7 Drachishar 38 Dekyi Khangsar 69 Tredong’a 8 Chuchikhang 39 Malampa 70 Kyime 9 Tsonag 40 Shiga shar 71 Gyelchi ling Tsongkhang 10 Tromsikkhang 41 Shiganub 72 Chonggyeponkhang 11 Lobenshar 42 Kyire Lhatra 73 Garden 12 North Dokhang 43 Kyikyi Khangchong 74 Tangga 13 Moru Nyingpa 44 Kyire Drokhang 75 Trichang Lhadrang 14 Dardong shar 45 Akhang 76 Drongpaka 15 Nang momo 46 Namse Khangsar 77 Thunwang 16 North Langtsang 47 Belnor Khangchong 78 Semosur 17 Pomdatsang 48 North Bendruk 79 Namkanub 18 Shadra 49 Gunsangtse 80 OseLhadrang 19 Podrang Sarpa 50 Gorga Nyingpa 81 Nangbub 20 Chunpa 51 Lingtsang 82 Zhamo Garpo 21 Ratod Khamtsen 52 LubukGo’a Khangsar 83 Gangga shar 22 Gotri 53 Ne’o shar 84 Chusur Tsongkhang 23 Beijing 54 Yonggong shar 85 Lingtsang Tara Tsongkhang 24 Gowa Khangsar 55 Drakhang 86 Sengphel 25 Tzomo’re 56 Jamyang kyel, 87 Manithang Manithang 26 A’kang 57 O’to Khangsar 88 Lhating 27 Tenkhang shar 58 Semo Khangchong 89 Xidi 28 Lhadrang 59 Trisong Nyagwang 90 Qinggong Nyingpa Lhadrang 29 Lhanying tatsang 60 Punkhang 91 Drekhang 30 Kyaga shar, 61 Tsunmo Khangsar 92 Ratrin Tara 31 Samdrup 62 Zhekang 93 Zhebulin Phodrang Source Wang (2005b, p. 87) 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa 105

Table 4.6 56 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa Names Names Names 1 Pomdatsang 20 Gangga shar 39 Gowa Khangsar 2 Nyarongshar 21 Genbu shar 40 Tzomo re 3 Pelnor Khangchong 22 Chusur 41 Lhanying tatsang 4 Jelkyi ling 23 Gakyi shar 42 Tenkhang shar 5 Gunsangtse 24 Game Tara 43 Zhikha Nyingpa 6 Gora Nyingpa 25 Numa 44 Churi 7 Shadra Courtyard 26 Dokhang shar 45 Labdrang Nyingpa 8 Rampa 27 Lubong shar 46 A’khang 9 Samdrup Phodrang 28 Nyang momo 47 Chude ling 10 Gyaga shar 29 Dokyel sur 48 Chutri khang 11 Trichang Lhadrang 30 Beijing Tsongkhang 49 Gyaling buk 12 Chonggye Thongthang 31 Gotri tsongkhang 50 Namka nub 13 Gyirong nangso 32 Nyangtsang chang 51 Dingkhur Chume 14 Podrang Sarpa 33 Tagdong shar 52 Tabuling Temple 15 Gowa Khamtsen 34 Rongtra 53 Tromsikkhang 16 Lingtsang 35 Chunpa shar 54 Namse Khangsar 17 Drabchi shar 36 Moru Nyingpa 55 Dragkhang 18 Zhamo Garpo 37 Ratod 56 Yabshi Punkhang 19 Nyangtse shag 38 Retod khamtsen Source Urban-Rural Construction and Environment Preservation Bureau of Lhasa Chengguan District

He also observed how Aga, a form of jammed soil, was prepared and how the rooftop was constructed: When constructing the floor, mud was mixed with ground stone powder, be- coming a cement-like substance. The higher quality varieties also contain oil, which, after much polishing, achieves a marble-like polished surface. The rooftop is flat, covered with a layer of sand and pebbles. But to channel away rainwater, rooftops are usually constructed with a slope and with water discharge pipes. Installing the pipes is the final step of the construction. The buildings were all arranged on the four sides of the square courtyard.30 Tokan also commented on the functionality of these houses: On the inner side of the courtyard, galleries were connected into a full circle, forming into a connected corridor. On the second floor, pillars were added to support the protruded roof. Between the floors, stone staircases were installed. The first floor was often reserved for keeping animals, as well as storing hay or grains. The second is the living space of home servants. It is also where the cooking is done. The third is where the master and his family live. If the building is two-storey, then the servants live on the first floor, and the masters live on the second. It is

30Tada (1987, p. 77). 106 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa common that several low class families shared one house, each taking one or few rooms. In the aristocrats’ family, there are sometimes indoors toilets on the third floor. Shower room or bathtubs are never seen.31 … The south-facing rooms on the third floor have windows, and against the northern wall there would be a shrine, where a Buddha’s statue would be placed.”“Each side of the shrine is decorated with Buddha paintings. On the southern end of the room, there is usually a cushion about eight-inch thick. The cushion six-chi long and three-chi wide, with a small table placed in front and tea utensils on top. If the guest is a social superior, then he would be invited to sit with his back facing the painting. If he is a social equal, he would be invited to sit on the opposite side, which is the side closer to the window. Every one would sit cross-legged. The shrine is sometimes covered with glass to give the religious items such as statues and murals better preservation. There would also be gifts dedicated to the Buddha. There is also a lamplight. This room is both a place for performing religious rituals and hosting guests. Before the guest entered the room, he would first pass through a separate reception room before entering the main room.32 Tokan also made an interesting observation about interior decoration: In order to conceal the rough stone surface, the walls are covered with a layer of polished mud, and then painted with colors of the master’s choice, …As a way to obscure the smoke taint, the walls are usually first painted in a color similar to the color of birch wood, then three parallel vertical dark lines would be drawn on it, with the space in between painted with color stripes, usually in red and green. The upper part towards the ceiling would always be painted orange and the uppermost part, usually one inch wide, is painted white. The white stripes would be intersected by short vertical lines. The designs of the windows are simple—they are essentially holes on the walls with wooden frames. The windows are covered with cloth curtains printed with blue T patterns. To allow in more fresh air, the curtains would be pulled towards both sides and fixed to the wall.33 In 1936, British explorer Frederick Spencer Chapman also made a description of the Lhasa courtyards: Most buildings are two or three-storey tall with flat roofs. The exterior is usually painted white. The typical Tibetan windows are wider at the bottom and narrower towards the top. The large wooden engraved eaves often protrude over the win- dows and the wide engraved overhanging structure over the gate often conceals part of the window underneath. The eaves are often decorated with stripped cloth or silk. The windows frames are often painted with light black-dyed plaster; glass is rarely used. Most were covered with coarse canvas, fixed to the frame by nails. The windowsills and the platforms are often decorated with pot flower plants, which add a touch of liveliness to the space. There are often birdcages hung from the

31Tada (1987, pp. 77–78). 32Tada (1987, p. 78). 33Tada (1987, p. 77). 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa 107 upperside of the window and there was also square chimney-shaped structure on four sides of the roof. Inside bundles of wooden sticks are placed, attached with prayer flags on the top ends. Under the parapet, there are beams and windows, with intricate squarish patterns painted, mostly red.34 This style of architecture and decoration are both simple and casual. The aesthetic style along with the life style, contributed to the charm of the courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa. Today, the majority of Vintage Courtyards remain in use. Most were used as residences though a small number were developed for commercial purpose. Among the later category, most were opened as hotels; a small number were in part resi- dence and in part shops—usually, the first floor is used as shops while the second and third floors function as living space. These kinds of constructions are quite common along both sides of Barkor.

4.2.3 Yabshi Residences and Lhadrang

Among the aristocrat’s courtyards, two kinds stand out in terms of quality and prestige.

4.2.3.1 Yabshi Residence

Starting in the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama, the parents of the new Dalai Lamas would follow their sons to live to Lhasa; residences built according to the standards equivalent of highest-ranking Tibetan aristocrat residences would be built to accommodate them—these buildings are called Yabshi Residences. Some Yabshi Residences were newly built though some were already in existence prior and were gifted to them. In either case, they were often of the highest standard. Today, the only survived Yabshi Residence was Samdrup Phodrang, along Barkor Southern Street and Punkhang Yard in the old Shasar Zur belonging to the 11th Dalai Lama’s family. In history, the residences belonging families of Dalai Lama, from the 7th to the 13th, are thus distributed: The 7th Dalai Lama (1708–1757)’s family resided in Samdrup Phodrang. This courtyard was originally commissioned by the 5th Dalai Lama to gift to Güshi Khan; later, its ownership passed to the 7th Dalai Lama in 1729. After the 8th Dalai Lama Jambel Gyatso (1758–1804) was chosen as the rebirth of his predecessor, his parents moved to Lhasa along with the son. The Tibetan local government ordered a residence to be built to accommodate them. The site was chosen to be 2 km north of Potala Palace. This residence Lhalu Gatsel was

34Chapman (2006, pp. 114–115). 108 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa built on a site where there was originally a house built in honor of the 6th Dalai Lama and Lalu area was one of the most scenic spot in the city. The 8th Dalai Lama’s father ordered a new residence to be built here.35 This building has two yards, and was reputed for its beauty, so much so that “Spring Days in Lhalu” is one of the eight must-see sights in Lhasa. By the time the 12th Dalai Lama Khedrup Gyatso (1856–1875) was enthroned, the 8th Dalai’s family had a few surviving members. The Tibetan government thus decided to merge the two Yabshi families and both shared the Lhalu Gatsel resi- dence. They had since then been collectively referenced as Lhalu family.36 Starting from the 9th Dalai Lama to the 12th, four generations of Dalai Lamas died at a young age, with an average life spend being 17. The 9th Dalai Lama Lungtog Gyatso (1805–1815) was originally from Dengke, Kham Region. People had high hopes of him but the Dalai Lama died at 11. Many believe that his family returned to Kham region after their son’s death, though some say they were merged with the 9th Dalai Lama’s family, known as the Sokhang Family. The 10th Dalai Lama Tsultrim Gyatso (1817–1837) was originally from Litang, Kham region. After he was selected to be the rebirth of the 9th, like his prede- cessors, his family followed him to Lhasa. Due to that his family once received titles from the Qing government and was given a red bead-tipped Qing official hat, they were referred to as Yuthog Family, Yuthog literally meaning “Red Bead”. Their residence was called Yabshi Yuthog Residence. A bridge nearby was named Yuthog Zampa. After the Peaceful Liberation, Yuthog family sold their home to CPC Tibetan Work Committee and moved to a house in the eastern surburb.37 The family of the 11th Dalai Lama Khedrup Gyatso(1838–1855) lived in Yabshi Punkhang in the Shasar Zur Second Alleyway to the north of Jokhang. Today, this courtyard has been turned into a hotel. The residence of the 13th Dalai Lama Thubten Gyatso (1876–1933)’s family, called Yabshi Langdol, is situated in Chengguan now in Jin Zhu Road. In 1987, the building, after undertaking a modification, had its first floor opened as a restaurant. The second and third were turned into a hotel. The nephew’s wife of the 13th Dalai Lama, named Langdol. Tsering Wangmo was appointed the manager.38 The 14th Dalai Lama’s family lived in Yabshi Taktser. Today this building is Number 31 of Beijing Middle Road. Fairly large in size, the style is somewhere between modern and traditional Tibetan. Although there was nothing aesthetically remarkable,39 it is nonetheless a reflection of the modernization of traditional Tibetan architecture.

35Yangdzom (2005). 36Liao (2008, pp. 307–308). 37Liao (2008, p. 298). 38Jun and Liu (1989). 39Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 145). 4.2 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa 109

4.2.3.2 Lhadrang

Lhadrang is another category of residence reserved for Living Buddhas, also known as Tulkus or Rinpoches. The sizes of Lhadrangs were mostly between monasteries and regular civilian residences and are occasionally larger than regular aristocrats’ residences. The main building of a Lhadrang is usually two or four-storey tall. They tend to be heavily decorated, with exterior walls topped with deep crimson Benpar. In terms of style, Lhadrang is similar to monasteries, often having with dedicated prayer halls, rooms to place Bhudda statues and living quarters for clerics. Its main function was to serve as the living space of its owner, the and a place for him to process religious and secular matters. Thus aside from the religious function, it also has a master’s bedroom, study, and servants’ living quarters. Lhadrang first emerged in large numbers in the 17th and 18th century. At that time, all Tulkuhad their own Lhadrangs, among which, Kunde ling, Tsome Ling, and Tengye Ling were the most prominent ones. Some Tulkus became Regents thus were even more prominent and influential than they original were. As the consensus regarding preservation of the Old City became stronger, the standards were constantly raised pertaining to preservation of its original appear- ance. Meanwhile, the preservation of the ancient courtyards and development became increasingly urgent and often require immediate actions. Some Vintage Courtyards had been modified and reopened as businesses, though more exploration needs to be conducted to find more ways to make use of these Vintage Courtyards.

References

Chang, Ding. 2009. A Study on the Color System of Tibetan Architecture,90–120. Doctor’s Thesis, Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology. Chapman, Frederick Spencer. 2006. Lhasa: The Holy City, 2nd ed, 114–115. Translated by Hongjia, Xiang and Xiaofei, Ling. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Gai, Xiangtao 2013. Tibetan Architecture. Studies (Issue 1). Grunfeld, Tom. 1990. The Making of Modern Tibet. Translated by Geming, Wu and Baoyu, Wang), 10. Chinese Tibetan Study Press. Huc, Évariste Régis. 2006. A Journey Through the Chinese Empire, 2nd ed, 428–429. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Jun, Zhangcun, Wei, Liu. 1989. Langdun Family Interviews, Publicity Department of Lhasa Municipal Committee of the CPC, Lhasa over the Three Decades, 284, 286. Larsen, Knud, and Sinding-Larsen, Amund. 2005. The Lhasa Atlas: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Townscape. Translated by Ge, Li, and Muya, Jiancai, Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Li, Liangqi. 2012. Lhasa Barkor Circuit Vintage Courtyard Status Investigation, Chinese Culture, 8 Mar 2012. Liao, Dongfan. 2008. Lhasa Anecdotes, 307–308. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Liu, Jintong. 2012. Unique zhol area: memories of Lhasa Barkor street forty years ago. China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research (2). 110 4 Building Characteristics and Categories in the Old City of Lhasa

Liu, Junrui, Qing, Lin, and Yan, Zhou. 2009a. A study on the spatial arrangement of aristocratic mansions in the Old City of Lhasa. South Architecture (5). Liu, Junrui, Qing, Lin, and Yan, Zhou. 2009b. Analysis of Aristocrat Residence Space Arrangement in the Old City of Lhasa, Southern Building, (May issue). Liu, Junrui, and Mingjuan, Liu. 2011. Analysis of the hierarchical features of aristocrats’ residences in the Old City of Lhasa. Tibetan Art Studies (4). Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.), Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Munyag Chokyi Gyentsen. 2009. Tibetan Residences, 120–122. China Architecture & Building Press. Petech, Luciano. 2008. Aristocracy and Government in Tibet: 1728–1959. Translated by Weirong, Shen and Liming, Song). Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Su, Faxiang. 1999. On the society and economy of Tibet in the Republic of China period. Journal of the Minzu University of China (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) (5). Tada, Tokan. 1987. A Journey to Tibet, 77. Zhongzhou: Zhongzhou Ancient Books Publishing House. Tsybikov, Gombojab. 1993. A Buddhist Pilgrim to the Holy Places of Tibet, 98. Lhasa: Tibetan People’s Publishing House. Wang, Yiding. 2005a. Exploration of the Urban Space and Types of Residential Buildings in the Old City of Lhasa. Nanjing: Nanjing TECH University, post-grad thesis. Wang, Yongping (ed.). 2005b. Architecture Cultural Heritage in Lhasa. Southeast University Press. Yangdzom, Tsiring. 2005. Tibetan Aristocrat Families, 1900–1951. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Zhang, Jianghua, and Zonglie, Chen. (2007). Vivid “Genre Painting” of Tibet in the Qianlong Reign. China Tibet (4): 88–95. Zhang, Xiu. 2004. Basic Characteristics of Tibetan Traditional Architecture, China Construction News. Chapter 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Barkor is a lively street with a rich religious atmosphere. It is a holy passage in the eyes of pilgrims who are here to seek spiritual enlightenment. It is also a shopping street and tourist attraction awash with merchandise from distant places. In this area, the spiritual and the materialistic met hand in hand and tourists, regardless their origins, felt at home here. In June, 2009, Barkor earned the title of the Chinese Historical Cultural Street, issued by the Ministry of Culture and the National Administration of Cultural Artifact Street.

5.1 Barkor North and the Main Historical Relic

In history, in Barkor North area, there concentrated a sizable Nepalese merchant- community. Today, there remained a small Nepalese population, though the majority is Chinese. The most famous shop in this area is Zhamokarpo near Nangtseshag, dealing Nepalese textile, apparel, religious items and art pieces (Fig. 5.1). The Nepalese merchants in Lhasa were the earliest and largest overseas mer- chant community in the city. A 1961 statistics indicates that at least one Nepalese business had been running for over one millennium. In addition, four lasted between two and five centuries, 41 were established between 1851 and 1951.1 In the 57th of Qianlong Reign (1792), circa the second Nepalese—Tibetan War, Qing Amban FuKhang Nga conducted a survey on the overseas merchants in Lhasa, revealing there were 40 Nepalese merchants and 197 Kashmir ones—they all set- tled down in the city and formed families. These merchants only occasionally travel back to their home countries. Most relied on hired local laborers to transport merchandise across the border. Such transactions was usually conducted either

1Long (1993).

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 111 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_5 112 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.1 Zhamokarpoporun by Nepalese businessmen is over a century old. (Courtesy of Li Qing on May 28, 2012) through barter or foreign currency. As a result, large amount of Nepalese currency flew into Tibet, and were exchanged into silver, causing serious silver shortage.2 This trend that was only reversed after the second Tibetan—Nepalese War, when the Qing government promulgated the 29 Articles, effectively barring foreign currencies from being used in Tibet. After China entered the Republic Era, there remained a large number of Nepalese trader community in Lhasa. Statistics indicate there were around a thousand Nepalese businessmen living in the city and they owned 150 shops.3 By 1959, 100 Nepalese shops were still in business.4 To the east of Zhamokarpo, there were three ancient cultural heritage sites, namely Nangtseshag, Tromsikkhang and Ganden Darchen prayer flag.

5.1.1 Nangtseshag

Nangtseshag is situated to the east of Zhamokarpo. The three-storey building has a footprint of 720 m2. Built in the early Qing dynasty, it was originally used as the

2Tibetan General History, Vol Commerce, Su (2001), Chen (2003). 3Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 4Long (1993). 5.1 Barkor North and the Main Historical Relic 113 office of Nangtseshag Lekung. During the first half of the 20th century, it func- tioned both as a government office and the municipal prison. In 1995, after going through a restoration project, the building was turned into a museum dedicated to educating school students. In 1996, it was listed as a TAR-level cultural heritage site, an honor that entitled it to great care. Before Democratization Reform, Nangtseshag served as an administration agency. It was headed by two rank-five officials with a staff including a Clerk, two Managers, a Housing Manager, a police corporal, a “heaven burial” corpses carrier, and a vigil keeper. In addition, there was a team of patrolmen and hired laborers numbering 30. Its specific responsibilities include publicizing government orders, maintaining social order and market order, tax collection, maintaining sanitation, keeping urban appearance, construction planning, river dam maintenance. After 1920, it was changed and was turned into a municipal prison. Before Peaceful Liberation, every night at nine o’clock, cannons in front of Nangtseshag would be fired, signaling the start of curfew. Those got caught breaking the curfew would face jail time and be trialed the next day at Nangtseshag Lekung. While Nangtseshag had the authority to punish light offenders and handle civilian disputes, offender sculpable for more serious offenses would be sent to the Kashag. In addition, Nangtseshag was also responsible for apprehending suspects, conducting interrogation, and urban appearance maintenance, for instance, to unclog sewage system, cleaning Barkor and collecting garbage after religious festivals. In the 1920s, Lhasa had its first modern police institution, headed by the Lhasa mayor. The police was staffed by motley of former beggars or professional corpse carriers. Nangtseshag was repurposed into a prison. During its peak time, it had the capacity of keeping 600 convicts. Serious offenders would be kept in dudgeon where the only passage out was a small hole leading to the central yard. Lighter and female inmates were kept on the ground floor cells. On the third floor, there were administrators’ offices and courtrooms. Rulings were handed out through the main gate. In front of the gate, there was an open ground, where in the old days, death sentences would be carried out. Such public execution often drew large crowds (Fig. 5.2).5

5.1.2 Tromsikkhang (Aka Dragkhang Courtyard)

Tromsikkhangis situated to the northeast of Zhamokarpo. Originally it was used as theAmban Yamen. This lasted until the 1750 Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion, during which it was seriously damaged. Afterwards, Qianlong Emperor of Qing China

5Zhou and Li (2010). 114 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.2 Nangtseshag (Courtesy of Li Qing on June 10, 2012) ordered a monument to be built here in honor of Fu Qing and Labudun, two ambans that died on duty during the incident. In the 1920s, the building was turned into the municipal post office, earning its name Dragkhang Courtyard. After the Peaceful Liberation, it had another modification, this time turned into a civilian residence. In 1990s, in order to accommodate more households, new buildings were introduced to the original Tromsikkhang compound, resultant in change of the original layout. Between 2010 and 2011, the street-facing facades and houses received a repair. By 2013, most of the later-added buildings were demolished amidst a new effort to restore the building’s original traditional appearance. Today, it is museum dedicated to the theme of Qing Amban System and Tibetan-Central Chinese Relationship (Figs. 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5). 5.1 Barkor North and the Main Historical Relic 115

Fig. 5.3 Tromsikkhang as the residential courtyard (Li Qing 2005-10-21)

5.1.3 Ganden Darchen Prayer Flag

Ganden Darchen Prayer Flag stands at the northeast corner of Barkor. Its name is in Tibetan “Ganden Tsewang(note: a man’s name) Buddhist Scripture Prayer Flag”. During the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, Dala’s cousin Ganden Tsewang com- manding the Mongolian-Tibetan Allied Force, drove the Kashimir invaders out of Ngari region, a traditionally Tibetan territory. The locals, in expression of gratitude, put a spear inside a wooden pole and sent it to Lhasa, where it was erected at the northeast corner of Barkor as a rememberance for their hero (Fig. 5.6). 116 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.4 42010 Tromsikkhang Prior to Repair (Li Qing 2009-6-28)

Fig. 5.5 Tromsikkhang after repair (Li Qing 2011-5-7) 5.2 Barkor Eastern Street: Layout and Main Historical Legacy Projects 117

Fig. 5.6 Barkor Northeastern corner and Ganden Darchen Prayer Flag (2006-9-2)

5.2 Barkor Eastern Street: Layout and Main Historical Legacy Projects

Prior to the Peaceful Liberation, along the Barkor East and the surrounding area, there lived a community of merchants from Beijing, Yunnan, Sichuan, Kashmir as well as some Hui Chinese Muslim. Today, the majority of the population here is businessmen from inland Chinese provinces. The well-known historic buildings in this area include Moru Nyingpa Monastery, Beijing Tsongkhang, Deling Khangsar, and the Yellow House. Yellow House, situated at the southeastern corner of Barkor East, is today a restaurant called Makye Amye.

5.2.1 Moru Nyingpa

Moru Nyingpa is a monastery situated near the intersection between Sera Taggo Alley and Barkor East. It was established in 820 AD during the Trisong Detsen reign of Tupo dynasty. Among the six monasteries surrounding Jokhang, Moru Nyingpa is the only one that survived. Some believe that the monastery was built in the early 7th century and had reached its present size in the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama. During the Cultural Revolution, part of the monastery was modified into workers’ dormitory. This modification probably saved the building from publically turmoil that saw the destruction of many religious buildings. In 1985, it was 118 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.7 Moru Nyingpa (2009-7-9) restored as a monastery, but the internal structure, which underwent many changes, was never fully recovered. Moru Nyingpa’s main building is four-storey tall, sur- rounded by two-storey galleries. It underwent a restoration project in 1999.6 Today this building is on the TAR-level preservation list (Fig. 5.7). The western side of Moru Nyingpa faces the back gate of Jokhang. Every year, in January, with large numbers of pilgrims pouring into the city for Monlam Chenmo, monks from Sera would pass through this gate, earning it another name Sera Taggo, meaning the “back door of Sera Monastery”. Today, Sera Taggo Alleyway is one of the quietest and most beautiful alleyways in the city. Every afternoon, standing at the opening of the alleyway, one can see the gold-colored roofs of Jokhang on the backdrop of sunset—one of the most breath taking images of the city (Fig. 5.8).

6Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005). 5.2 Barkor Eastern Street: Layout and Main Historical Legacy Projects 119

Fig. 5.8 Jokhang Temple Eastern Gate Sera Taggo Alley (Li Qin 2010-12-8)

5.2.2 Beijing Tsongkhang

Beijing Tsongkhang (Note: Tsongkhang isa transliteration for a shop) situates in an area close to the intersection between Bark or Circuit East Street and Otobuk Alleyway. Otobuk is Tibetan word meaning “the dwellings for the peasant con- scripts”. The place got the name mainly because it was once the place where the conscripted builders of Jokhang lived during the reign of Songtsen Gampo.7 Beijing Tsongkhang was built in 1820s. It was owned by a Kalön named Neushar Tupten Tarpa. The Neushar family owned Long Qing Yu, a business subsidiary of Beijing department store Wen Fa Long. The locals thus called this place Neushar Tsongkhang. In the 1930s, Beijing businessmen Han Xiujun married the daughter of a local businessman and purchased this courtyard as their home, earning the place its new name Beijing Tsongkhang (Fig. 5.9).8 In the 1930s and 1940s, businessmen from Beijing are one of the largest busi- ness communities in Lhasa. They originally got involved in China-Mongolia trade starting mid to late 19th century. As their numbers grew, they formed their own business chamber. Merchandise from inland China would first be transported to Tianjin first, where they would be loaded to ships bounded for Hong Kong, Calcutta and Kalimpong, before they were further transported to Lhasa on the backs of and mules. Each trip could take months so most businessmen only did it twice or three times a year. Sometimes one convoy could involve as many as three

7Yishi (2010). 8Suo (2008, p. 55), Liao (2008, p. 135). 120 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.9 Beijing Tsongkhang in repair (2007-9-4) hundred pack animals. A one-way trip could take around three months. As demand increased, in 1930s, six or seven Beijing shops opened business in Lhasa, mainly dealing silk, porcelain ware, and jade. Circa 1945, Xing Ji and Wen Falong were two of the most successful brands in this business. They were both owned by a businessman named Liu Xia. As a result of their trading activities, musk, bear gallbladder, fur and cordyceps, fritillaries were brought to inland China. They would be first shipped to Kangding and Yushu, where they would sell them to local businessmen, who would continue to resell them to end consumers in inland China.9 Today, after much restoration and renovation, Beijing Tsongkhanghas been reopened as a hotel. It is also the only Vintage Courtyard on the street that operates as a hotel.

5.2.3 Deling Khangsar

Fifty meters on one side, Deling Khangsar, built in 1900, is one of the largest Vintage Courtyards along Barkor East. It was originally the property of Tashilhunpo Monestery and was once a lodging house. Its western wall and southern wall faced the Barkor East and Tsonag Alleyway respectively. Inside, it is

9Han Xiujun’s The Adventure of a Beijing Businessman in Lhasa, Selected History and Literature of Tibet, Vol 3, pp. 94–95, edited by History and Literature Research Committee, Tibet Autonomous Region Committee of the CPPCC. 5.2 Barkor Eastern Street: Layout and Main Historical Legacy Projects 121

Fig. 5.10 Deling Khangsar on Barkor East (Time unkown). Source Larsen (2005, p. 130)

Fig. 5.11 Deling Khangsar and Barkor East as of 2007 (Li Qing, 2007-9-8) partitioned into two parts. With its front gate facing Barkor East, its street-facing façade is occupied by shops and civilian residences. In 2013, the yard went through a restoration and renovation project (Figs. 5.10, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13 and 5.14).

5.2.4 Yellow House Aka Makye Amye Restaurant

At the southeastern corner of Barkor East, there is a building that rarely escaped people’s attention (Fig. 5.12). It is said it is here that the 6th Dalai Lama methis lovers. Today, this building has been renovated and operates as a restaurant called Makye Amye. The 6th Dalai Lama was born in Menyu, southeastern Tibet in 1893, one year after the death of his predecessor. However, for about a decade, the death of the 5th Dalai Lama was concealed by Sangye Gyatso, the Regent, who was engaging in power struggle with the descendants of Güshi Khan. Due to that the 6th Dalai’s succession was kept secret, the young Dalai Lama enjoyed greater freedom—He 122 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.12 Deling Khangsar in the middle of modification in 2013 (Li Qing, 2013-5-22) often sneaked out of Potala Palace and wondered the city as a civilian. According to tradition, all houses visited by a Dalai Lama would be painted in yellow and the 6th Dalai Lama’s street wandering led to many Yellow Houses scattered in the city. Later, Sangye Gyatso lost in the political struggle. The young Dalai Lama was sent to Beijing for interrogation and died on the way at 24. Today, his poetry was translated into over ten languages and is widely circulated in the world. Among them, there is one about Makye Amye, which gave name to the Makye Amye restaurant, a must-visit for many visitors (Fig. 5.15).

5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages

Barkor South is a stretch of the Barkor Circuit with Zurkhang Courtyard and Sharkyiring Darchen Prayer Flag on one end and the southern side of Jokhang on the other. Although that Zurkhang Courtyard was long gone, today’s Barkor South largely maintains its original structure and appearance. This street serves as a marketplace where religious products, clothes, Tangka paintings are on sale. Most businesses are run by locals. Historically, there were several courtyards to the south of Shar Kyiring Darchen Prayer Flag. Among them, Pomdatsang Courtyard was owned by a rich merchant family, while Kashopa, Kyitopa and Ragashar were aristocrat residences. Today, aside from the flagpole and Pomdatsang Courtyard, the rest are no longer existent. The Zurkhang family attained their status mainly due to their ancestor Zurkhang, who served a term of Kalön Tripa at the court of the 14th Dalai Lama. In the 1940s, 5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages 123

Fig. 5.13 Southern end of Barkor East 1994 (The building on the right side is originally Zurkhang’s residence. In the 1990s, it was modified into a department store). Source Larsen (2005, p. 85)

Zurkhang, trying to separate Tibet from China, implemented a policy to banish Han Chinese population from Tibet and intended to secure the status quo by developing diplomatic relationship with foreign countries. In 1959, he fled to India with the 14th Dalai Lama. Later, he fell out of favor with the Dalai Lama and left for Taiwan. In Taiwan, he received a stipend from KMT Government’s Mongolian- Tibetan Committee until he died. Zurkhang would never return to Lhasa again.10 Before the Peaceful Liberation, the Zurkhang family ran a lucrative cross-border

10Xing et al. (2008). 124 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.14 The same location as of June, 2008 (Li Qing 2008-6-21)

Fig. 5.15 SharKyaring Darchen Prayer Flag and Makye Amye at the southeast corner of Barkor (Li Qing 2004-9-19) 5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages 125

Fig. 5.16 Southeastern Corner of Barkor (lens facing eastward). Source Photo taken by Chapman (2005) trade business. Family members traveled as far as to Mongolia and India. In their heyday, wools, borax and other merchandise were piled into hills inside the Zurkhang Couryard.11 In early 1990s, the Courtyard was reopened as a department store, where religious items, apparel, and Tibetan traditional clothing were on sale. The image below shows the east end of Barkor South as of 1936. The buildings on both sides of the street were generally of high standard. Zurkhang Courtyard was to the left of the Flagpole. A more recent picture indicates the conditions had been much improved (Figs. 5.16, 5.17 and 5.18).

11Chapman (2006). 126 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.17 Barkor South circa 1987 (lens facing westward). Source Larsen (2005, p. 85)

Fig. 5.18 The same location—Southeastern corner of Barkor Street, (Li Qing 2007-9-4)

One of the most important historic heritage sites along Barkor South is Labdrang Nyingpa Courtyard. This is a place where Je Tsongkhapa and the 5th Dalai Lama once lived. The others are Pomdatsang Courtyard, the two flagpoles, and Samdrup Phodrang Courtyard—the place where Güshi Khan and the 5th Dalai Lama once lived. 5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages 127

Fig. 5.19 Labdrang Nyingpa (Barkor South) once resided by Je Tsongkhapa (Li Qing 2012-5-28)

5.3.1 Labdrang Nyingpa

Amidst a sea of busy streets and alleyway, Labdrang Nyingpa is a quiet oasis. In 1408, in preparation for the first Monlam Chenmo, Gelugpa founder Je Tsongkhapa led the restoration project of Jokhang. To accommodate Je Tsongkhapa, Zangpo, the governor of Liuwu Myriarchy ordered a three-storey courtyard to be built as the master’s residence—this became what we know as Labdrang Nyingpa. Until early 17th century, the 5th Dalai Lama lived inDrepung Monastery. He then moved into Lhasa proper. Before the completion of Potala Palace, Labdrang Nyingpa was the residence of the Dalai Lama, ergo its name, which means Old Palace. In the mid-18th century, this courtyard was acquired by an aristocrat family —the Thunpa Family (Fig. 5.19). Thunpa Family, a family that traditionally controlled the Nyemo region, is said to be the offspring of Thon-mi Saṃbhoṭa, a Tibetan scholar who was credited with inventing the Tibetan script. In 1721, Thunsemi Tese Buteng (aka Thunpa Secho Tseten) received a title that secured the family a rank in the aristocracy system.12 In 1751, after the establishment of Kashag, Thunpa Secho Tseten, for having refrained from collaborating with the rebells in the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion, was rewarded with tenure as the Kalön Tripa13 as well as the Labdrang Nyingpa courtyard, which was renamed Thunpa Residence. In 1900, Lhadrang Nyingpa was

12Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region, and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 13Tseten Puntsog (2007). 128 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy rebuilt.14 After the Peaceful Liberation, Thunpa Residence was confiscated by the government and was used to accommodate a number of companies and government agencies, including Tibetan Commerce Company, Tibetan Opera Troupe, Tibetan Art Museum and Barkor Residents’ Committee.15 Between 1999 and 2000, it received repairs and structure reinforcement.16

5.3.2 Pomdatsang Courtyard

Pomdatsang Courtyard was originally owned by Pomdatsang family, who rose to prominence during the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama. As a reward to the family’s loyalty to the Dalai Lama, they were rewarded with exclusive trading right with South Asian countries. During the Anti-Japanese War, the family actively facili- tated the transportation of military resources from South Asia to China, earning themselves great reputation in both Tibet and South Asia. Pomdatsang Courtyard was built in the early 19th century and was later rebuilt in 1910s. In 1935, Pomdatsang bought the courtyard from its then owner Tsarong Dazang Dramdul. Today, this courtyard is among best-preserved ones and is developed for com- mercial use (Fig. 5.20).

5.3.3 Sharkyiring Darchen Prayer Flag

At the northeastern corner of Barkor, there is a tall flagpole called Sharkyiring Darchen (See Fig. 5.12). It is said that in 1409, after the first Monlam Chenmo, Tsongkhapa, on his way to leave the city, learned that the construction of Ganden Monastery had been completed. Pleased by the news, Tsongkhapa tapped his cane against the ground, a gesture to give his blessing. Later, his followers cased this cane into a wooden pole and erected it where their master once stood. This pole was named Sharkyiring Darchen, meaning the Giant Flag Pole in the East Early Morning.

5.3.4 Gelsang Darchen

Aside from Sharkyiring Darchen, there is another famous flagpole called Gelsang Darchen at the southwest end of Barkor near Songju Rawa Square in the south of

14Suo (2008, p. 70). 15Liao (2008, p. 140). 16Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005). 5.3 Barkor South and Its Main Historical Heritages 129

Fig. 5.20 Pomdatsang Courtyard after repair and reopening (Li Qing 2013-5-22)

Jokhang. This one is famous for having received the blessing of the 7th Dalai Lama. A photo taken by Chapman in 1936 revealed both Songju Rawa Square and Gelsang Darchen Flagpole to the east of Barkor South. On the photo, the street appears less busy than it is today; the road was unpaved and looks dustier. Today, the square is a lively market place ridden with street peddler. On the right side of the photo, one can see the residence of prominent Tibetan scholar GendünChöpel. In late 2013, the residence was modified into a museum dedicated to Chöpel. In the process of modernization, the infrastructure in the Old City underwent a great transformation. When comparing the old photos with a new one taken in 2014, the seven decades worth of change is immediate (Figs. 5.21 and 5.22).

5.3.5 Samdrup Phodrang

Samdrup Phodrang located to the south of Gelsang Darchen Flagpole. Built in the early 17th century, the construction of this courtyard was ordered by the 5th Dalai Lama to accommodate the Mongolian Khoshut tribal leader Güshi Khan. In 1729, the family of the 7th Dalai Lama moved into this courtyard and made it their 130 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.21 Barkor Southwestern Corner and Gelsang Darchen Flagpole. Source Larsen (2005, p. 86) residence—this started the tradition that the Dalai Lamas’ families began to own properties in Lhasa. The building is built to exact standards and is fairly large in size with well-considered design. The building is also one of the oldest that are in good condition. In 2013, Samdrup Phodrang was listed as a “national important cultural artifact preservation unit”. Barkor South serves as a sightseeing passage offering tourists some of the most spectacular views that the city has to offer. When you are in town, try to walk with the pilgrims westwards along Barkor, enjoy the view of the Potala Palace standing tall and aloof from afar and the shiny spires of Jokhang spiking into the sky. The solemn and majestic religious atmosphere juxtaposed with the loud noisy streets, convey a sharp sense of contrast; tourists may also enjoy the gradual transition of sceneries, which offers a rich experience. 5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square 131

Fig. 5.22 2014 Barkor Street Southwest Corner and Gelsang Darchen Flagpole (Li Qing 2014-1-3)

5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square

Compare with the other three sides, Barkor saw more changes. In 1985, the Chinese national government earmarked 8.5 million yuan for demolishing buildings to the west of Jokhang. One of them involves covering the Jokhang square with granite and installing fountains. After the completion of the project, new shops opened around the square and flowers and trees were planted.17 Despite that this project led to more expansive view, it is rather lamentable that the original street, with its hundreds of years of history, was changed beyond recognition; the old buildings, where the significant historic information was stored, had all but gone. The area surrounding Barkor is rich in historic heritage. Two of the most famous ones in this area are Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument, Monument of Urging Locals to Receive Smallpox Vaccination. In addition, there is also Juyak Darchen Prayer Flag in front of Jokhang. Some of the famous courtyards were by now long gone, among them Doring Family Courtyard, Paljor Rabten house. In 1929, the KMT Chinese government’s special emissary Liu Manqing went onto a clandestine mission to Lhasa. Her account of the city includes a description of Barkor West:

17Fu (1994), Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007). 132 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

The alleyways are long and dim. Facades had exposed stones and unplastered. Streets are crowded. Every year, stampedes occurred, people suffered broken arms and legs.18 Such account attests to the attraction of Jokhang as a holy place to tens of thousands of pilgrims. Jokhang was in the middle section of Barkor West. In front of the monastery, beside the Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument, significant cultural items include a willow tree said to have been planted by Princess Wencheng—it was called the Princess Willow. During the Cultural Revolution, this willow tree was cut down. Jokhang itself sustained heavy damage in the event. It was first modified into a pigpen and then a slaughterhouse.19 In the late 1980s, the Princess Willow, pre- viously assumed dead, grew some new shoots. The monument in front of Jokhang remained intact. Today, it is covered by a glass case for better preservation. Aside from Jokhang and Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument, other famous historic relics include Monument of Urging Locals to Receive Smallpox Vaccination, Juyak Darchen, as well as the by now-demolished couryards Doring and Paljor Rabten courtyards.

5.4.1 Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument

Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument, aka Uncle Nephew Monument and Reaching Peace in Changqing Monument, is a testimony to the friendly relationship between Tupo Tibet and Tang China. In 821 AD, to celebrate the establishment of diplo- matic relationship between Tang and Tupo, a ceremony was held in Chang’an, the capital city of Tang China. In the subsequent year, representatives from two sides met in Lhasa where they restated their good will towards each other. In 823AD, the agreement, written in both Chinese and Tibetan languages, were carved into a stone slab, which was placed in the front of Jokhang. According to the inscription, both sides vowed to remain on friendly terms and never assort to military means should disputes arise. The monument also inscribed a text saying: “Xiaode Emperor of Tang and the Tupo ruler will retain the relationship as uncle and nephew and observe the following terms; the accord will be immutable with both god and men as witness and will be observed by posterities.” The text finishes with an uplifiting note: “Tupo and Tang China is one family. The rulers are uncle and nephew.20” According to a popular rhyme of the time, “There is a sun and a moon in the sky. There are only one Tsenpo and one Uncle.21” This monument epitomizes the

18Liu (1998). 19Lhasa’s Past: The Changed and Unchanged Holy City, Sanlian Life Weekly, 2006, from China Minzu & Religion Online: //www.mzb.com.cn/html/Home/report/341714-2.htm. 20The Fifth Dalai Lama (2000). 21The Fifth Dalai Lama (2000). 5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square 133

Fig. 5.23 Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument (Li Qing 2004-9-19) honeymoon period between Tupo Tibet and Tang China and the desire of both sides to maintain peaceful coexistence. It is one of those artifacts that have significant historic and educational value (Fig. 5.23).

5.4.2 Monument of Urging Locals to Receive Smallpox Vaccination

Aside from Tang-Tupo Alliance Monument, another significant monument in this area is the Monument of Urging Locals to Receive Smallpox Vaccination”, also known as Lhasa Smallpox Monument. Because four Chinese characters: “永远遵 行” inscribed on its surface—To Be Followed Forever, this monument is also called the Eternity Monument. Built at the behest of Helin, the then-Amban of Qing China, the monument came into being in 1794, the 59th year of Qianlong reign. Helin was an Amban whose appointment came after the Sino-Nepalese War. He was well-regarded among the locals. When a smallpox epidemic occurred, the Amban responded swiftly by ordering a hospital to be built in Jiali County to quarantine and treat patients. Many lives were saved thanks to this effort. Since then the Tibetans began to understand that small pox could be prevented and treated. Later, Helin ordered this monument to be built. The inscription includes an account 134 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Fig. 5.24 Jokhang Square (Li Qing 2007-9-4) of how the endemic was brought under control and the government effort in pro- viding locals with medical care.

5.4.3 Juyak Darchen Prayer Flag

For the locals, the flagpole in front of Jokhang on which prayer flags unfurlsis an important symbol. The name of the flagpole, Juyak Darche, literally means “The strategy has worked”. The history of this flagpole can be traced back to the 1670s, when the 5th Dalai Lama’s minister Sonam Choephel and Kyisho DepaKyishopa planned at Chideling (Judeling) Building to overturn the Tsang Regime. They sent a message to Güshi Khan, the leader of Khoshut tribe from the Kokonor region, for assistance. Upon receiving the letter, Güshi Khan launched an invasion and defeated Karma Tenkyong, the ruler of Tasangpa and ended his regime. The next year, with the support of Güshi Khan, the 5th Dalai Lama established his religious Ganden Phodrang regime. Due to its role in the incident, the Dinglin Building was renamed Judeling, meaning “the place where the plan was conceived”.Aflagpole was erected in front of Judeling’s northern gate to commemorate the event (Fig. 5.24).22

22Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010). 5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square 135

5.4.4 Doring Residential House and Doring Family

Doring Courtyard, to the west of Jokhang, used to be the residence of Doring Family, one of the four prominent Debon families. In mid-1980s, this courtyard was demolished. Today the site is occupied by the Barkor Police Station.23 Doring family was originally known as Gashi Family from Gyangze region. Starting the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, members of the family began to hold government positions; some became important political figures,24 such as Khangchenne and Doring Pondrita. Khangchenne was originally a county-level granary administrator during the reign of the 6th Dalai Lama. Later he was pro- moted to be the governor of Ngari Prefecture. In the early 18th century, during the Junggars invasion, the invaders captured Potala Palace and looted its treasures. On their way back to Xinjiang by way of Ngari Prefecture, they were ambushed by Kangchenne’s force, and the looted treasures—including a precious Buddha statue, was regained and duely returned. In 1721, Kangchenne was appointed Tibet’s first Kalön Tripa, the highest-ranking secular official in Tibet. In 1727, Kangchenne was murdered amidst conflict with other Kalön Tripas. In the subsequent year, Ü-Tsang War erupted. The war was quickly ended by Polhanai, another Kalön Tripa, who recaptured Lhasa. After the incident, the Qing government implemented Amban system. This starting a new age when Qing began to be actively involved in local administration. In 1740, Doring Pondrita was appointed Kalön Tripa. In 1751, after the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion, he became the chief Kalön Tripa in the first Kashag cabinet.25 As a result, Doring family became the most prominent one in Tibet. In 1782, Doring Pondrita resigned from his Kalön Tripa position to lead the anti-Guarkur War. During this period, his son Tenzin Penjor temporarily served as the chief Kalön Tripa. In 1791, Doring Pondritahad a second term as a Kalön Tripa. In 1791, amidst Sino-Nepalese War, Tenzin Penjor was captured by the Gorkha forces, only to be rescued by the Qing army, commanded by FuKhang Nga. Penjor was subsequently brought to Beijing for interrogation. After hearing the account of his experience, Emperor Qianlong turned rather sympathetic and pardoned him. During his stay in Beijing, the musically-talented Penjor learned to play some Chinese music instruments. In August 1793, Penjor brought Yangqin (Chinese hammered dulcimer), Sheng (Chinese zither), Hengdi (flute), and formed a music band in Lhasa, where local musicians were trained to play Han Chinese instruments

23A Detailed Explanation of the Cultural Relics on Barkor Circuit, Tibetan Humanities Geography, 2006, Issue 7. 24In Italian scholar Luciano Petech, Aristocracy and Government in Tibet: 1728–1959 (Shen Weirong and Song Liming), he believes that Gexi Family was political insignificant prior to the 1930s, the most famous was Kalön TripaQujie Nima, who served as Kalön Tripain the reign of the 14th Dalai Lama. 25Jia Riba Luosang Langjie’s Four Major Families in Modern Tibet, available at http://www.tibet. cn/periodical/xzms/2002/01/200505/t20050509_28107.html,2002-02-09. 136 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

—this greatly contributed to the development of traditional Tibetan music, espe- cially the sophisticated nangma style. After Tenzin Penjor returned to Lhasa, he ordered renovation and expansion ofDoring Courtyard. During the time when he stayed in Beijing, the Qing Amban built Samdrup Khangsar next to Tromsikkhang, which served as the Amban Yamen. Penjor later exchanged it with Doring Paṇḍitai for their Methog Kyetsel Courtyard. The Doring family later had Sangzu Khangsar demolished and used the materials to expand their Doring Courtyard. This courtyard lasted until 1980s, when it was demolished amidst a new round of urban upgrade.

5.4.5 Penjor Rabten Tibetan King Residence

Penjor Rabten literally means Auspicity and Prosperity. This courtyard was origi- nally built in the early 18th century at the behest of Lha-bzang Khan, great grandson of Güshi Khan. In mid-1980s, the courtyard was demolished. Historically, Penjor Rabten enjoyed a stature on par with Gandan Khangsar. By the time when Penjor Rabten was built, Lha-bzang Khan family still lived in Gandan Khangsar, a gift to Güshi Khan made by the 5th Dalai Lama. After the 5th Dalai Lama died, the relationship between the Tibetan government, central Qing government and the Mongolian ruling class became more complicated. In 1717, Lha-bzang Khan, who at that time lived in Penjor Rabten, was killed by the invading Junggars. Subsequently, Ngari Prefecture governor Kancennas and the Qing army launched acampaign against the Junggars. After winning a decisive battle, the 7th Dalai Lama, who was forced to leave Lhasa, returned. There his chief Kalön Tripa Kancennas took residence in Penjor Rabten, the residence of the dead Lha-bzang Khan. However, in 1727, Kancennas was murdered in this place in the middle of the Kalön Tripa Riot. Another Kalön Tripa, Polhanai, later moved to Gandan Khangsar. That both Lha-bzang Khan and Kancennas died in the same place gave rise to speculation of superstitious nature and the property was shunned. The ownership eventually passed on to the Tashilhunpo Monastery (Fig. 5.25). Sarat Chandra Das, an Indian intelligence officer, arrived in Lhasa in 1882. During his stay in Lhasa, he stayed in Penjor Rabten, which was at that time part of theTashilhunpo Monastery. His journal includes an account about the courtyard: “Penjor Rabten’s gate stands eight to nine-foot tall, and five-foot wide; an over- hang, about one foot and half wide, protrudes from the top of the gate. On each side, there was a 20–25-foot-tall flagpole, from which prayer flags unfurl. Once we got on top of the steep ladders, we entered a corridor, where we could see the opposite side a heavily-decorated façade with glass windows. This is where the chief servant lived. Looking from the windows, we saw poplar and willow trees on the bank of the swamp next to the Tengyeling Monastery; further still, the rooftops 5.4 Barkor West and Jokhang Square 137

Fig. 5.25 Penjor Rabten Tibetan King residence (Chen Zonglie 1958). Source Liao (2008, p. 259) of the Potala palace shined gold in the sun.26 By all measures, it is a beautiful building of superb quality. It is situated in such a way that visitors can enjoy a great view.” Today, although the original Barkor West no longer exist, people still follow the old custom and walk from the Barkor South to the front of Jokhang. They would throw Banyan and Juniper branches to stoves—a local religious ritual, and kowtow towards the flagpole. After all these years, this place has a rich blend of history and modernity.

References

Chen, Jidong. 2003. Tibetan Exploration of Southern Asia Market and its Special Characteristics. Sichuan Press Group Bashu Book Shop. Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles. 2007. Lhasa Chronicle, 714. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Chapman, Frederick Spencer (1936). 2005. Lhasa Historical City Atlas: Traditional Tibetan construction and urban landscape, 87. China Achitecture & Building Press. Chapman, Frederick Spencer. 2006. Lhasa: The Holy City, 2nd ed., 119. Translated by Hongjia Xiang, and Xiaofei Ling. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Das, Sarat Chandra. 2006. Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet, 120. Translated by Guansheng Chen, and Peizhu Li. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House (Issue 2). Fu, Chonglan. 1994. History of Lhasa, 335. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.

26Das (2006). 138 5 Barkor Street: Layout and Historical Legacy

Larsen, Knud, and Amund Sinding-Larsen. 2005. The Lhasa Atlas: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Townscape. Translated by Ge Li, and Jiancai Muya, 118. Beijing: China Achitecture & Building Press. Liao, Dongfan. 2008. Lhasa Anecdotes, 135. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Liu, Manqing. 1998. My Experience as A KMT Government Secret Emissary to Tibet, 85. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House. Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.), and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle, 490. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Long, Xijiang. 1993. A Historical Study of Nepalese Merchants. China Tibetology (3): 41–51. Su, Faxiang. 2001. Qing Dynasty Tibetan Policy Study. The Ethnic Publishing House. Suo, Qiong. 2008. Barkor Area in the Old City of Lhasa, 70. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. The Fifth Dalai Lama. 2000. History of Tibetan Kings and Ministers 49. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House. Tseten Puntsog, Charpa. 2007. Research Project Group: Collection of Charpa Tseten Puntsog Academic Papers (Chinese trans.), 48, 51. Tibetan Language Vintage Book Press, China Tibetology Publishing House. Xing Suzhi, and Luosang Zhenzhu (narrated), Zhang Jiangfei, and Yang Nianqun (transcribed). 2008. Seeking Englightenment in Tibet: The Journey of A Han Chinese Lama, 2nd ed., p. 369. SDX Joint Publishing Company. Yishi, Chodron. 2010. On the Formation of Lhasa Barkor Street. Postundergrad thesis. Tibet University, Tibet. Zhou, Jing, and Tian Li. 2010. The Vanishing History—Reflectios on the Changing Functions of Architectures in the Old City of Lhasa, 172–175. Huazhong Architecture (Issue 1). Chapter 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Among the 56 high value Vintage Courtyards, the vast majority remain uninhabited today; a minority have been repaired, renovated and reused for commercial pur- poses. Given the rich cultural value of the Old City of Lhasa, these courtyards are carriers of the past of the historical urban quarters. Every courtyard has its own stories. Although many were no longer in existence, they once played a part in the Old City’s cityscape and social structure. Thus it is a worthwhile endeavor to explore their past of these no-longer existent courtyards.

6.1 History of Amban Yamen

After the establishment of Amban system in 1727 and before the establishment of New China, for over 180 years, the Amban Yamen was relocated five times. It was originally in Tromsikkhang along the Barkor North. In 1750, after the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion, it was relocated to Gandan Khangsar. In the late 18th century, it was relocated to Tzashen. After 1857, it was moved to Samdrup Khangsar near Barkor, before it was finally settled in Lubug near Jokhang in late 19th century. Most of these Yamens didn’t survive. Today, the buildings that housed the earliest and the latest Yamen still exist—they are in Tromsikkhang and the Second Hotel of the Tibetan Military Reglion Hotel on Dosengge Road respectively. Tromsikkhang was ruined in a fire in 1950 during the Rebellion. The one that we can see is a replica, once used as the Tibetan regional government’s police bureau and post office (Dragkhang). This earned it the name Dragkhang Courtyard. The internals was modified in the late 1990s. In 2010, a restoration was undertaken to resume its original shape. The Penpa roof was the last vestige of its past glory. Today, a renovation project is currently underway. Before the Amban system, the Qing government officials resided in Menchong Fu to the northeastern side of the Lhasa City. E’lai, the Qing minister in Lhasa,

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 139 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_6 140 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa stayed here when he arrived in 1723. Up until the early 19th century, it was the residence or holiday house by generations of Qing government Ambans.1

6.1.1 From Tromsikkhang to Gandan Khangsar (1727–1751)

The Amban Yamen was originally in Tromsikkhang. However, the Tromsikkhang that we saw is the rebuilt version. The original was ruined in the midst of the Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion. The date of the rebuilding remains unknown, though many speculate that it was either in the 19th century or the 20th century. The courtyard occupies about 2400 m2. The original building was three-storey tall. The ground floor were shops, the second floor the living space, and the third, with balconies, are guestrooms. Both the 6th Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso and Lha-bzang Khan lived in Tromsikkhang. Later, its then-owner of Miwang Pholagiftedit to an Amban. It subsequently became the first Amban Yamen, which was the reason that it was decorated with crimson Penpa. It commands such respect that today, pilgrims still prostrate and kowtow towards it. Tromsikkhang witnessed one of the bloodiest episodes in the Tibetan history: Two Qing Ambans lured Gyurme Namgyel, the defacto ruler to this place, and had him executed. To the subsequent retribution, both of the two Ambans lost their lives. Circa 1750, the Amban system had been introduced for over two decades, yet the power remained in the hands of the Polhanai family. During Polhanai’s reign, peace was maintained. However, after 1747 the year when Polhanai died, his son Gyurme Namgyel succeeded. The new ruler quickly fell at odds with the Ambans and the Dalai Lama and became increasingly unbridled. In the autumn of 1750, the two ambans—Fu Qing and Labudun summoned Gyurme Namgyel to the Amban Yamen for a meeting. When he arrived, they had him executed. The Yamen was then surrounded and breached by an angry mob—both died in the incident, along with their entourage numbering over one hundred. Over 80,000 teal of silver was looted. Tromsikkhang was set on fire and destroyed. Following the massacre, the Dalai Lama offered preservation to the survived Yamen staff and military personnel in Potala Palace. In response, Qing Qianlong Emperor ordered Sichuan governor Celeng to launch a retaliation campaign. In the retribution, perpetrators were rounded up and executed. Afterwards, the original Junwang, or Principality system was abolished. In the wake, the 7th Dalai Lama ascended to become the top administrator of Lhasa. Fuqing and Labudun, the two fallen Ambans, were posthumously granted honorary aristocrat titles; a memorial was built on top of the ruined Tromsikkhang

1Liao (2008, p. 140). 6.1 History of Amban Yamen 141

Courtyard in honor of the two fallen ambans. An order was issued requiring all subsequent Ambans to hold memorial ceremonies twice a year—in spring and autumn each. Forty years later, Fuqing’s nephew FuKhang Nga, after leading a successful military campaign over the Gurkha, visited Lhasa and paid a visit to the place. Today, one can still read his essay titled “Shuangzhong Memorial Repaired” inscribed on the walls on the walls inside the gate. Due to the damage caused by the arson, Qing government ordered that the Amban Office to be relocated to the confisticated house of the dead Prince—Gandan Khangsar. Gandan Khangsar was situated with Ramoche to the east and Jangsenshar Linka to the west, Lingkor North to the north and Tsomon Ling Monastery to the south. It was built in 1588 (the 16th year of Wanli Reign of Ming Dynasty), at the order of Kyishopa, a local chieftain during the Phagmodru period. This courtyard was originally his personal residence.2 In 1634, Kyishopa gifted this residence to the 5th Dalai Lama, who subsequently renamed it Gandan Khangsar—New House of Joy—a name also carries a subtle allusion to his previous residence, the Ganden Phodrang inside Drepung Monstery (literally meaning Palace of Heavenly Joy). In the 1630s and the mid-1640s, the 5th Dalai lived here for a full decade and had some fond memories about it. When in 1642, Güshi Khan, the leader of Mongolian Khoshut Tribe, arrived in Lhasa, the garden was given to him as a gift from the Dalai Lama.3 Until the 18th century, Gandan Khangsar was the residence of Güshi Khan and his family, until Lha-bzang Khan moved to a new residence to the west of Jokhang. In 1717, Junggar invaders was expelled from Tibet, Gandan Khangsar again became the residence of Polhanai family. This state lasted until 1750, when Gyurme Namgyel was killed. In total, the Polhanai family lived in this building for over three decades. After the Tibetan Amban Yamen was relocated to Tzashen, in the early 19th century, Gandan Khangsar was integrated into Tsomon Ling. Today, a stable is the only vestige of the building.4 According to Russian explorer Cunbikefu, Gandan Khangsar was in a dilapidated state at least in 1900 and that the stone wall shad developed a dark hue as a result of long time exposure.5 The previous Palace of Joy was in a state of ruins and neglect.6 As to the origin of the Gandan Khangsar’s name, one theory postulates that it has to do with a Mongolian military general named Tsewang, famous for having thwarted the Ladakh invasion. Ladakh was originally one of the three tribes in the Ngari region. In Yuan dynasty, it was placed under the auspice of Wusi Zangna Lisu Xuanwei Shisi. In early Ming, the Xuanwei Shisi was replaced by Elisi Military-Civilian Marshal’sOffice. In the 17th century, Ladakh switched its alle- giance from Tibet to the Mughal Empire that controlled India and allied with

2Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 1128). 3Liao (2008, p. 254). 4Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 1128). 5Tsybikov’s(1993, p. 97). 6Tsybikov’s(1993, p. 97). 142 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Bhutan, a country where the Kagyu School was the dominating sect. In 1630, Ladakh invaded Tibet and occupied Tsada and Ruthog in Ngari region. Dalai Khan, grandson of Güshi Khan, after having attained the support from the 5th Dalai Lama Sangye Gyatso, sent a Mongolian-Tibetan joint force to attack Ladakh. The army commanded by the Dalai Lama’s cousin Tsewang, recaptured the occupied territory in 1681. Three years later, the Ladakh forces were expelled out of Tsada and Ruthog. The Alliance forces continued to persue the retreating enemy, who fled to an area surrounding Liecheng. In 1683, Ganden Tsewang, with the support of Junggar army, cracked the defense of Liecheng, and forced the Ladakh forces to copulate. In 1684, Ladakh was granted terms. Afterwards, it resumed its status as a tributary state to Tibet.7 Tsewang returned to Lhasa and made this courtyard his residence, which earned it its name Gandan Khangsar. By the time when the Amban Yamen was relocated to Gandan Khangsar, the later already enjoyed the reputation of being a beautiful garden. In 1780, Qinglin and Yamantai, two ambans, decided to further expand the garden and introduced more buildings to the compound. Afterwards, due to a scandal, involving military personnel being ordered to put on performances for the entertainment—both Ambans were impeached, which led to dismissal. Afterwards, the Amban Yamen was relocated to Tzashen, 3.5 km off the Lhasa City.8

6.1.2 From Gandan Khangsar to Tzashen (1788–1857)

Tzashen was situated on a plain in the northern suburb of Lhasa City—this was where Khoshut Khan reviewed the troops. In 1717, during the Junggar invasion, Junggar forces camped in Tzashen. So was the Qing army when they came. Since the Reign of Kangxi, this place became the fixed location for Qing forces to camp.9 In 1727, Lumpawa killed Kancennas in a coup; in consequence, Qing launched a military campaign to apprehend Lumpawa. At one point, over 6500 Qing troops were stationed in the city. Maintaining such a force of such a size posed a sub- stantial burden on the Qing government. In 1731 (the ninth year of the Yongzheng Reign), the government began to cut the size of the garrison force, reducing the number to five hundred who would be on three-year shifts. In order to improve the living standards, drill quality and strengthen discipline, in 1733 (11th year of Yongzheng Reign), Qing government ordered a barracks to be built in Tzashen. By the time when the Yamen was moved here in late 18th century, the Tzashen was already a fairly developed military town.

7Zhou (2006, pp. 154–155). 8Writing Groups of the original and revised versions of A Brief History of Tibetan Ethnic Group (2009, pp. 132–233). 9Zhi’s(2006). 6.1 History of Amban Yamen 143

Today, it remains unknown in which year did the Amban Yamen relocate to Tzashen, but many believe that it was circa 1788, the 53rd year of the Qianlong Reign, following the two corrupt Ambans were dismissed. This Tzashen Yamen was still in use at least in 1857, the 7th year of Xianfeng Reign. Although this place had been the Amban Yamen for a long time, very few traces left. Many Qing military personnel settled down in Tzashen. After decades of development, it was transformed into a small military town with both the Chinese and Tibetan characteristics, with shops, civilian residences, and a Gesar Temple. Today, the town itself is long gone though some art facts survived. Originally there were a pair stone lions, which had been relocated to outside the front gate of Norbulingka. The Monument, which was part of the Gesar Temple, was also relocated to Jokhang.10 After Xinhai Revolution, this place was where the second regiment of the Tibetan Corps based. The town also housed other facilities such as the weaponry depot and mint. After the Peaceful Liberation, an automobile and machinery repair factories were established here.11

6.1.3 From Tzashen to Lubug Yamen (Circa 1892–1911)

In the mid-19th century, at the behest of Manqing, an amban, the Yamen was relocated from Tzashen to Samdrup Khangsar near Tromsikkhang. However the location’s close proximity to locals posed a new challenge to maintaining discipline and caused discontent among locals. The Emperor Tongzhi was displeased by the amban’s decision and ordered that the Yamen to be relocated to Lubug to the southwest of Jokhang, where a new Yamen and military camp were built. The new Lubug Amban Yamen was a walled complex consisted of multiple small courtyards. Outside the gate, there hanged the Amban’s banner with six Chinese characters—驻藏办事大臣 meaning the Ministers stationed in Tibet. The area was originally owned by the Doring family, a local noble family. It had another name—Methog Kyetsel Lingka. Later, the Qing amban exchanged Samdrup Khangsar in the Old City for this place, where a new Yamen was built. Inside the walls, there was the amban’soffice and living quarters, and soldiers’ barracks.12 The Amban Yamen was also called Lubu Yamen or Meiji Yamen. Following the pattern of the inland Chinese, the gate had two stone lions at either side. Methog Kyetsel Lingka was situated with Lhasa River to the south, Yuthog Zampa to the north, Lubug Square to the east and a vegetable patch to the west—in total, the area measures 2–3km2. In Qing dunasty, it was the private garden of the Qing prince Lumpawa, though the ownership remained in the hands of the Doring family. In the late 19th century, at the suggestion of the Amban, the Amban Yamen

10Fu (1994, p. 160). 11Liao (2008, p. 254). 12Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 431). 144 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.1 The last Amban Yamen was located here (Li Qing 2012-6-23) exchanged Samdrup Khangsar with the Doring Family for their Methog Kyetsel Lingka.13 It was up until 1911 the year of Xinhai Revolution, that the Amban had lived here. After the Qing ended, the Second Regiment of the moved in and built their base here. After the 1959 Riot, the Tibetan Army ceased to exist as an independent military force; the People’s Liberation Army’s Tibetan Regiment took over this base. In 1968, the Tibetan PLA Military Zone turned this courtyard into an internal hotel—the Second Guesthouse of the Tibetan Military Zone.14 The pair of stone lions outside the gate earned the road its name—Stone Lion Road— the name is still in use today (Fig. 6.1). Spencer Chapman arrived in Lhasa in 1936. In his account, the Amban Yamen on the side of Dosengge Road had been reduced “to a pile of rubble. But the two Chinese style granite lions remained there, reminding one of the bygone prestiges of the place.15”

6.1.4 Republic of China Era—Kyetopa

In 1933 after the 13th Dalai Lama died, the Republic of China government sent Hang Musong, general secretary of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, to Tibet to attend the deceased Dalai Lama’s funeral. Afterwards,

13Liao (2008, pp. 268–269). 14Chaogui’s(1988). 15Chapman’s(2006, p. 119). 6.1 History of Amban Yamen 145

Huang reached an agreement with the Tibetan regional government and established “Administration Office”; after Huang departed, a subordinate named Liu Pucheng stayed in Lhasa and continued to work from there to maintain telegram commu- nication. In 1940, Wu Zhongxin, the new general secretary of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, arrived in Lhasa to attend the 14th Dalai Lama’s selection ceremony, also known as the Golden Urn Enthronement Ceremony. Prior to their trip, they sent a message to the Tibetan local authorities, requesting that the Administration Office to be promoted from Administration to the level of agency, and appointed Mongolian-Tibetan Committee Tibetan Affairs Leader Kong Qingzong to be the director. The KMT Government’s Tibetan Office situated in Kyetopa Courtyard along Barkor South. This courtyard was originally the private property of Lungshar, a trusted minister of the Dalai Lama. Later, the Tibetan government gifted this property to Huang Musong, who used it to establish the KMT Lhasa office.16 After the Peaceful Liberation, this courtyard was turned into Lhasa Apparel Factory.17 Liu Manqing, a Tibet diplomat employed by the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, was born in Lhasa and grew up in India and Beijing. In 1929, Liu was sent on a secret mission to visit Lhasa where she met with Lungshar. During Liu’s visit, she observed firsthand the luxurious life style of Lungshar and other upper class Tibetans. In her journal, she described Lungshar’s luxurious home decorated with pavilions, ponds and boats. In the middle of an artificial lake, banquets were held on a grassy island. Lit by gasoline lights, the place at nights was as bright as day. Evening started with a concert, followed by banquet with rich variety of the dishes. The guests made jokes in English throughout the dinner; the host occa- sionally responded… (Before I left) someone sent me a note with Lungshar’s handwritten message: “I’d like to visit China one day” Clearly, this shows that he appreciated my visit.18

6.1.5 Tromsikkhang’s Restoration and Commercial Development

Tromsikkhang sustained serious damages during the 1750 Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion. Subsequently, Emperor Qianlong ordered a Memorial to be built to commemorate Fuqing and Labudun, two fallen Ambans in the Rebellion. In 1924, the 13th Dalai Lama ordered Lhasa police bureau to be established here. The northeastern part of Tromsikkhang was where the former police headquarters located.19

16Suzhi et al. (2008, p. 246). 17Liao (2008, p. 136). 18Liu (1998, pp. 96–97). 19Liao (2008, p. 265). 146 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.2 Tromsikkhang under Reconstruction (Li Qing, 2013-5-23)

After 1959, Tromsikkhang was partially abandoned. In 1990, the majority of the compound had been turned into rubble. In mid-1990s, the remaining structure was demolished.20 By 1997, the majority had been demolished, leaving only one facade facing the Barkor still intact. In 1998, a modern four-storey residential courtyard was built21on the location, thus it could no longer qualify as a Vintage Courtyard. In 2010, Chengguan District Environment Preservation Bureau earmarked 16 million yuan for the repair and reinforcement of the three vintage courtyards in the area: Tromsikkhang, Jayangkyil and Chogyel Bomtang.22 The repair of Tromsikkhang alone cost four million yuan. Before the project, over twenty households lived in the courtyard and the walls already show signs of tilting and the wooden parts had erosions. Starting in June 2010, a total of 2069.85 m2 23 worth of building received repair and reinforcement. The street-facing facade was reinforced and modified and reopened as warehouses. The exterior walls restored their original appearance, though internally, nothing was done—the appearance hadn’t changed since 1998. In 2011, repair project was completed. The first floor street-facing façade remained used by shops. In May 2013, all lodger leases were terminated, whereupon the rebuilding commenced to restore its original look. In total, the building includes an internal facing part with a constructed surface of 4374.17 and

20Liao (2008, p. 134). 21Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 134). 22Restorative Treatment of Old Buildings Contributes to the Conservation of Vintage Courtyards, China Tibetan News Online: www.chinatibetnews.com, 2010-11-16. 23Two Vintage Courtyards Set to Open at the End of the Month, from Tibetan Commerce Daily, http://www.amdotibet.com/html/2010-09/11474.html. 6.1 History of Amban Yamen 147

Fig. 6.3 Tromsikkhang after restoration (Li Qing 2014-1-3)

2069.85 m2 street facing—in total, 297 million yuan was spent24 for a total of 6443.99 m2 of construction. By the end of June, 2013, this yard had been turned into a museum dedicated to education of relationship between the central Chinese government and the Tibetan regional government (Figs. 6.2 and 6.3).

6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards

Today, there are two courtyards in the Old City once served Yabshi Residences. One is Samdrup Phobrang that once accommodated the family of the 7th Dalai Lama; the other is Punkhang lived by the family of 11th Dalai Lama. These two were both fairly large and in relative good conditions by the time of the Peaceful Liberation. After the Liberation, they were both turned into civilian residences. Both had received care for structural reinforcement and modification. In 2007, the residents of Punkhang were relocated. Afterwards, a restoration project was undertaken to restore the place’s original appearance. In 2009, the courtyard was reopened as a hotel. Today, it was one of the best ethnicity-themed hotels in Lhasa. In 2011, Samdrup Phodrang went through a similar process of restoration. To restore its original appearance, only traditional materials were used while traditional workmanship was applied.

24The Qing Government Ambans’ Yamen Museum Unveiled, Lhasa Evening News: http://www. lasa.gov.cn, 2013-7-2. 148 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

6.2.1 Samdrup Phodrang Courtyard

Samdrup Phodrang is situated near the intersection between the southwestern end of Barkor South and Kyito Alleyway. Samdrup Phodrang literally means Palace of Lion and Dragon. It was built by the 5th Dalai Lama for Güshi Khan in 1642. In 1720, the 7th Dalai Lama arrived in Lhasa. In 1729, the Dalai Lama’s father Sonam Dargye visited Beijing, where he received the title Fuguogong—Lord of Protecting the Empire. Afterwards, the 5th Dalai Lama bequeathed the residence to his father.25 It has subsequently been the 7th Dalai Lama’s family residence, the first of a number of Yabshi residences in Lhasa. Samdrup Phodrang’s main building was originally two-storey tall. In 1900, another storey was added to its top. This building was connected with a lower building on either side. To its east, there was a garden measuring at 2316 m2.26 In 1951, Sangpo sold this house to the PLA troops stationed in Tibet for a price of several hundred thousands silver dollars. Later the building was used as the office of Tibetan Trade General Company27 before it was modified into a civilian residence, the office for the Barkor Community Office and Community Hospital. Between 2011 and 2012, the government earmarked a total of 14.58 million yuan for the building’s renovation; it was subsequently used as the headquarters for the Modification Project of the Old City of Lhasa. In 2013, renovation project com- pleted and the courtyard was reopened to the public as a museum. Prior to 1949, most Lhasa aristocracy families preferred having their homes near Barkor. There are a few in the area surrounding Samdrup Phodrang. To its southeast there was Shédra, to the west, there was Doga, to the south, Songbi, to the north, Jokhang Square. Today, aside from Shédra, the others no longer exist (Figs. 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6).

6.2.1.1 Güshi Khan and His Residence

Güshi of Güshi Khan (1582–1655 AD) is the transliteration of Guoshi, Chinese meaning State Counsellor. Güshi Khan was originally from the Borǰigin tribe of the Mongols, and his first name was Tulu Baihu. He was the tribal leader of the Khoshut Tribe in Weilate region in late Ming and early Qing Dynasty. His military talent began to show at an young age of 13, when Güshi Khan defeated Ejiahaote tribe’s 40,000 strong force with a much small number, and occupied what is today Balikun and Urumqi. In the 34th year of the Wanli Reign (1606), Güshi Khan

25Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010, p. 490). 26Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010, p. 490). 27Liao (2008, p. 297). 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 149

Fig. 6.4 Samdrup Phodrang as a civilian residence (Li Qing 2010-12-8)

Fig. 6.5 Samdrup Phodrangin repair (Li Qing 2012-5-29) received the title Dongkeer Hutuketu, meaning the Grand State Counsel. He sub- sequently attacked Eastern Tartar and achieved victory. In 1638, the 11th year of Chongzhen Reign of Ming Dynasty, Güshi Khan met with the 5th Dalai Lama and the 4th Panchan Lama, from the two, he received the title Güshi Tenzin Chogyel—meaning the Grand Protector of Buddhism. Güshi Khan proceeded to consolidate Tibetan political and religious fractions and restore 150 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.6 Samdrup Phodrangafter repair (Li Qing 2013-5-23) order. In 1640, Güshi Khan defeated Thunten a tribal leader in the Kham region. In the same year, he attended the Mongolian tribal leader conference and partook in the making of the Mongol-Oirat code. In the following year, he traveled to Back Tibet region, ending the rule of Tsangpa. His elder son Dayan Khan had since then been stationed in Lhasa. In 1642, Güshi Khan entered Lhasa, and made an arrangement with the 5th Dalai Lama to share the political power and religious authority, ushering in centuries of stability. Lhasa had thus regained its status as the center of politics, religion, culture and economy. In a gesture to show welcome to Güshi Khan, the 5th Dalai Lama ordered the building of Samdrup Phodrang, and gifted him his favourite garden Gandan Khangsar. Historical study indicates that Güshi Khan only spent a brief period in Samdrup Phodrang. During the seven decades when Tibet was ruled by the Güshi Khanand his offsprings, the ruling family relocated twice: First from Samdrup Phodrang to Gandan Khangsar and then to Peljor Rabten. Neither Gandan Khangsar nor Peljor Rabten existed anymore. Güshi Khan and the 5th Dalai Lama were both shrewd political visionaries. Prior to Qing took over China, Güshi Khan suggested the 5th Dalai Lama to establish relationship with the new regime. In 1642, the 5th Dalai Lama and delegates sent by Güshi Khan and Panchan Lama arrived in Shengjing (Shenyang of Liaoning pro- vince today), then capital city of the Machu regime. The following year, Qing emperor returned the favor by sending his own delegation to Tibet. Diplomatic ties between the two had thus been established. Shortly after Qing dynasty established, in 1645, Dayan Khan, son of Güshi Khan, visited Beijing. He vowed allegiance to Qing Emperor Shunzhi, and in return obtained the Emperor’s endorsement to govern the western Tibetan tribes. In the 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 151

9th year of Shunzhi Reign, the 5th Dalai Lama visited Beijing and met with the Emperor. The next year, Güshi Khan was granted a title from the Emperor. Three years later, in 1655, Güshi Khan died in Lhasa. His family continued to rule Tibet until 1717, when his great grandson Lha-bzang Khan was murdered by the invading Junggars, concluding the seventy-year rule of the Güshi Khan family.

6.2.1.2 7th Dalai Lama Establishing the First Yabshi Courtyard

During the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama, Qing China–Tibet relationship was stable and became formalized. Although during the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama, the political center had already shifted back to Lhasa, it was until the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama, when the family members of the Dalai Lamas began to live in Lhasa. This is due to: i. Prior to the 7th Dalai Lama, the families of the Dalai Lamas were generally not regarded as members of the aristocracy. ii. By the time of the 5th Dalai Lama was enthroned, although that the Gelugpa School had built a large following, in some regions, it remained a minority. For instance, the 5th Dalai Lama’s maternal uncle who reared him as a child followed the Jo Nang School, which disqualified him from the aristocracy. iii. The 6th Dalai Lama had a short reign—the Dalai Lama died before his family could make into the rank of aristocracy. By the time of the 7th Dalai Lama, Gelugpa School already established dominance and Dalai Lama’s role as a spiritual leader became more institutionalized, especially after the 7th Dalai Lama’s father Sonam Gyentsen’s appointment by Emperor Kangxi as Fuguo Gong—Lord of Assisting the Empire. The political stability contributed to the family’s ascendancy to aristocracy.

6.2.1.3 Significant Incidents During the Reign of the 7th Dalai Lama

The 7th Dalai Lama’s reign was among the most significant in the Tibetan history and the longest. When it started, China was ruled by Emperor Kangxi; when it ended, it was in the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Although in general Lhasa was relatively stable and peaceful between the 5th Dalai and the 8th Dalai, the 7th Dalai Lama’s reign was not without its fair share of incidents: i. The first is the struggle between the in Lhasa and the Junggars in Qinghai—the conflict between the two compelled the Qing government to bolster its control of the region in military means. The 5th Dalai Lama’s death left some political issues unresolved: The Gelugpa School’s growing influence strained the relationship between local Tibetans and the Mongolian ruling clique. Eventually, a clash erupted between the Sangye Gyatso clique and the 152 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Lha-bzang Khan clique. After the 5th Dalai Lama died, the situation was exploited by the Junggars, who launched an invasion. Such invasion prompted the Qing government to intervene, resultant in establishment of Kalön Tripa System. ii. Kancennas’ Death and the Amban System. In 1727, the 5th Reign of Emperor Yongzheng, Napodpa, the Kalön Tripa who took the second chair, murdered Kancennas, the chief Kalön Tripa at Peljor Rabten. Both Polhanai and Qing government responded to the incident quickly. Three Qing corps were sent from Xining, Kham region and Yun’nan to Tibet to put out the rebellion. Afterwards, the Amban system and Junwang system were implemented. iii. Gyurme Namgyel Rebellion and Kashag. In history, murder of Qing Amban happened only once—it took place in 1750 during the Gyurme Namgyel Rebbelion. In the aftermath, the Qing government implemented the Thirteen-Article Ordinance Concerning Better Governing Tibet. As a result, Junwang system was replaced by Kashag system. iv. Construction of Norbulingka. Norbulingka was built during the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama; to this day, it is widely seen as the panicle of Tibetan garden art achievement. It is also a significant piece of cultural heritage of worldwide renown. By 1740, the area was still wilderness wondered by wild animals; near Lhasa River, the area was also swampy. The 7th Dalai Lama liked this area. The Amban thus ordered a camp to be built near a water source for the Dalai Lama to take rest and do his daily prayers. Later, a permanent building called Nyi’o Phodrang was built to enable his holiness to take baths. In 1751, the Dalai Lama ordered a three-storey courtyard named after him—Gelsang Phodrang to be built. Inside the new building, there was a prayer hall, a bed- room, a reading room and a room where the Protectors’ statues were placed. It became a tradition that Dalai Lamas, before they came of age, took their Buddhism education in this place. After they grew up and assumed power, some would continue to meet their subordinates here. Afterwards, some gov- ernment agencies were relocated from the Potala to Norbulingka. After the 7th Dalai Lama died, more buildings were added—among them, Gelsang Phodrang (Palace of Auspirity and Peace), Tsogyi Phodrang (Lake Center Palace), Chenzen phodrang. After Peaceful Liberation, Tagten Migyur Phodrang, also known as New Palace, was built here. After generations of expansion, today, Norbulingka occupies an area around 360,000 m2. Also during the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama, the first Western Christian mis- sionary arrived in Lhasa. Starting in the early 17th century, several attempts were made by the European Christian missionaries to enter Tibet. They reached as far as Ngari and Shigatse. In one incident, Portugese missionary named António de Andrade and his fellow Jesuits traveled in disguise and arrived in Ngari in 1624. The region was at the time under the control of regime. The missionaries entered the capital city of where they settled down. They were well received initially, though religious tention soon escalated into a war to depose the pro-Christian king in 1630 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 153 and eventually led to the collapse of the kingdom.28 Another Jesuit missionary Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral arrived in Ngari and established a mission there. After more than four years, facing strong local resistance, the missionaries achieved little results and had to leave.29 In 1666, two Jesuits, Johannes Grueber of Austria and Albert D’Orville, went on a mission at the order of the Roman Cathlic Church. They traveled from Beijing to Agra, India before returning to Europe by way of Tibet border town Nyalam (neighbouring Nepal).30 This is the first documented journey involving Europeans returning to Europe by way of Tibet and South Asia. All the aforementioned attempts took place during the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama. The activities of foreign missionaries in Tibet peaked during the reign of the 7th Dalai Lama. In 1708, Roman Cathlic church’s Capuchins missionaries Gusepp, Frith, Franks arrived in Lhasa. They were followed by another pair, namely Dorminico da Fano and Michel Lang Chiro in 1709. In Lhasa, they studied Tibetan language, and provided free medical services to the locals. However, their mission was cut short by a number of factors including shortage of fund, poor health, and hostility of Gelugpa Buddhists. Eventually, the missionaries were forced to return to Europe in 1712. In 1716, one year prior to the Junggar invasion, and the murder of Lha-bzang Khan, Capuchin missionary Dorminicoda Fano and Francesco Orazio Olivieri della Penna arrived in Lhasa by the way of South Asia. They were summoned by the Mongolian ruler for meeting. They also grew their popularity among the locals by giving free medical treatments. One missionary in particular, Ippolito Desideri, miraculously brought a poisoned Lha-bzang Khan back to life. For saving the ruler’s life, he was granted permission to proselytise. Eventually he built a substantial following. Francesco Orazio and Ippolito Desideri were even given the rare privilege to study the Tibetan language and Tibetan Buddhism at the Sera Monastery. With Lha-bzang Khan’s death in 1717, situation became less favorable for the Western missionaries. Some had their properties confiscated and some were tor- tured. Their missionary work came to a complete halt. In 1720, after the 7th Dalai Lama arrived in Lhasa, missionaries were again allowed to carry out missionary work; some measure of religious tolerance was exercised throughout the remainder of the 7th Dalai Lama’s reign. In 1721, the new funding provided by the Roman Catholic Church, in combination with the popularity with the locals due much to the free medical treatments, allowed the missionaries to build a strong foothold. At that time, Kancennas decided to resume missionaries’ right once given by Lha-bzang Khan. As a result, they received free fuel and the right to purchase necessities at market prices. In 1726, the first Catholic Church in Lhasa was built. However, due to Tibet-Gorkha War and health reasons, the missionaries eventually left Lhasa.31 Although the 7th Dalai Lama was already 28, power rested with Polhanai. It would be twenty years later that the Dalai Lama regained power.

28Chen and Shufen’s(2003, p. 398). 29Chen and Shufen’s(2003, p. 399). 30Chen and Shufen’s(2003, p. 400). 31Chen and Shufen’s(2003, pp. 401–402). 154 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

In 1741, Francesco Orazio returned to Lhasa. He visited the Qing Amban, Dalai Lama, and Polhanai, bringing them European gifts and obtained the good will and support from these figures, especially Polhanai. However, as the number of Christian coverts grew, their activities met increasing hostility from the Gelugpa Buddhists. Eventually hundreds of Lamas petitioned Polhanai to banish the European mis- sionaries and succeeded. By 1745, all Capuchin missionaries had all left Lhasa; the churches they built had been destroyed.32 European missionary work halted com- pletely, only to resume much later. That year, the 7th Dalai Lama was 37. In 1757, the 22nd year of Emperor Qianlong’s Reign, the 7th Dalai Lama died. The Qing government appointed Dimu Hotogtu regent, assuming all the respon- sibilities of the Dalai Lama. He was also granted the title Nuomen Khan. The Regency System was thus established. Under the system, before a new Dalai Lama came of age, Nuomen Khan would exercise the Dalai Lama’s authority temporarily. The system complemented the power-sharing system between the Qing Amban and Dalai Lamas.

6.2.1.4 Important Figures in the 7th Dalai Lama Family

After Sonam Dagestan died, in 1744, the 7th Dalai Lama’s brother Kunga Tenzin received the title Lord from Qing Emperor Qianlong. Samdrup family subsequently entered the rank of four Debon Families.33 Over the next century, Samdrup Family distanced from the Tibetan political scene until in the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama, when Sampo Tsewang Rinzin obtained a slew of important positions at the Kashag; first Zholdepa and later Tzibon. In 1947, he was appointed the director of Mint. After the Peaceful Liberation, Tsewang Rinzin took apro-CPC stance and supported the Accord known as the “17 Articles” reached between Tibet and CPC. In 1956, he received membership at CPC’s Tibetan Autonomous Region Preparation Committee. In addition, he was also the Vice Commander of the Tibetan Military Zone, Kalön Tripa as well as commander of the Tibetan forces.34

6.2.2 Yabshi Phunkhang

The construction of Yabshi Phunkhang was commissioned by Kashag as a gift to the 11th Dalai Lama. Upon completion, it was named Phuntsok Khangsar (New Residence of Happiness). Today, it is commonly referred to as Punkhang Courtyard.

32Chen and Shufen’s(2003, p. 403). 33Lhasa Chengguan District Tourist Administration’s Travel Guide on Barkor Street. 34Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 1516). 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 155

Yabshi Phunkhang located in the Number 2 Alley, Shasarzur Road, to the north of Jokhang. The courtyard includes a three-story building and two-storey galleries, with a footprint of 3500 m2. There is a gate on the south and north side each. The southern one faces Second Alley, Shasarzur Road, which leads to Barkor. The northern one faces the Beijing Eastern Road, a main avenue in the city. Munyak Chogyi Gyentsen, a Tibetan architecture scholar, observed that the Tibetan aristocracy buildings follow the same design pattern—one main building for every compound. The main building is usually three-storey or four-storey tall, surrounded by a ring of gallery. The yard in the middle improves lighting and ventilation. The rooms of the masters and servants all locate in the main building and faced the yard while the other buildings are often used as guest rooms.35 In this sense, Punkhang Courtyard is a typical Tibetan aristocracy courtyard.

6.2.2.1 11th Dalai Lama’s History and Significant Historical Incidents

The 11th Dalai Lama Kheldrob Gyatso was born in 1838, the 18th year of Daoguang Reign of Qing dynasty. He died in 1855, the 5th year of Xianfeng Reign, at the age of 17. The Dalai Lama’s family was originally from Kham region near Muya Taining Monastery. Since enthronement in 1842, he had lived in Potala Palace until he died eleven years later. The 11th Dalai Lama’s short reign was a period of relative stability and peace, though it was not without its events: Soon after the young Dalai’s enthronement, Tsomon , the Dalai Lama Regent fell at odds with Qishan, the Qing amban. Qishan impeached the Tibetan regent, leading to the later losing his regency and being sent to Beijing for interrogation. Subsequently, the 7th Panchan Lama Palden Tenpai Nyima and later, Reting Tulku acted as the Dalai Lama’s regents. Although the regency of the 7th Panchan Lama lasted only seven months, it was the first time that a Panchan Lama acted as the Dalai Lama’s regent. His successor, Reting Tulku, was also an important historical figure in the modern Tibetan history. Another significant incident is the murder of a Gurkha merchant in Lhasa in 1842. That year, the 11th Dalai Lama, merely four-year-old, just arrived in Lhasa for his enthronement. The incident led to a feud between locals and the Lhasa Nepalese community. In 1855, the year when the Dalai Lama was enthroned, the Gurkha crossed border and seized the Gyirong region. Subsequently, taking excuse of Tibetan government taxation policy, Nepal escalated the invasion. They first occupied Nyalam and Gyirong, before taking over Zongga, forcing the Qing Amban Haotehe to sue for peace. Haotehe proposed a reparation plan in exchange for a Gurkha withdrawal. The Gurkha rejected the proposition and continued their offensive, capturing Porang in Ngari and Rongxia in Back Tibet. Their attack was temporally arrested by the counterattack of the Kalön Tripa Caidan. However, after

35Munyak (2009, p. 120). 156 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa the Gurkhas received reinforcement, they overrun the defenders and formed a pocket around the forces of Nilamu. In 1865, peace was reached between Tibet and Gurkhas following a lengthy negotiation in Nepal. The Gurkha royal family was promised an annual payment of 10,000 rubies from Tibetan government. In addi- tion, the Gurkha merchants would enjoy tax exemption in Tibet. Three months before the signing of the treaty, the 11th Dalai Lama died. The 11th Dalai Lama was also credited with having started a tradition of Tibetan Operas being performed in Norbulingka. Since then Norbulingka began to be an important religious venue. Today, every year during the Shoton Festival, Tibetan operas in Norbulingka remains an important part.

6.2.2.2 Phunkhang Family and Some Family Members

Like the father of the 7th Dalai Lama preceding him, the 11th Dalai Lama Kyeldrub Gyatso’s father Gungtsi Tsiwang Thundrop also received from the Qing Chinese government an aristocrat title. In 1841, he received the title Fuguo Gong—Lord of Assisting the Empire. In 1848, he received Coral Bead Hat Tipand Peacock Coverts from the Qing government. In 1845, the Kashag designated an estate in Netong County in Lhokha as his private property. This practice would be known as Phunkhang Estate, ergo the name of Phunkhang Family. Tashi Dorje was the most influential member of the Phunkhang Family. Born in 1888, Tashi Dorje played a key role in raising fund in Tibet’s military campaign against the Qing China’s Sichuan governor Zhao Erfeng. In recognition of this contribution, the Kashag awarded Tashi Dorje the title Lord in 1919, a title, understandably, that was not recognized by the Qing Chinese government. In 1924, Tashi Dorje became the chief minister of taxation in Kashag. From 1926 to 1938, he was the foreign minister. From 1938 to 1946, he was Kalön Tripa.36 Tashi Dorje’s political career came to an end when he was accused of opposing the regency of Tadra, and had spent his time in custody until 1951, when he fled Tibet and settled down in Kalimpong, India. In 1936, Spencer Chapman met with Tashi Dorje. In his diary, Chapman wrote: “He (Tashi Dorje) was tall and lean. He had weak eyesight, always gazed when trying to see things clearly. There was a distinct aristocratic air about him—the absent-mindedness and impracticality in particular.37” In 1940, the elder son of Tashi Dorje married the elder daughter of the king of Sikkim, a major news back in the day. To celebrate the wedding, the Phunkhang family built a three-storey building for the newly wed couple.38 Many suggest that the couple lived in the courtyard to the south of Phunkhang Courtyard for some time.

36Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 1518). 37Chapman’s(2006, p. 64). 38Liao (2008, p. 299). 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 157

Fig. 6.7 Phunkhang courtyard as of 1994. Source Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s (2005, p. 157)

6.2.2.3 Phunkhang Courtyard’s Preservation and Development

Phunkhang Courtyard, along with Pomdatsang and Phodrang Sarpa were among the first of their kind developed in modern times for business purpose. Prior to the modification, the three were used as civilian residences; in total, they accommo- dated 124 households. Among them, Phodrang Sarpa was home to 13 households, Phunkhang Courtyard 58, and Pomdatsang Courtyard 53. Prior to 2006, Lhasa municipal government relocated the residents to Tashi Residential Compound, Langsai Garden Compound and other courtyards that had completed similar restorations (Fig. 6.7).39 Starting 2007, a restoration project went underway at Phunkhang Courtyard. Only traditional materials and construction craft were used during the two-year project. The result is anew building but with perfectly restored original appearance.

39Three Vintage Lhasa Courtyards Restored, China Construction News, 2008-4-25. 158 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.8 Phunkhang courtyard’s main building; restoration project near completion (Li Qing, 2007-5-22)

Fig. 6.9 Phunkhang courtyard inside (Li Qing 2007-9-4)

Despite its authentic traditional look, it has all the modern conveniences such as electricity and tap water. In 2009, after Shoton Festival, the courtyard was reopened as a hotel. Entering the north gate of Punkhang Courtyard from the Beijing East Road, the first thing that caught your eyes is the grocery store modified from the former 6.2 The Historical Change of Multiple Yabshi Courtyards 159

Fig. 6.10 Phunkhang courtyard reopened as a hotel (Li Qing 2011-6-13) storage space. In the yard, there is a bar where tourists could sit and have a relaxed drink. The yard is surrounded by buildings on four sides. The second and third-storey of the buildings maintain their original appearance despite that as hotels and restaurants—a far cry from the courtyard’s original purpose and use. On one’s way towards the yard, he will see a reception counter inside a small oblong room. Behind the counter, some local specialties are on sale. On the gate facing Beijing East Road, there is a plate reminding people that this is a “Heritage Building” (Figs. 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10).

6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History

The aristocrats’ courtyards that survived represent a small percentage of all such buildings that ever existed. Examples include Bomdastang, Gurkha Courtyard, Lingtsang and Trichang Ladrang, all having been modified for commercial pur- poses to cater to the general public. In terms of their uses, the majority are hotels. In addition to the aforementioned ones, Phodrang Sarpa, Shédra are also in relative good shape, though they are either partially used, or under repair as of the time of writing. These courtyards are well-preserved, fairly large, and built to high standards— they are fine specimen of this category. In recent years, stronger emphasis began to be placed on the use of traditional craft, materials, and decoration techniques, all having contributed to keeping the traditional appearance. Thanks to the great 160 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa foresight, today we can still appreciate these vintage buildings with great authen- ticity. In the process the restoration, preservation and utilization, commercial value was also discovered. Judging by the number of tourists that came into these buildings, the outcome is positive.

6.3.1 Pomdatsang Courtyard

Pomdatsang Courtyard’s address is #7, Rapsel Number One Alleyway, south of the southeast corner of Barkor. The three-storey building that people see today is a replica built circa 1914.40 With a footprint of around 3000 m2,41 it is one of the largest of this kind of buildings in the Old City district. Inside the courtyard, one of the major buildings is a two-storey Buddha Hall housing a Shakyamuni statue.42 In 1936, the Pomdatsang family purchased this property from Tsarong Kalon, ergo the name Pomdatsang Courtyard. Bomda is a place name, and Tsang means family in Tibetan language. Pomdatsang thus means The Family from Bangda. The Bangda family was origi- nally low-ranking government employees in Markam County, Chamdo. In the early 20th century, a family member named Bomda Lekchang left home in pursuit of fortune. He was successful and grew his wealth at impressive speed. Later he accompanied the 13th Dalai Lama in his flight to India. In reward to his loyalty, in 1912, the 13th Dalai Lama, after having returned Lhasa, granted Bomda Lekchang the title Shang. This title entitled him the monopoly over wool and precious medicine importation. In addition to Bomda Lekchang, other family members were also involved in politics and business. The Pomdatsang Courtyard was purchased after Bomda Lekchang entered the rank of aristocracy.

6.3.1.1 Tsarong Era

Pomdatsang was originally the residence of Tsarong Wangchuk Jinpa, who was Kalön Tripa during the reign of the 13th Dalai Lama. After Xinhai Revolution, Lhasa fell into disarray. In 1912, Tsarong and his son were executed on charge of collaborating with Qing Chinese government. Subsequently, the 13th Dalai Lama ordered Dazang Dramdul to marry into Tsarong Family. He thus inherited the family name Tsarong. Subsequently, the courtyard known as Pomdatsang Courtyard was built.43

40Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 128). 41Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010, p. 491). 42Suo (2008a, p. 66). 43Chodron’s(2010). 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 161

Dazang Dramdul, born in 1888, was originally a low-ranking local government employee from Khago Zhika, Phenpo, and Lhundrup County. Later, he moved to Lhasa, where he was recruited by the butler of Potala Palace as an apprentice. In 1904, Dramdul and his master followed the 13th Dalai Lama in his flight out of Tibet. They first went to Beijing, then traveled to Mongolia, Japan, before having landed in India. By the time when the Dalai Lama returned Lhasa in 1909, Dazang Dramdul was a member of the entourage. In 1912 when the Dalai Lama returned to Lhasa the second time, Dazang Dramdu was a member of his inside circle. After the Shimla Conference, Dazang Dramdul was appointed the Commander in Chief of the Tibet military forces. In 1915, he was appointed Kalön Tripa and director of the Mint. During his tenure, at his behest, a wool-weaving factory was established as a subsidiary of the Mint. His excellent service earned his nickname—The Fortress of Dalai Lama. When Dazang Dramdu married into Tsarong Family, the family was deep in debt. It was only spared of bankcrupcy after Dazang Dramdul obtained a loan from Dalai Lama. Dazang Dramdul subsequently invested in some business ventures, which turned out profitable. He further engaged in trade with India and China, selling and wool to the Indians and selling Indian silk and woollen materials to the Chinese. He also sold Chinese porcelain, silk, tea in Lhasa and Shigatse established businesses in Chengdu, Kangding, Xining and Dali to sell products produced in Tibet and India. As his business becomes more successful, his social status also kept growing. He later married his second daughter to Tsering Thundrup from the prestigious Phunkhang Family. In the first half of the 20th century, Tibet’s modernization picked up speed. Dazang Dramdul was not only a staunch champion of Westernization but also an avid supporter of Tibetan independence. In 1925, he was stripped of military command on account of conspiring against the Dalai Lama and being overly pro-West; in 1930, he lost his Kalön Tripa position. Despite his departure from the political scene, his pro-modernization effort continued, resulting in new bridges and roads.44 He spent most of his retirement raising chicken and sheep and cultivating flower plants. By the time when Spencer Champman met with Dazang Dramdulin Lhasa in 1936, Dazang Dramdul was no longer actively involved in politics. According to Champman:

He (Dazang Dramdul) is the most interesting figure in the room. He no longer holds any official position, yet remain well-regarded. Everytime when there is a dispute, his opinion is sought after. Among the oligarchies, he represents a rarified minority who remains humble despite their social status…45

44For more about Tsarong Dazang Dramdul’s life, please refer to Tibet Illustrated 1956–1980, Beijing Weekly: www.beijingreview.com.cn, 2008-04-29. Gan Dian’s Tsarong Dazang Dramdul that I Know, Tibet Literature and History Materials Collection, Issue 5, p. 107. Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles’s(2007, p. 431). 45Chapman’s(2006, p. 65). 162 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Amidst the 1959 Rebellion, Dazang Dramdul was appointed vice commander in chief of the Tibetan military forces. After the rebellion failed, he was captured by the PLA in Potala Palace on March 22. He died the same year in imprisonment.

6.3.1.2 Pomdatsang Courtyard Era

Trying to stay away from the busy area, Dazang Dramdul built a new residence on the bank of the Lhasa River. In 1936,46 he sold the old Tsarong residence to Pomdatsang family. In the 1950s, Pomdatsangs old the property to the CPC government. Bomda Lekchang is often credited for having brought the Pomdatsang family to the peak of prominence. Originally from a humble origin, Bomda Lekchang rose to power against the odds and grew to become a shrewd businessman and a political visionary. A native of Markam County, Chamdo, Bomda Lekchang later went to Lhasa. There he first became an esquire of a nobleman. Starting in 1906, he began to engage in business and accumulated a capital enough for him to join the lucrative cross-border trade between Lhasa and India. In 1910, the 13th Dalai Lama fled to India. During the exile, Bomda Lekchang accompanied the Dalai Lama until his return to Lhasa. Afterwards Lekchang was granted the office of the 5th Rank Laicanba, and the title of Shang, essentially making him the representative of the 13th Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government. This position conferred on the family privileges such as tax exemption, right to purchase restricted imported goods, monopoly overwool and valuable medical materials and whatnots. This made Pomdatsang family the first Tibetan trading family that entered the rank of aristocracy.47 After Bomda Lekchang died in 1920, his three sons Bomda Yangphel, Bomda Rabga, Bomda Dorje inherited the family business and continued to operate from different locations—Yangphel mainly did business in Lhasa, Rabga in Kalimpong, Dorje mostly traveled between Chamdo and Lijiang, Yunan. They traded tea, salt, grains, edible oil, food materials, animal products, medicines, daily use industrially manufactured products, etc. In 1932, the 13th Dalai Lama appointed Dorje Ruben (Cn: military rank) in charge of two battalions stationed in Chaya and Markam; Yangphel was appointed Shangshang, as well as the governor of Yadong. Rapga also received the title Daiben. The Pomdatsang family continued to maintain their relevancy in both business and politics realms (Table 6.1).48 From early 20th century to late 1950s, Pomdatsang grew to be the most suc- cessful merchant family in Tibet with reputation reaching far beyond its home Tibet. They had business dealings in Yunnan, Guizhou and neighboring countries

46According to an alternative theory, in 1923, Tsarong sold the residence to Panda Tsang, see Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 128). 47See Zongzhen’s(2008, Chap. 2). 48See Zongzhen’s(2008, Chap. 2). 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 163

Table 6.1 Main wholesale merchants in pre-1949 Tibetan Lhasa Business name Nationality Background Ancestral Note home Zurkhang Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Yuthog Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Gefuba Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Zhagabpa Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Guixiangba Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Radrinchang Tibetan Temple Ü-Tsang Trichang Tibetan Monk official Ü-Tsang Tsarong Tibetan Aristocrat Ü-Tsang Ximalun Tibetan Civilian Weizang Han and Tibetan Company Region Samdrup Tsang Tibetan Secular Kham Region official Samdrup Tsang Tibetan Cheftain Garze AnzhuTsang Tibetan Civilian Kham Region Pomdatsang Tibetan Civilian Chamdo Granted as aristocrats Abu Dula Hui Merchant Hami Hui Merchant Xinjiang Source Surrvey Data of Tibet by The Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, originally from Zongzhen’s(2008) such as India, Myanmar, Nepal and Budan, etc. In 1914, Bomda Yangphel alone was estimated to own a working capital around 709,000 Tibetan silver dollars. The family was also a stakeholder in Ximalun Company founded by KMT government with over 200,000 silver dollars.49 In 1936, Spacer Champman accompanied some friends to visit Pomdatsang in tending to buy some mink pelts. In the courtyard, the British writer saw large amounts of pelts and furs of rich varieties—Stone Minks, snow leopard, Mountain Cats, foxes, beavers, marmots and other furs. In the courtyard, there were over 50 mules, loaded with thick wools, ready to traveling to Kalimpong. The wool was piled so tall that it almost touched the roof.50 According to the folklore, at Pomdatsang’s private treasury, silver dollars were packaged one thousand cylinders and piled into hills. They were so heavy that even the thick stone walls couldn’t contain the weight and cracked. In 1953, Pomdatsang had a running capital estimated to be around 1.5 million silver dollars. That didn’t include the money sitting in their bank accounts in the United States, Britain and Hong Kong.51

49Suo (2008a, p. 67). 50Chapman’s(2006, p. 119). 51Suo (2008a, p. 67). 164 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Pomdatsang made a great contribution in China’s Anti-Japanese War effort. After the July 7 incident, Japan ran a blockade against the KMT China, trying to deprive the later of supply. In such a dire situation, Yangphel and Dorje came to the relief of the China by initiating a mule transportation line between India and Tibet, Sichuan and Yunnan. During the process, their business in Indian Calcutta and Kalimpong grew. During its peak time, aside from Lhasa, the Pomdatsang also had branches in Yushu, Chamdo, Markam, Ganzur, Batang, Yidun, Litang, Ya’an, Chengdu, Chongqing, Kunming, Lijiang and Zhongdian. Large quantities of commodities, including cotton yarn, dye, medicine, and leather and wool, cloth, cigarettes, and cigarette-making machinery, musk, Ophiocordyceps sinensis aka caterpillar fungus, kashmirian saffron and fritillaria, were imported. They were transported from Kalimpong to Kangding and Lijiang, before further to Chinese cities such as Chengdu and Kunming. In total, during the Anti-Japanese War, over 150 million USD worth of resources were transported across the border through Tibet to inland China. In 1942, with the support of local patriots, Pomdatsang established Kang-Tibet Trade Company in Kangding, western Sichuan. In July, the company established its provisionary headquarters in Litang. This company played an active role in prompting other Tibetan merchants to assist the KMT govern- ment’s war effort. After its establishment, more merchants traveled between Lhasa– Kulumpoon and Kangding–Lijiang, bringing tealeaves and other Chinese com- modities out and war resources in. This so-called Trade For Resistance Campaign was responded to in Kangding with great enthusiasm. In 1940s, Pomdatsang pur- chased 35,000 tea bricks and 51,000 bags of tealeaves. 140,000 jin of wool was purchased from Northern Tibet and from Yadong in one year. Sheep wool, salt, borax, yak tails and other Tibetan specialties was main export commodataries while cloth and other weaven fabrics, medicine, leather, cigarettes and daily grocery items were the main imports.52 After the Anti-Japanese War, the Han Chinese community held a celebration in Lhasa. They raised money and rented the Pomdatsang courtyard for two days where they put on a gala. Costumes and instruments were all made by performers themselves who were selected among the local Chinese residents. At the invitation of the KMT government’s Tibetan office, some Kalön Tripas, including Rampa, Zurkhang, Gabshopa, and Punkhangalso attended the gala.53

6.3.1.3 Pomdatsang Courtyard’s Development Today

Pomdatsang Courtyard was one of the three vintage courtyards that were given top priority in Lhasa Chengguan District government’s preservation program. Like

52Luo and Can’s(2001, p. 169) From Zhang (2011). 53Han Xiujun’s The Adventure of a Beijing Businessman in Lhasa, Selected History and Literature of Tibet, Vol 3, pp. 94–95, edited by History and Literature Research Committee, Tibet Autonomous Region Committee of the CPPCC. 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 165 some of its peers, this courtyard was also modified and reopened to the public. It was first modified into a youth hostel. Then after another modification in 2007, it reopened as a hotel in 2012. Today, the hotel has 40 guest rooms, a bar and a bookstore. Every year, it accommodates large numbers of tourists (Figs. 6.11, 6.12 and 6.13).

Fig. 6.11 Pomdatsang courtyard as a communal residence (Li Qing in 2006-9-2)

Fig. 6.12 Pomdatsang courtyard in the middle of maintenance (Li Qing 2007-9-4) 166 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

6.3.2 Phodrang Sarpa

Phodrang Sarpa means New Palace in Tibetan language. First built in 1928, Phodrang Sarpa, previously named Kunsang Phodrang, was the property of Thubten Kunphel, a renowned Tibetan patriot and minister who served at the court of the 13th Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama frequently stayed at Phodrang Sarpa during his visit to Jokhang to participate in the Monlam Chenmo. To accommodate Dalai Lama, Thubten Kunphel designated a room exclusively as his bedroom. He later changed the place’s name from the original Kunsang Phodrang to Phodrang Sarpa. Phodrang Sarpa contained two parts. One located in the Phodrang Sarpa alley- way to the southwest of Jokhang. This part was turned into a restaurant after some modification; the other was located in Lubug First Alleyway to the South of Jokhang Temple and owned by Sakya Monastery. It was a subsidiary of Sakya Monastery. Thubten Kunphel was a legend in the 20th century Tibetan history. Born into an impoverished family in Nyemo County in 1905, he was selected Nyiphrug at the age of 12—Nizhu is a child scripter trained to write in Nyi writing. In 1921, at the age of 13, he was selected as a servant of the 13th Dalai Lama. He had since then held a number of important posts. Aside from regular administration-related matters, he was in charge of the construction of the eastern section of Potala Palace, reparation of the walls surrounding Norbulingka, the construction of Chenzen Podrang in Norbulingka, and Dorde Hydropower Station. When it comes to political views, Thubten Kunphel believed that Tibet should stay on good terms with China, both on the level of the central government and civilian interaction. He created Zhongzha, the most elite among all Tibetan military forces. He also implemented some of the Dalai Lama’s reform policies. In 1933, after the 13th Dalai Lama died, Thubten Kunphel lost in the subsequent power struggle; he would be stripped of his responsibilities and exiled. His house, the Phodrang Sarpa was confiscated. In 1936, Thubten Kunpheland Changlochen, who was sentenced to exile to Kongpo Lhatsigang dzong, fled to India. There they met with Bomda Rabga, member of the KMT government’s Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission and GendünChöpel, renowned Tibetan scholar. Together, they founded Tibet Improvement Party, which maintained close contact with the KMT government. In 1946, facing pressure from the Indian government, Thubten Kunphel traveled to Nanjing with the support of KMT government. In 1947, he returned to Lhasa, where he resided temporarily in the Yuthog Family. In 1956, the Kashag gave the Yard to the PLA. Thubten Kunphel subsequently moved to Yabshi Taktser Residence, the property of the 14th Dalai Lama’s family. In 1952, due to the intervention of the 14th Dalai Lama, Kashag returned Phodrang Sarpa courtyard to Thubten Kunphel. After the Peaceful Liberation, Thubten Kunphel actively participated in the founding of the new Tibetan government. He worked at a charity food processing company jointly launched by Tibetan Industrial Committee and the Kashag, before getting a new assignment working at the government tax granary, subordinate to the 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 167

Fig. 6.13 Pomdatsang reopened (Li Qing 2012-5-28)

Kashag. During his time there, Tudeng donated Phodrang Sarpa to the government to be used as offices and dormitories. Around the same time, he organized the construction of a compound for the Tibetan military zone cadres. In 1956, the Tibetan Autonomous Region Organizing Committee was established, Thubten Kunphel was elected the vice chief of the Geology Department of the Preparation Committee. Around 1959, in the middle of the Tibetan Armed Rebellion, Phodrang Sarpa received serious damage from fire. After the Democratization Reform, Thubten Kunphelwas elected the vice chairman of the Tibetan Autonomous Region Organizing Committee Administrative Office. After a highly-acclaimed career, in 1964, he died in Lhasa.54 During the Cultural Revolution, Phodrang Sarpa was commandeered by the government. Afterwards, it was returned to Thubten Kunphel’s widow wife— Ladzong Dolkar, who later sold it to Sakya Monastery.55 The courtyard had since then been a part of the Monastery (Fig. 6.14). In 2007, the Lhasa Municipal Government launched a new program to better protect the Phodrang Sarpa Courtyard. Under the program, the section that was sold to Sakya Monastery remained unchanged. However, the part that was gifted to the 13th Dalai Lama as his residence was reopened as a restaurant. It also adopted a new name: The New Palace (Figs. 6.15 and 6.16).

54Regarding Thubten Kunphel and Phobrang Shaba, see: Dawa’s(2008, Chaps. 7–10); Lazong Zhuoga’s On Thubten Kunphel, in Selected History and Literature of Tibet, Vol 3, pp. 67–80, edited by History and Literature Research Committee, Tibet Autonomous Region Committee of the CPPCC. 55Suo (2008a, p. 29). 168 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.14 Phodrang Sarpa as part of Sakya Monastery (Li Qing 2012-6-26)

Fig. 6.15 Phodrang Sarpa New Palace in the middle of maintenance project (Li Qing 2007-5-25) 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 169

Fig. 6.16 Phodrang Sarpa New Palace reopened as a restaurant (Li Qing 2011-5-8)

6.3.3 Other Vintage Courtyards

6.3.3.1 Lingtsang Yard

Lingtsang Courtyard, #38, Lubug First Alley, Jokhang Square, was originally the residence of Lingtsang Repoche, a mentor of the 14th Dalai Lama. The courtyard has been in existence for over three centuries, and erstwhile Tibetan Military Administration. Xing Suzhi, who adopted the Tibetan name Losang Drendru, was the first Han Chinese who received , the highest “degree” in the Tibetan Buddhist scholarship. In 1937, Xing arrived in Tibet and spent the subsequent seven years there. In Lhasa, Xing studied under his mentor Lingtsang Repoche. Aside from studying, he also founded the Lhasa Primary School following instruction from the KMT government. In 1948, he resigned from his government position and traveled to India. During his time in Lhasa, Xing frequently visited Master Lingtsang at Potala Palace. The Master had a passion for horology and his room was full of foreign clocks—gifts to the Dalai Lama by foreigners. Lingtsang was also the Guru of the 14th Dalai Lama. He was a strict teacher. Once he revealed to Xing that when the young Dalai Lama couldn’t recite a certain scripture, he received a corporal punishment for indolence.56 Similar to most aristocrats’ residences in Lhasa, Lingtsang Courtyard includes a main building with a ring of galleries. The main building is rectangular two-storey

56Suzhi et al. (2008, p. 245). 170 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.17 Lingtsang Yard in business (Li Qing 2010-12-4) structure. In its front, there is a square-shaped yard. The courtyard was moderate in size, and might even be called concise. Circa 2010, it was refurbished and after- wards, reopened as a hotel. It has nine guestrooms and one dining hall, and is marketed as an upscale Tibetan traditional Courtyard-themed hotel. The exterior is completely rebuilt with the original appearance restored with great authenticity; the interior followed Tibetan tradition despite the considerable modernization (Fig. 6.17).

6.3.3.2 Trichang Lhadrang

Trichang Lhadrang’s address is #11, Lubug 5th Alley to the south of Barkor South. It is said that the courtyard has stood there for over three centuries, though the one that we see today is a replica built in 1953. Trichang Lhadrang was at one time the residence of Trichang Repoche, a guru of the 14th Dalai Lama. In 1959, he fol- lowed the Dalai Lama and fled to India. Similar to Lingtsang Courtyard, Trichang Lhadrang was relatively small in size. However, with excellent design, this construction achieved a graceful and refined look. Structurally, it follows the familiar pattern. Both the main building and gal- leries were three-storey tall. After the Democratization Reform, it was comman- deered and used by the Lhasa Municipal Film Company as its employee dormitory. It was restored and renovated before reopened as a hotel and a restaurant. Starting operation in September 2009, the courtyard was divided into two entities, namely Trichang Lhadrang Hotel and Nama Sede Restaurant. As of today, it has over twenty guestrooms; the former stable is now a dining hall (Fig. 6.18). 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 171

Fig. 6.18 Trichang Lhadrang after renovation (Li Qing 2011-8-16)

6.3.3.3 Shédra Courtyard

Shédra Courtyard, built around 1800, is situated in the Lubug First Alleyway to the south of Barkor. It occupies an area in excess of 5500 m2. The main building is three-storey tall. Following the general pattern of Tibetan aristocratic courtyards, it also has a two-storey gallery. According to Danish architect Knud Larsen, “This building is large and asymmetric. Typical of traditional Tibetan buildings of its kind, it features simplistic and elegant design with unusual level of sophistication. It is also well maintained with little damage done to the structure57” Between 2011 and 2013, Shédra Courtyard underwent some major repairs (Fig. 6.19). Shédra Courtyard was built when Shédra Wangchuk Gyelpowas alive. It was largely due to Shédra Wangchuk Gyelpo that the Shédra family reached the pin- nacle of prominence. Shédra Wangchuk Gyelpo was the most famous figure in the entire Shédra family. As an erstwhile regent before the 12th Dalai Lama came of age, he was the only non-ordained individual that held regency in Tibetan history. After a brief stint as a Buddhist priest in Tashilhunpo Monastery, he left the order and married into the Shédra Thundruk Dorje family, thus adopted the family name. During the Gula Xinge Invasion, Shédra Wangchuk Gyelpo was appointed commander of the Tibetan forces; later, he became the chief commander defending Daba Zaren, Rutuo. His greatest military feat was in the 22nd year of Daoguang’s Reign (1842), when he vanquished a larger enemy with 600 Tibetan troops on a reinforcement mission to assist Ladakh against the Sum-pa invasion. His army drove the Sum-pa

57Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 119). 172 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.19 Shédra Yard as a civilian residence (Li Qing 2005-10-21) invaders to Liecheng, where armistice was reached. Subsequently, the border was redrawn and the commercial routes restored. The next year, after obtaining the recommendation of Mengbao, the then-Amban, he was promoted to be Kalön Tripa. In 1846, he was granted the rank of Class Two Jijue by the Qing government. Between the second and third year of the Xianfeng Reign (1852–1853), ShédraWangchuk Gyelpo retired from the position of Special Border Patrol Inspector. In a report to the government, he expressed his wish that his son could inherit his title. Between 1850 and 1854, he supervised the construction of Sangye Monastery, and compiled the Monastery Chronicles. He was subsequently granted the title of Fuguo Gong, aka Lord of Protecting the Empire. In 1855, he was appointed commander of the Tibetan forces for the second times to fend against the invading Gurkhas. In 1862, he was appointed the regent for the young Dalai Lama, thus became the only secular one in the Tibetan history. During his regency, he oversaw the construction of the Lhasa city wall,58 however, this project was never completed. In Qing dynasty, several members of the Shédra Family obtained top posts at the government, holding positions such as Kalön Tripa and Gazhong (Note: a high ranking military position). One particular member, Shédra Penjor Dorje, was a Kalön whose reputation was tarnished by his role in the Shimla Conference.59 In July, 1914, ignoring the plea of the Chinese government, Shédra succumbed to the pressure of McMahold and the British government, signed theAccord. The treaty was subsequently contested by the Chinese government and was never recognized.

58Chen and Shufen (2003, p. 403). 59Wang and Qingying’s(1998, p. 288). 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 173

Fig. 6.20 Shédra Courtyard under maintenance (Li Qing 2012-6-14)

Most members of the Shédra Family fled to India, following the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959, their properties confiscated and turned into the district-level CPPCC employees’ dormitory; only the storage room on the west side remains to belong to the Shédra Family (Fig. 6.20).

6.3.3.4 Gowa Khangsar Courtyard a. Tsangyang Gyatso and the Yellow Houses In history, most Dalai Lamas lived short lives. From the 9th to the 12th, four Dalai Lamas died at very young ages. Due to their short lives, most of them didn’t make too much impact to Tibet except the 6th Dalai Lama Tsangyang Gyatso. In spite of his short life, he was widely recognized for his literary talent and erudite being a Tibetan historian. Many of enthusiasts collected stories about his life, which are still widely circulated today. Despite the tragic ending of his life, his reputation as a poet was well established with his works having translated into scores of different languages. Tsangyang Gyatsowas born to a peasants’ family in Menyu to the east of Tibet in 1683. Three, he was recognized as the rebirth of the 5th Dalai Lama. However, due to the political turmoil following the death of the 5th Dalai Lama, the regent Sangye Gyatso, concealed the news of the Dalai Lama’s death. As a result, Tsangyang Gyatso’s identity remained a secret for over a decade, until 1696 when Emperor Kangxi, in his expedition campaign against Gerdan, learned from 174 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa surrendered soldiers about the death of the 5th Dalai Lama. The emperor investi- gated and at his behest, Tsangyang Gyatsowas enthroned. In preparation to become a Dalai Lama, at the age of eight, Tsangyang Gyatso studied languages and Buddhist classics, yet he was not keen to the idea of becoming the spiritual authority figure. He enjoyed traveling, dancing and archery. Missing home and helpless regarding the political situation, he found poetry a refuge. Meanwhile, his regent, Sangye Gyatso, was too engrossed in his struggle against the Mongolian clique to spare any attention to him. In 1705, Tsangyang Gyatsowas sent to Beijing for interrogation, and died on his way, according to an account, on the bank of Qinghai Lake. He was 23. The short life of Tsangyang Gyatso was a subject of great cultural interest that buildings associated with him are still tourist attractions—the so-called Yellow Houses in the Lhasa are said to be ones that the Dalai Lama once stayed. Legend held that the young Dalai Lama often sneaked out of the Potala Palace and won- dered around. In spite of the ordinary appearances of these buildings, they were painted in yellow, a color that reserved for monasteries and the residences of Dalai Lama and Panchan Lama. Within the realm of the Old City, there are scores of Yellow Houses. Among them, the most famous is Dongtzesur Khangser, which sat on the south side of the Barkor East. Today, it has become a restaurant called Makye Amye. It is believed that this yellow house was where Tsangyang Gyatso liaisoned with one of his lovers, who became the inspiration for his famous love poem—On Top Of The Eastern Mountain. Tromsikkhang, an erstwhile Amban Yamen, was said to be another residence of Tsangyang Gyatso, which is the reason why the pilgrims would prostrate before and kowtow towards it. b. Gowa Khangser Courtyard Gowa khangser, situated in the West Lubug 3rd Alleyway on the Barkor South, is one of the Yellow Houses that are said to have accommodated Tsangyang Gyatso. It was at one time the property of Drepung Monastery and was rented to merchants and pilgrims. Everyyear around Monlam Chenmo, it would be used to accommo- date the monks from Drepung Monastery’s Gowa Kamtsen, ergo the name. According to an alternative theory, Gowa khangser was the private property of a Suji, a cleric official, who was in charge of the financial department at the Drepung Monastery. The Sujis spent most of their time in Lhasa and processed Drepung Monastery-related matters. Regardless the veracity of the theories, this courtyard does have a deep connection with the Drepung Monastery (Fig. 6.21). In the modern Tibetan history, Gowa Khangsar was also known as a famous private school—Nyarongshar. In history, monasteries, government-run schools and non government-run schools constituted the majority of Tibetan educational institutions. Among them, monasteries used as education institutions started in the 11th century and was the most influential among the three. Starting early 20th century, government-run schools began to appear. These schools fell into three categories: Tsikhang Lopdra– schools for secular officials; Tsi Lopdra for monk officials, and Mentsikhang 6.3 Evolution of Multiple Aristocrat Courtyards Through History 175

Fig. 6.21 Gowa Khangsar Courtyard (Li Qing 2010-12-5)

Lopdra for medicine doctors and accountants. Tsikhang Lopdra and Tsi Lopdra are administratored by the Tibetan government audit and financial department and Yigtsang, the secretary department of Dalai Lama. The third, Mentsikhang Lopdra was established by Sangye Gyatso, and the school mainly dealt with studies of Tibetan medicines and calendar making. Non-government funded schools first emerged in Tupo era but it was in the 20th century that they flourished. There were two types of non-government funded schools: Aristocrats’ home schools exclusively for the education of their own children; ones assessable for the general public. The later’s curriculum usually included writing, spelling and reciting. In 1959, there were about twenty public private schools in Lhasa, among them, Nyarongshar was the largest. Lhundrup Penjor, the school’s founder, was born in 1898 to a Tibetan medicine doctor’s family in Nyimu County. In 1920, he began to practice medicine and established a clinic and a private school inside Gowa Khangser. As his reputation as a teacher grew, many parents sent their children to his school. In 1928, Lhundrup Penjor relocated the school to Zurkhang Courtyard at the Southeastern Corner of Barkor,60 which was subsequently renamed Nyarongshar Courtyard. Today, Gowa Khangsar, though still painted yellow, had been modified into apartments and shared by several households, making the place crowded (Fig. 6.22).

60Suo (2008b, Chaps. 1–5). 176 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.22 Nyarongshar Yard (Li Qing 2012-1-27)

6.4 Gorkha Nyingba—Special Courtyard

Gorkha Nyingba, situated in Number 45, Lingkor Southern Road, to the south of Barkor South, previously housed the Nepalese Embassy. Due to its history, this is often referred to as Gorkha Nyingba and Gorkha Toshag. Later, it was developed into a hotel, called Gorkha Hotel. Today, it is the largest hotel inside a vintage Tibetan Courtyard. The specific date when the Gorkha Nyingba was constructed remains unknown but many believe that it was built around 1650 and had served as the Gurkha’s diplomatic institution in Lhasa at least since 1750.61 In 1856, in the wake of the Tibetan-Nepalese War, Tibet was forced to sign treaties at the expense of its independence, including extraterritorial rights for Nepalese expats and establishing a Nepalese Consulate in Lhasa. Prior to the Peaceful Liberation, the staff included one consul, two secretaries, and thirty guards.62 For most part of the history, Nepal had enjoyed good relationship with China. Border trade started at least from 7th Century BC. During the reign of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, some Nepalese artisans were hired to travel to Tibet to build Buddha statues for the locals for their excellent craftmanship. After the 5th Dalai Lama died, the Nepalese artisans were also hired to build the stupa-tomb where the spiritual leader’s ashes were stored (Fig. 6.23).

61Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 126). 62Zhou and Xianfeng’s(2003). 6.4 Gorkha Nyingba—Special Courtyard 177

Fig. 6.23 Gorkha Nyingba (time unclear). Source Munyak (2009, p. 123)

6.4.1 Nepalese Merchants in the History of Tibet

Border trade between China and Nepal began at least in Tupo era in the form of barter. Starting from the mid-17th century to the mid-19th century, Nepal became increasingly active in the regional trade, serving as a link between Tibet and South Asia. From 1645 to 1650, Nepal was granted the privilege making it compulsory that all transportations between Tibet and Nepal must go through the Nepalese capital Kathmandu, a move that greatly contributed to the city’s rise as a center in the cross-Himalaya region economy. This state of monopoly lasted until 1880s, when new trade cities such as Nyalam and Kyerong competed against Kathmandu. The lucrativeness of trade attracted many. Many upperclass Nepalese also invested in crossborder trade. This, in conjunction with the general lower prices of Nepalese products, afforded Nepal an advantage in regional economy. In the 19th Century, as British influence grew in the region, Nepal gradually lost its monopoly over the Himalaya regional trade and became increasingly focusing on facilitating trade between the Great Britain and Tibet—for example, the Nepalese merchants would buy British products and tea from India and resell them in Lhasa, which would be further shipped to other regions in Tibet. The merchants would also purchase wool, gold, Tibetan incense, bear galls, and pelts on their way back to India. From the late 19th century, after Britain opened a new trade route entering Tibet by way of Sikkim, Kalimpong became a trading hub connecting two sides of Himalaya. By the time, the number of Nepalese traders living in Lhasa had dropped from a high level of about 2000 to around 500 in 1907, and further dropped to 42 in 1923.63 In 1940, Tibet and Southern Asian land-borne transportation route was

63Liying’s(2008). 178 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa established, attracting large number of Nepalese merchants to travel to Tibet, especially Lhasa. According to a Tibetan regional government’s law, the Nepalese was granted the monopoly over importing Indian commodities to Tibet. As a result, many Nepalese tradersshipped merchandise from India to Lhasa before further to Sichuan and Yunan before reselling them in inland China. According to a survey conducted in the year of 1961, at least one Nepalese merchant family has been in business for ten millenniums; three were between five and ten centuries, four between two and five centuries.64 Although the majority of them were civilians with no government backgrounds,65 this high number is reflective of the relationship between Tibet and Nepal. In 1768, Gorkha invaded Nepal and seized control of country. The new regime demanded heavy levies from the Nepalese merchants in Tibet, forcing many to leave for the other side of the border. During the Second Nepalese War, Qing Emperor Qianlong issued “Ordinance on Better Governing Tibet”, stipulating that all traders who came to Tibet must abide local laws and register with the govern- ment. Their name list would be submitted to the Qing Ambans and the number of visits of Nepalese to Tibet was limited to three times a year, while Kashimiran ones were allowed to visit once a year. In 1856, during the Third Nepalese War, Tibetan government signed a treaty with the Nepalese government granting Nepalese merchants in Tibet tax exemption. In response, from late 1930s to late 1940s, the population of Nepalese merchants grew substantially. Many engaged in precious metal handcraft manufacturing—the sophisticated craftsmanship led to an eruption of Nepalese copperware shops in the Old City. In the two centuries following 1768, the number of Nepalese merchants changed substantially. According to the estimate of Wu Zhongxin, a KMT Chinese gov- ernment official in Lhasa in the 1940s, the number of Nepalese merchants living in major Tibetan cities, including Lhasa, Gyantse, and Shigatse were around 3000.66 Among them, half were in Lhasa. When Liu Manqing arrived in Tibet in 1928, the Tibetan–Nepalese relationship was at a delicate period. She observed “There are large numbers of Nepalese merchants in the city. Decades ago, Nepal set up a consulate, before anyone else. The Nepalese are usually arrogant and their home servants also follow their masters-the locals often perceive them as bullies. Many Nepalese merchants mar- ried local women. When the Tibetan government demanded tax payment from the Tibetan wives, the Nepalese husbands often insisted that their wives had forsworn their Tibetan nationality by the dint of the marriage thus should be exempted from Tibetan taxation. This contributed to the antagonism.67” By the time when Lhasa was liberated, there remained over one hundred Nepalese shops and over a thousand businessmen of Nepalese nationality. They

64Long (1993). 65Long (1993). 66Zhou and Xianfeng’s(2003). 67Liu (1998, pp. 77–78). 6.4 Gorkha Nyingba—Special Courtyard 179 represented the largest expat community in the city. A 1961 census showed 74 households of Nepalese nationality living in the city, including both Tibetan-Nepalese and those of pure Nepalese descent. Most ran or worked in the grocery store trade—44 in total. 18 ran grocery stores and five were restaurant owners. 61 individuals owned shops, nine were traders who traveled extensively and four were street peddlers—thus 80% Nepalese population were employed in retail industry. Prior to 1959, the most successful and established Nepalese mer- chants included Zhamokarpo, Modi Tsongkhang, Songre, Quxi Xiasong’re, Cangnai Chongkang Langkaluo, Gema Kangsai, Namomo, Jianzange, Guowenbu, Dakang Xingge Chongkang, Gerexia, Gonngbale, Naguan Bale, Songre Bale Duoyi Xiare, Biebo Yika, Chudikang, Dabu Jixia, Bianjiao Redian, Long Mawa, Gadianxia.68 Today, Zhamo Karpo, once the largest Nepalese department store, is still in business on the Barkor North. 700 km away from Lhasa and close to the border, the Gram Township, despite war ravages, has grown to become a booming trade town, accounting for over 80% of the total volume of cross border transac- tions between China and Nepal. Another border town Kyerong, famous for Phagpa Monastery, has also grown to become a prosperous trade town. The Sino-Nepalese Economic Cooperation Zone, which is still under development as of the time of writing, is a symbol of the new era of Sino (Tibet)-Nepalese Relationship.

6.4.2 Gorkha Nyingba’s Construction Style and the Development

Gorkha Nyingba was one of the largest Vintage Courtyards in the Old City area. Graceful, imposing, the building shows great attention to detail and was a visual highlight of the area. Inside, it contains a three-storey main building and a two-storey gallery. Like many aristocrat residences, it takes the form of a courtyard, though unlike most, this one had two layers of galleries on four sides, which formed a 日 structure. Danish architect Knud Larsen, who has a high opinion on the Gorkha Nyingba, once commented: “Its main building is a fine specimen of excellent craftsmanship, optimal proportion and attention to the detail… its perfect measurement and arrangement to ensure privacy makes Gorkha Nyingba a first class… a complex system with unique artistic profile. A building like this deserves an entry on the Old City’s preservation list of the highest priority.69” He also wrote, with overt dismay, that as a result of the courtyard’s modification, the external facade shad been changed beyond recognition. Behind the main building, not far away, there is another old building Gorkha Tara, which was originally used to keep horses for the Nepalese Consulate (Fig. 6.24).

68Long (1993). 69Larsen and Sinding-Larsen’s(2005, p. 126). 180 6 History of the Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa

Fig. 6.24 Gurkha restaurant (Li Qing 2012-6-10)

A few years ago, a company called Tibetan Khadag Group, after having obtained 12 million yuan investment, refurbished and expanded Gorkha Nyingba and developed it into a hotel called Gorkha Hotel. The hotel is a high-end one with 48 guestrooms.70 These rooms were decorated in Tibetan traditional style while the southern-facing building’s third floor has been modified into a dining hall. Gorkha Hotel is surrounded by famous buildings such as Tsamkhong Nunnary, Rigsum Gonpo Monastery, Shédra Courtyard and Trichang Ladrang Courtyard. Thanks to its tranquil beauty, artistic achievement, and high-standard room service, the hotel attracted large numbers of tourists from inland China and abroad.

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Dawa, Benca. 2008. 13th Dalai Lama’s Valet Thubten Kunphel. Lhasa: Tibet People’s Publishing House. Larsen, Knud, and Amund Sinding-Larsen. 2005. The Lhasa Atlas: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Townscape. Translated by Li Ge and Muya Jiancai. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Liao, Dongfan. 2008. Lhasa Anecdotes. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Liu, Manqing. 1998. My Experience as a KMT Government Secret Emissary to Tibet. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House. Liying, Dong. 2008. A study on Tibet and Nepal trade. China Tibetology 2008 (1): 218–222. Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.), and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Long, Xijiang. 1993. A Historical Study of Nepalese Merchants in Lhasa. China Tibetology 1993 (3): 41–51. Luo, Li, and La Can. 2001. Five Decades of Tibet: Economy. The Ethnic Publishing House. Munyak, Chokyi Gyentsen. 2009. Tibetan Residences. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Suo, Qiong. 2008a. Barkor Area in the Old City of Lhasa. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Suo, Qiong. 2008b. Renzeng Penjor: Founder of Nyarongshar Private School. Lhasa: Tibet People’s Publishing House. Suzhi, Xing, Luosang Zhenzhu (narrated), Zhang Jiangfei, and Yang Nianqun (transcribed). 2008. Seeking Enlightenment in Tibet: The Journey of a Han Chinese Lama, 2nd ed, 246. SDX Joint Publishing Company. Tsybikov, Gombojab. 1993. A Buddhist Pilgrim to the Holy Places of Tibet. Lhasa: Tibet People’s Publishing House. Wang, Yao, and Chen Qingying (eds.). 1998. Dictionary of Tibetan History and Culture. Lhasa: Tibet People’s Publishing House, Hangzhou: Zhejiang People’s Publishing House. Writing Groups of the original and revised versions of A Brief History of Tibetan Ethnic Group. 2009. A Brief History of Tibetan Ethnic Group. Beijing: The Ethnic Publishing House. Zhang, Baojian. 2011. Commercial and urban development and layout of Tibet in the Republic of China period (1912–1949). The Journal of Chinese Social and Economic History 2011 (3): 92–99. Zhi, Feng. 2006. The History of Military Camp in Tzashen, Lhasa in the Qing Dynasty. Journal of Tibet University 21 (1): 37–42. Zhou, Weizhou. 2006. History of Tupo in the Tang Dynasty and Tibet in the Modern Times. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Zhou, Jing, and Kong Xianfeng. 2003. Nepalese businessman in Tibetan Cities in the Beginning of the 20th century. Tibetan Studies 2003 (4): 13–19. Zongzhen, Meilang. 2008. The Political and Business Career of Banda Dorje in Modern Tibet. Lhasa: Tibet People’s Publishing House. Chapter 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

In 1951 the year of the Peaceful Liberation, Lhasa’s urban area stood around three square kilometers. External the Old City, population and buildings were sparse. The population included around 30,000 permanent residents in the Old City, some Buddhist monks scattered in monasteries such as Drepung, Loselling, Sera and Gandan and some migrants. All told, the city’s population stood at around 40,000 and 50,000. The buildings in the urban area have a constructed footprint of around 230,000 m2. Most roads were unpaved; the municipal infrastructure left much to be desired—there was no sewage system, no electrical lighting—animal oil and coal gas were main fuel for public lighting.1 Electricity accessibility was limited and sanitation standard was low. This situation saw no immediate improvement after the Peaceful Liberation. In 1960, Lhasa was formally established as a City-level administration unit. This ushered in a new stage of urban development. Especially after the 1980s, speed picked up. The size of the city grew while the infrastructure continued to improve. With more support and aid from the central government, including several central governmental level meetings, new urbanization plans were drawn and imple- mented. Development of the Lhasa and the preservation of the Old City became increasingly formalized and institutionalized, the size of the city’s constructed area grew from an area of three square kilometers in 1951 to 25 km in 1980, and 62.9 km in 2010, placing the city among the rank of medium-sized cities by the Chinese standards with population in the six figures. After the Peaceful Liberation, Tibet’s urban development was mainly influenced by the following factors: 1. The opportunities provided as a result of the govern- ment’s favorable policies to Tibet, for example, the establishment of Tibet’s Autonomous Region, Central Government’s multiple Tibet-work Symposiums;

The Old City referred to in this chapter is within the Barkor Historical Street Neighbourhood.

1Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 554).

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 183 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_7 184 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

2nd, urban planning and implementation; in recent years, the Lhasa Urban Development Strategy and Development Plan both give the urban development a major boost. The Post-Peaceful Liberation urban development can be divided into six stages: The first is between the Peaceful Liberation and the establishment of Tibetan Autonomous Region in 1965. During this period, infrastructure building was pri- oritized, in particular, government buildings, military camps, residents’ compounds, and industrial enterprises, which formed the framework of the city. The second stage started in 1966 and lasted until the beginning of the Reform and Opening-up period. During this period, little progress was made. Only thing remarkable is the improvement of the road system. The third coincided with the start of Reform and Opening Up and ended in mid-1980s. During this period, the focus was shifted to implementing urban development plans, especially the 43 Key Projects outlined by the Second Tibet Work Symposium with substantial achievements. The 4th was between 1987 and 1993. Under the guideline of “rescue, protection and construction”,2 the Old City saw much improvement, including two govern- ment funded residents’ compounds along with 13 privately-funded ones were built. Eleven roads were either upgraded or newly built. The 5th is between 1994 and 2005. During this period, the priority was to carry out the 62 Key Projects outlined at the Third Central Government Tibetan Work Symposium, and implement the spirit of the Fourth Tibetan Work Symposium, and implement the 1995–2015 Master Plan regarding the urban development and preservation of the Old City. During this period, urbanization sped up and urban area expanded. Tourism, commerce, transportation, telecommunication and other tertiary industries thrived. The 6th started in the year of 2006 and is still ongoing. During this period, the priority was shifted to carrying out policies concerning Lhasa urban development and Old City preservation in the central government’s Tenth Five Years and the Twelve Five Years plan, as well as meeting the demands made at the CPC Central Government’s Fifth Tibet Work Symposium and implementing the Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020), further exploring the potential of Lhasa as a regional political, economic and cultural center, and giving more attention to the preservation and continuous development of the Old City, further reinforcing guideline of “Protect the Old City and Build the New City”, discovering new ways in preservation of the Old City’s Vintage Courtyards, and promoting Lhasa as an international tourism destination and promote the work of Six Titles (National civilized city, national ecological garden-like city, national environmental-friendly

2Regarding Lhasa’s urban development, Fu Chonglan’s History of Lhasa and Spengler’s The Changes of Lhasa (1994–2004), concurs that mid 1960s to the Reform and Opening up, pro- mulgation of Master Plan of Lhasa (1980–2000), and Major Aid Projects Era, and 1987–1991; however, this book used a different system based on the social economic development, urban planning, construction, preservation, etc. 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City 185 city, national best tourism city, and national clean city and national Double Example City). However, as social and economical activities grow increasingly comlex, the task of constructing, protecting and managing the city becomes increasingly heavy and challenging.

7.1 Lhasa Prior to Reform and Opening-up

During the three decades between the Peaceful Liberation and Reform and Opening-up, the urban area of Lhasa expanded from 3 to 18 km2 in 1975 to 25 km2 in 1980. The population grew from 30,000 to 100,000 in 1975 to 110,000 in 1980. The total constructed footprint grew to 1.93 million m2 in 1980, almost ten times of its 1951 level. The urban center shifted from the Old City to the newly developed areas (Figs. 7.1 and 7.2).

7.1.1 Lhasa’ Urban Construction in 1951–1965

The period between 1951, the year of the Peaceful Liberation, and 1959, the year when Democratization Reform began, saw Lhasa achieving economic self- efficiency and some significant urban constructions coming into being. Between 1959 and 1965, the year when Tibetan Autonomous Region was established, the city continued to see high rate economic growth and more projects continued to be

Fig. 7.1 Dosengge Road (time unkown). Source Chen (1999) 186 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Fig. 7.2 Beijing Eastern Road in history (time unknown). Source Chen (1999)

carried out—this is especially true in the last two years prior to the establishment of Tibetan Autonomous Region. In the first half decade following the Peaceful Liberation, boosting transportation connection between Lhasa and inland China was prioritized. Meanwhile, inside the city, more public buildings, government and residential ones alike, emerged along with new industries and enterprises. Several roads were added to the existing net- work. A new era was inaugurated for the Lhasa urban and industrial development. Two important roads were built during this period, namely Sichuan-Tibet Route and Qinghai-Tibet Road. Sichuan-Tibet Road, built between 1950 and 1954 and 2415 km in length, links up Chengdu and Lhasa. Qinghai-Lhasa Road, built between 1953 and 1954, slightly shorter with a total length of 1937 km, connects Lhasa and Xining, capital city of Qinghai province. The two cost a total of 260 million yuan and over 110,000 PLA soldiers, workers, and engineers were involved in the construction.3 In Tibet, in 1955, Lhasa–Shigatse Road began operation. In 1957, Lhasa–Tsetang Road was completed. In 1956, Damzhong Airport began operation and the Beijing–Lhasa airline had its maiden flight from the airport. In 1965, Gonggar Airport was built. All these projects improved the transportation conditions between Lhasa and inland China. Urban infrastructure: In 1954, a 3.2-km long stone-covered road was built linking Jokhang and Norbulingka. A stretch of 1.4 km long riverbank along Lhasa River was reinforced against flooding. Between 1961 and 1966, an 18 km-long

3Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, pp. 58–59). 7.1 Lhasa Prior to Reform and Opening-up 187 levee was built along the river. In 1956, the 660-kW Dode Valley Hydropower Station began to generate power. Between 1958 and 1965, Nachen Hydropower Station began to generate power.4 Between 1963 and 1965, Lhasa Bridge was built. By 1965, Jinzhu Eastern Road, Beijing Western Road, and Dosengge Southern Road had all been completed.5 Public buildings: in 1950, Tibetan Autonomous Region Preparatory Committee Office Building broke ground. Other public buildings that started construction during this period include Lhasa Conference Hall, Tibetan Industrial Commission Communications Department office building, People’s Hospital, and PLA Military Base. In 1955, the State Council approved two new residence Buildings, namely Takten Mingyur Phodrang and Zhugling Dorje Phodrang in Norbulingka, for the Dalai Lama and Panchan Lama respectively.6 Economic achievements: Some new enterprises came into being between 1960 and 1964. They include Lhasa Leather Factory, Lhasa Food Factory, Lhasa Cement Factory, Pharmaceutical Company, and Lhasa Flour Factory.7 Between 1964 and 1965, a large scale urban expansion plan was carried out. The Lhasa Municipal Construction Headquarters were established, staffed with officials selected from the TAR and Lhasa governments. Nationwide, professionals were selected and sent to Lhasa to participate in its development. These efforts led to a number of new roads, including Yuthog Road, Khar Nga Eastern Road, Nyangra Southern Road, Jinzhu Eastern Road, Dosengge Southern Road and Beijing Western Road, either within or external the Old City. Over 100,000 m2 of road surface was tarmacked. These roads formed the skeleton of Lhasa’s urban transportation network. Over two kilometers of pipelines were laid along Yuthog Road and other roads. The New City along these roads was three times as large as the Old City. The urban population had grown by 20,000.8 Yuthog Road and Khar Nga East Road became pedestrian shopping streets. Other new public buildings include Tibet Revolution Museum, Workers’ Cultural Palace, Movie Theatre, Xinhua Bookstore, and Lhasa Post Office, banks, Urban Transportation Center, and Lhasa Airport. All told, the constructions accounted for a collective footprint of over 150,000 m2. In addition, the Chagpori Water Factory, with a capacity of 2000 tons daily, began production.9 Lhasa to Chushur road, which led to Gonggar Airport, was also completed. In summary, Lhasa’s New City took its shape during this period. Transportation system was upgraded, so were the commercial facilities; progress was made in terms of public facility, industry and construction. The focus remains in the Old City and its surrounding areas. Population grew considerably—by 1965, the pop- ulation in the urban area for the first time exceeded 50,000.

4Zhang et al. (1991, pp. 47–48). 5Fu (1994, p. 323). 6Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, pp. 554–555). 7Zhang et al. (1991, pp. 47–48). 8Li (1994). 9Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 555). 188 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

7.1.2 From 1966 to Reform and Opening-up

The Cultural Revolution dealt a heavy blow to Lhasa’s cultural heritage. Many religious architecture pieces suffered serious damage while religious activities were restrained; some monasteries survived only because they had been turned into civilian residences—many former aristocrats’ courtyards were modified into resi- dences or dormitories to accommodate employees of the government or state-owned enterprises. Although urban area expansion continued, the entire city’s social economic activities remained to be contained in the Old City and its sur- rounding areas. In spite of the setback, there are still some achievements: a 4.08 MW cascade hydropower station in the west suburb, the 2.6 MW capacity Xianduo Power Station on the eastern suburb, the 120,000 megawatts coal-fired hydropower station on the northern suburb, began operation and 1080 km-long oil pipelines between Ge’ermu and Lhasa were laid in 1975. Multiple roads were added to the city’s transportation system: Nyang’re Northern Road, Jinzhu Western Road, Dode Road, Beijing Road. More major roads were paved and tarmacked. In 1975, a 5.3 km stretch river was channeled away from the center area to the northern suburb,10 alleviating the flooding risk. Also during this period, the New City area saw some new public buildings. After 1976, government agencies’ compounds received modification to accommodate increasing number of staff. The city expanded towards north and west. However, lack of planning and failure to implement plans were also manifest. The infras- tructure struggled to keep up with increasing demand, especially water supply, sewage, and transportation system. Within the Old City district, renovation and modification of old houses were carried out but not enough to keep up with increasing demand for residences and business services.

7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era

The Reform and Opening-up ushered in a new era of urbanization seeing further urban expansion at a faster pace; the urban municipal facilities improved. More funds were allocated to urban development; efficiency of the urban administration and environmental quality both experienced substantial improvement. In 1982, Lhasa appeared on State Council’s first list of National Historically and Culturally Famous Cities. In 1980, the central government held the first of a series of Tibetan Work Symposiums, outlining the direction of the preservation and devel- opment effort in the Old City. The Tibetan Work Symposium and Five-year Plans, the city’s construction, protection and development received a new boost. At the second and third Tibetan Work Symposium, in particular, the 43 and 62 key Aid

10Zhang et al. (1991, p. 49). 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 189

Projects were passed respectively. These two documents were instrumental to Lhasa’s urban appearance transformation. After the turn of century, further improvement on municipal infrastructure was achieved as the city continued to grow, the Old City’s historical heritage also receive more protection. Overall, the urban development and protection became increasingly formalized and institutionalized.

7.2.1 Reform and Opening-up to Mid-1980s

In 1980, the central government held the first of a series of Tibetan Work Symposiums. At the meeting, it was decided that effort should focus on rectifying wrong practices of the Cultural Revolution, developing economy, improving gen- eral public’s living standard amidst the new Thought Liberation Movement and economic takeoff. The period between the launch of Reform and Opening-up and 1982 is a special period in Lhasa meeting, it was decided that effort should focus on rectifying wrong practices of the development plan. Some achievements were also made during this period of time: the construction of a few traditional Tibetan housing project; a water purifying factory with a daily capacity in excess of ten thousand tons; 35 km worth of water supply pipelines. These collectively increased the city’s water supply capacity by 20 folds from the 1965 level; tap water was assessable to 27% of the urban population.11 After 1980, more roads were built: Lingkor West Road, Linju Road, Lhalu Road, Pariku Road, etc.12 By 1980, the urban population exceeded 110,000 for the first time and the total constructed surface of new buildings exceeded 25 km2. All new buildings built after Peaceful Liberation, has a total area of con- structed surface in excess of 1.93 million m2, ten times of the level of the Old City. However, urbanization during this period remained relatively slow and the scope limited. Urban structure saw little change, neither was the city’s overall appearance. In 1982, Lhasa government announced its first urban development plan—Lhasa City Master Plan 1980–2000. In 1983, the Plan received approval from the State Council. It divided the urban area into Central Area, Northern Area, and Western Area. Among them, the Central Area includes both part of the Old City around Jokhang and part of the New City including the Beijing Middle Road as the main route. The Northern Area, according to the design, was to become an area for industry and resources storage. The Western District would focus on transportation, agriculture and husbandry R&D, tourism, and catering and food production. Government agencies and commerce also concentrated in this district. The promulgation of the Plan set forth another round of urban infrastructure upgrade. Most notable of all is the road network improvement in both the city proper and its suburbs.

11Fu (1994, pp. 320, 323). 12Fu (1994, pp. 320, 323). 190 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Between 1984 and 1987, with the implementation of 43 Key Support Projects still in progress, the municipal government undertook to map the city proper and its suburbs. The total area measures at 270 km2. This mapping provided the basis for urban planning, development and management in years to come. In 1984, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the establishment of the Tibetan Autonomous Region, the central government convened the second Tibet-related Work Symposium. At this meeting, a series of decisions were made pertaining to economic development and Reform and Opening-up policies, including one that Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shandong, Sichuan, Guangdong—nine municipalities, provinces and central government ministries including the Ministry of Hydropower Ministry, Ministry of Agricultural and Fishing Ministry, and Ministry of National Construction Material would all be assigned tasks to contribute to Tibet’s infrastructure improvement. They would help build power stations, hotels, schools, hospitals, cultural centers and medium and small-sized enterprises, 43 projects in total. These 43 projects received a total of 480 million yuan. Among them, 22 were in Lhasa, including water supply and sewage projects, Tibetan People’s Conference Hall, Lhasa Hotel, Tibet Hotel, Sunlight Guesthouse, Tibet University Main Building, and TAR People’s Hospital, Lhasa Municipal Stadium.13 Water supply and discharge system remained in urgent demand thus prioritized. Effort saw more pipelines buried, supporting road system launched, a 11 km channel along the Lhasa River northern bank, Jinzhu Road dug up, a 18.8 km-long channel along Khang Nga East Road and Minzu Road went into operation. In total, around 30 km of pipelines were installed. These bolstered the city’s existing water supply and water discharge capacity. In 1984, Lhasa Municipal Government approved 13 new privately-funded residential compounds, with a collective surface area exceeding 310,000 m2; between 1985 and 1986, with 1.30 million yuan funding from the central government, the capacity of Chagpori water factory grew to 150,000 ton and 11 km water supply pipelines were laid. The new supply of infrastructure caught up with the demand of the Lhasa city’s development (Tables 7.1 and 7.2). In the two years following the launch of the 43 Support Projects, a total of 22 km wastewater discharge pipelines and channels were built. By mid-1990s, 48 km of pipelines had been buried underground. The new discharge system covered an area of over 200 km2, and effectively alleviated the wastewater discharge pressure in the Old City and parts of the New City.14 In the mid-1980s, urban Lhasa’s housing area per capita was 6 m2. As a result of the support project, water supply per year exceeded 282 tons, and length of water supply pipelines exceeded 32 km, public green exceeded 565 ha, accounting for 17% of the entire area of the urban Lhasa. The constructed area exceeded 34 km2,15 ten times larger than the level in the beginning of the Peaceful Liberation.

13Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 556). 14Li (1994). 15Che (1987). 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 191

Table 7.1 43 Tibetan Support Project in Lhasa and Investment Amount Type of Investment Percentage The amount 18 Projects in Lhasa urban projects (10,000 (%) invested in area yuan) Lhasa (10,000 yuan) Energy 5893.5 12.20 5480 Lhasa Coal-powered power station modification project Transportation 2962 6.2 2962 Lhasa distance bus station, Lhasa truck transports station Education and 11,779.8 24.50 8252 Lhasa Stadium, Lhasa medicine University, Lhasa Sports Electronic Education Bureau, Lhasa Young Children Activity Center, TAR People factory grew to 150,000 ton and 11 k Municipal 22,109.9 45.98 14,778 Lhasa water supply and administration discharge system Industry 1322 2.75 992 Lhasa granite processing factory, Lhasa animal feed factory Business 1237 2.57 200 Lhasa Restaurant, Lhasa theatre, Tibetan guesthouse, Western suburban market, Northern Suburb Niangre Road Market, efactory grew to 150,000 ton a station Collective 48,085 100 33,274 investment Investment 69.2% Ratio Source Wei (2000). Originally from Spengler et al. (2008, p. 273)

7.2.2 Construction Between 1987 and 1993

Between 1987 and 1991, a new road network upgrade was carried out. This led to widening, modification of old roads and newly built roads, 11 in total, and improvement in supporting facilities.16 In terms of water supply, between 1987 and 1990, fresh water supply capacity grew to 150,000 tons per day after a 250,000-ton per day water factory in the northern suburb began operation. Within the city, over 70 km of water supply

16Lhasa: Five Rounds of Development over Four Decades Lead to Prosperity, China National Radio, 2005-6-2. 192 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Table 7.2 Lhasa Urban Development Public Service-related Projects among the 43 Support Projects No. Project Constructed Investment Scale and specialty Responsible for names surface area (10,000 content design and (m2) yuan) implementation 1 Lhasa Hotel 39,783 8411 500 guestrooms, Jiangsu Province 1000 beds, Architecture Design Presidential suites Institute, Province two Industrial Installation Company, Nantong Sijian Company 2 Lhasa 8067 2164 1200 seats, Tianjin Architecture Movie Conference centers Design Institute, Theatre Tianjin Second Construction Company 3 Tibet 8072 1824 3114 seat, movable Zhejiang Provincial Stadium stage for group Architecture Design performance Institute, provincial industrial installation company, Zhejiang Construction Fourth 4 Tibetan 11,829 1825 92 guestrooms, 200 Fujian Province Hotel beds Architecture Design Institute, Province Industry Equipment Company, Hui’an County Construction Company 5 Tibet 10,060 795 Classroom building, Zhejiang Province University art building, dorm, Architecture Design education and Academy, Ningbo recording center Construction Company 6 Lhasa TV 3264 831 Zhejiang Province education Architecture Design building Institute, Provincial Industry Equipment Installation Company, Zhuji Construction Company 7 Children 2314 319 Expansion of the Jiangsu Province Province original youth Yangzhou Design Architect palace Institute, Nantong Fourth Construction Company (continued) 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 193

Table 7.2 (continued) No. Project Constructed Investment Scale and specialty Responsible for names surface area (10,000 content design and (m2) yuan) implementation 8 Lhasa 8111 962 Passengersance Bus Jiangsu Province Distance Station design Huaiyin Design Bus Station Institute, N Institute, Nantong Fourth Construction Company 9 TAR 3594 649 Theatre, Exhibition Tianjin Architecture People’s Art Center, Training Design Institute, Forum Center Tianjin Second Construction Company 10 Northern 2500 803* Business Hall China New Suburban Construction Market Material Company, Tibet Autonomous Region Second Construction Company 11 Western 4000 Business Hall, China New Suburban Exhibition Center, Construction Trade Meeting rooms Material Company, Center Tibet Autonomous Region First Construction Company 12 Category 1500 Business Hall, China New three Office Building Construction resources Material Company, supply Tibet Autonomous station Region First Construction Company 13 TSR People 17,067 1680 Expanded to Tibet Architecture Construction accommodate over Design Institute, 400 checked-in Nantong Fourth patients and 900 Construction outpatients at the Company same time 14 Water 3064 Water supply Chengdu Municipal pipeline pipeline 10.1 km, Design Institute, project water discharge Provincial Industry pipeline 18.8 km Equipment Design Company, Chengdu Municipal Public Facility Company Note 803* is the collective amount of investment of the project 10, 11, and 12 Source Che (1987) 194 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Fig. 7.3 Lhasa urban area prior to 1990. Source China City Atlas Editorial Office (1994). Originally from Wang (2005) pipelines were installed, delivering 40,000 tons of fresh water to the city’s residents per day, meeting the daily needs of 65% households.17 In addition, over 49 km of discharge water pipelines were installed, covering over 20 km2 area. In terms of outdoors lighting, the number of road lamps went in excess of 1000 by the end of this period. In terms of road building, the total length of the class two and class three tarmac-covered roads reached over 70 km.18 The bottleneck of the municipal infrastructure had been removed. The following infographic shows the magnitude of the change during the 1951–1990 period: Prior to Peaceful Liberation, Lhasa’s urban area was limited to Jokhang/Ramoche and Barkor area and Potala Palace/Zholarea. Aside from these two, buildings were sparse. Between 1951 and 1959, new urban development mostly concentrated in the eastern part of the northern bank of Lhasa River. Between 1960 and 1965, new buildings were built surrounding the Old City but at limited scale. Between 1966 and 1975, new construction mostly took place on the northern and western parts of the city. Between 1976 and 1989, the urban area expanded northward and westward—the urban area grew substantially and the different urban areas became closer (Fig. 7.3). During the four decades between Tibet’s Peaceful Liberation and 1991, Lhasa’s urban area grew to 49.62 km2, the collective floor surface of buildings reached 2.5 million m2, 11.5 times of the 1951 level, 14 times and 10.5 times of the levels prior

17Li (1994). 18Zhang et al. (1991, p. 49). 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 195 to the Peaceful Liberation. In 1992, Lhasa’s Chengfuan District had a population of about 125,800. The total urban population of Lhasa, including the temporary population and migrants, is estimated to be about 200,000.19 By 1993, shortly before the Third Central Government Tibetan Work Symposium, the total length of roads in Lhasa stood around 110 km, among them, 80 km were tarmacked. At that time, the second ring road was near complete; in addition, fourteen bridges were built and over 400 km worth of water supply pipelines were installed. The capacity of Chagpori Water Factory had grown from the original 200 to 150,000 tons per day. In addition, the Northern Suburb Water Supply Station began operation, generating an additional capacity of 25,000 tons per day. The ratio of water supply and discharge was around 60%.20

7.2.3 1994–2005

7.2.3.1 The 62 Key Support Projects (1994)

In 1994, at the third Central Government Tibetan Work Symposium, resolution was passed that both central government and province ones would make plans to assist Tibet’s development; all government agencies should “be assigned a (Tibetan) region to be specifically responsible for and provide the types of assistance in their areas of expertise; a rotation system would be implemented to ensure the aid would be provided in a consistent manner.” The resolution demanded that the fifteen provinces and cities would provide aid to seven municipal cities in Tibet. The central government’s ministries were also asked to provide support to their coun- terpart departments in the Tibetan government. 62 Key Support Projects were outlined, involving a total investment of 2.38 billion yuan. Among them, the central government and related departments earmarked 1.802 billion yuan for the con- struction of 30 projects. Government agencies of local levels also provided a total of 0.578 billion yuan for a total of 32 projects.21 Among the 62 Key Projects, 20 were related to urban development and nine were located in Lhasa. These included the Outer Ring Road, Potala Square, Tibetan Museum, TAR Party Committee Building, the Government Office Building, TAR Conference Center, Lhasa Xinhua Book Store, TAR Party School and Administration Institute Building, Lhasa Western Suburban Electricity Transmission Project, Lhasa’s Western Suburban Distance Telephone Center and the Tibetan Traditional Pharmaceutical Factory Expansion Project,22 Lhasa Vocational Training School, Lukhang Park modification project, both built with the assistance provided

19Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 554). 20Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 556). 21Tseten and Gyaincain (2002, p. 371). 22List of 62 Aid Projects: http://tibet.cn/focus2009/09qgzyxz/yzzl/fpqk/200909/t20090918_ 503878.html. 196 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City by the Beijing municipal government. In addition, there were also the People Book Store, TAR Party School and Administration Institute Building, and Teachers Training Center (constructed with assistance from the Jiangsu Province), etc.23 All these improved Lhasa’s infrastructure and bolstered the city’s administrative and service providing capacity. Aside from these projects, Lhasa city also launched its own initiatives and underwent a series of preservation and modification projects in the Old City area. In 1994, the city invested 144.24 million yuan to upgrade its infrastructure, 40 million more than the level of the previous year. This year also saw the completion of the dilapidated building receiving structure reinforcement. In addition to repairs and modifications, new apartments were built. All told, more than 86 km2 of new living space were generated to accommodate 1176 people.24 In celebration of the 30th anniversary of establishment of Tibetan Autonomous Region, the local government launched a program leading to the building of the Potala Palace Square and Lhasa’s Ring Road System (phase one). In addition, over 2.09 million yuan was invested to relocate 2 households who lived in an area within 200 m from the Minzu Northern Road, install 900 meters of water pipelines in the Tuanjie New Village, and dredge 3000 m of old ones. The Yuthog Pedestrian Road, with a hardened road surface in excess of 7000 m2, was open to the public; nine million yuan of loans were invested to build the Dosengge Pedestrian Road. 800,000 yuan was earmarked for a preliminary survey before construction was undertaken over Western suburban water factory.25 In 1995, the central government invested a total of 196 million yuan to do urban construction.26

7.2.3.2 Ninth Five-Year-Plan Period (1996–2000)

The Ninth Five Year Plan period took place between 1996 and 2000. During the five years, Lhasa has undertaken over Western suburban water factory to build the more than tributed greatly to the city’s goal of “greener, brighter, cleaner and prettier”. During this period, 36 km of new roads were built. 87 km of old ones were upgraded. The Lhalu Wetland National Nature Reserve was established, bringing the green coverage ratio up to 31.6%. Meanwhile, the western suburban water supply factory and garbage-processing factory both began operation. The building of a new wastewater-processing factory began. The city’s overall appearance achieved substantial improvement.27 In 1996, a 381 million yuan infrastructure upgrade plan received approval and went underway. By the end of the year, with 324 million funding having been

23Dhondup (1997). 24Spengler et al. (2008, p. 274). 25Yangdzom (1995). 26Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007, p. 431). 27Lhasa Municipal Government (2001). 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 197 spent, the city saw its river bank reinforced, waste water discharge system and its supporting road system upgraded, Luting Southern Road improved, and Zhongganqu New Road built. The newly built residence buildings had a collective floor area in excess of 280,000 m2. In 1997, Lukhang Phase Two Upgrade was completed. In the same year, construction of the Western section of Jiangsu Road and Zhongganqu Road commenced. A residential building upgrade project was also launched. Over three million yuan was spent on the upgrade of municipal public service facilities. In 1999, while traditionally high-priority projects continued to receive financial support, some previously less than prioritized projects, such as tree-planting, urban appearance enhancement, and ecology improvement also gained attention. Linju Road, Sera Road, Lingkor West, Beijing Eastern Road, Lhalu Road, Pariku Road and other major roads were completed this year. In 2000, six more roads in the urban area began to see some traffic. Three main projects were accomplished, including the modification of Jokhang, building of Lhasa Broadcast Center and the municipal court of law’s main building. In addition, the garbage procession center, Lhasa’s technology and information building and the Western suburban water factory all began operation, the phase one of the water purification factory con- struction completed. In addition, Karma Gonsar and other four residential com- pounds were completed, the widening of the Beijing Mid-Road completed. A project went underway to clean up peddlers on the Potala Square to give the square a cleaner look.28 Since the Democratization Reform, especially the beginning of the Reform and Opening-up, until the late 20th century, a total of 5.2 billion yuan of government fund was invested to upgrade Lhasa’s urban infrastructure. As of 2000, the urban area had exceeded 51 km2; the total floor area of the residential buildings increased from 220,000 m2 to 2.86 million m2.29

7.2.3.3 Tenth Five Years Period (2001–2005)

In the year of 2001, the central government’s 4th Tibetan Work Symposium passed a resolution stipulating that the central government, and two provincial-level governments, namely, Beijing and Jiangsu, were to provide 2.3 billion yuan funding to 39 key projects in Lhasa. As a result of the new initiative, by 2011, the 50th anniversary of the Peaceful Liberation, the total road length in the urban area surpassed 130 km. 30 high grade roads either began operation or had undertaken upgrade—these accounted for a total length of 9.17 km and a total surface area in excess of 119.76 km2;in comparison, in 1978, the city only had three low-grade tarmacked roads with a total length of 2.45 km. A37-fold and a 19.77-fold growths were achieved in terms of

28For situation between 1994 and 2000, Spengler et al. (2008, pp. 274–275). 29Jiangcun (2001). 198 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City number and length, respectively. In addition, the daily water supply capacity exceeded 350,000 m3; over 76% households gained access to running water; the length of water supply pipelines installed exceeded 10.32 km, 45 times longer than the 2290 m in 1978; in urban area, the network of wastewater discharge system completed; the total length of discharge pipelines reached 195.22 km, including 9.25 km first-grade one, 31 times of the 2950 m level in 1978; the plant-covered area in the city also saw substantial increase. By the end of 2000, Lhasa had 142,711 million m2 of plant-covered area; per capita green exceeded 10.64 m2, ranking the city near top among all the Chinese cities.30 In 2002, five major roads, namely Sera Road, Yuthog Road, Khang Nga Road, and Pariku Road, had undergone upgrade. A garbage landfill site began operation. Lhalu Wetland Nature Reserve, Zhonggan Channel Comprehensive Treatment Project Phase One project began. More dilapidated buildings were reinforced and water supply/discharge system installation continued; the residents’ living condi- tions and environment quality saw further improvement; in 2003, over 166 projects completed; among them, Lhasa Hospital’s Diagnosis Center building and the Ethnical Cultural and Art Palace were both built. When it comes to road building, Nachen Road, Dode Road, Beiganqu Road, three main roads were either built or upgraded. The pipeline upgrade project was concluded. Lhalu Wet Land, Zhongganqu Comprehensive Treatment went under way, so was Liuwu Bridge and Riverbank Road; by 2004, the Old City Project, Pipeline Network Upgrade Project and five municipal road modification projects were completed. In 2004, at the third Central government Tibetan Work Symposium, 39 projects received high priority as “Key Support Projects”. In addition, 27 main roads, with a total length of 42.24 km, were built. Water supply capacity continued growing, so did the garbage processing capacity. Five “self-funded” residential compounds, Lhalu Wetland Nature Reserve Project Phase One, Zhongganqu Channel Phase One comprehen- sive treatment project, Potala Square modification and reform project. Jinzhu Western Road, Chumig Road, Jiangsu Avenue, August 1st Road, Ludui Linka Road, Drepung Road, Luding Northern Road and four parks, Eastern Suburb Water Factory, and Liuwu Water Supply Network and other projects all obtained approval from the government. In addition, a land right exchange was established, where commercial use public land right public bidding was carried out. By 2005, Lhasa’s urban area reached 57 km2. Constructed area per capita had grown from seven square meters in 1959 to 25 m2 per capita in 2005. The city’s main avenues, 241 km in total, include six north-west ones and 15 east-west ones. Water supply network was also completed with water daily supply capacity in excess of 160,000 tons. Tap water was available to 95% urban households. Length of the wastewater discharge pipelines reached 223.19 km.31 By all measures, the city was closing in the gap between supply of infrastructure/service and the demands.

30Lhasa Municipal Government (2001). 31Spengler et al. (2008, pp. 275–276). 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 199

During the 10th Five Year Plan Period, a total of 1.01 million yuan government funding was invested in urban infrastructure. 17 main roads, namely Najin Road, Dode Road, Jinzhu Western Road were either newly built or upgraded. In addition, 12 roads of lesser stature were also upgraded. Water supply capacity grew by 40,000 tons per day. Garbage processing capacity reached 1.902 million m3. The water of Lhalu Wet Land and the 20.9-km long Zhongganqu River was treated for pollution. In addition, the Old City’s road and water supply/discharge pipeline network was upgraded. 793 lighting systems and more firefighting facilities were installed, and the city’s sanitation facilities were improved. 68 residential com- pounds were modified.32

7.2.3.4 From the Tenth Five Year Period Onward (2006 Onward)

In 2006, over 4 billion yuan government funding was spent on urban infrastructure, involving a total of 55 projects.33 By the end of the year, the total road millage reached 305 km, water supply pipelines reached 319.72 km, tap water supply reached 170,000 tons per day; the length of the discharge pipelines—the main and secondary, all told, exceeded 269 km.34 In 2007, the city launched its “expand eastwards and westwards and develop across the River 72 km, tap water supply reached 170,000 tons per day; the length of the discharge pipelines—the main and secondary, all told, exceeded 2 an upgrade, including the city’s major roads. Progress was made in a few projects: Norbulingka surrounding area environment improvement project, urban heating system and cooking gas supply system, removal of some “urban villages”; waste processing capacity increased. The total road length reached in excess of 311 km; water pipeline length reached 1873 ha, and the coverage rate reached over 31.85%. Public green reached 1803 ha.35 In 2008, a project to enhance the appearance of areas surrounding Lingkor East and other two roads was completed. July First Road and other 16 main roads began operation. Lhalu Wetland Project Phase Two was accomplished and Zhongganqu Comprehensive Treatment proceeded. By the end of the year, the total road length reached 311 km, and water supply pipelines length reached 596.65 km. The public

32“The Government’s Investment in Lhasa Infrastructure Exceeds 1.01 Billion Yuan”,Lhasa Evening News, 2005-11-18. 33Tibet Held a News Conference on Lhasa’s Achievements over the Past Six Decades, State Council News Office Website: http://www.scio.gov.cn/xwfbh/gssxwfbh/fbh/201107/t957612.htm. 34Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2006, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/12823. aspx. 35Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2007, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/12825. aspx. 200 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City green reached 1905 ha, with coverage having risen to 35% of the entire urban area.36 By 2009, the 50th anniversary of the Tibetan Democracy Reform, the urban appearance enhancement projects involving Jiangsu Road and other six main roads had completed. The Beijing Middle Road upgrade also concluded. The Western Second Road northern stretch and Ludui Lingkor Road extension projects were both completed. Dekyi Southern Road and Lingkor Eastern Road upgrades were also completed. Meanwhile, the city was holding a public bid to build another waste water processing factory and the Nachen Bridge began to lay the foundation, the design of Donggar Water Factory has completed, and the construction of Eastern Area and Liuwu New Area continued37; the preservation and upgrade of the Old City area and construction and expansion of the new city area continued. In 2009, the Lhasa urban area increased from 51.4 to 59.3 km2. The living space per capita increased to 33.44 m2. The total mileage of roads in the city grew to 311 km. Seven main roads, including Inner Yuthog Road, Dosengge Road, Khang Nga Road, Lingkor Eastern Road, and Jiangsu Road were widened; buildings on both sides were reinforced.38 The Old City’s unique appearance received a new boon. The water supply pipeline length reached 613.99 km, and water supply capacity rose to 250,000 tons per day. The public green reached 1906 ha, including public lawn around 1852 ha. The public green area per capita grew to around 9.82 m2. The air quality improved; the Class A and Class B Days accounted for 98.9% of the entire year.39 2010 is a breakthrough year for the city’s Expand Eastward and Westward Initiative. The development of the new urban central area, summarized as One City, Two Riverbanks and Three Districts, received greater priority. By the end of the year, four new water supply factories and four water pump stations were built, collectively producing 26 tons of fresh water per day. Through 698 km of pipelines, 98.72 million m3 of drinkable water supplies the city in that year. In that year, the city as total of 61 public parks had a collective footprint exceeding 221 ha. The public green coverage rate reached 43.13%, while public green area per capita reached 10.26 m2. In addition, the total length of the road system measured around 311 km.40

36Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2008, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/12826. aspx. 37Urban Development in 2009, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/ Item/12744.aspx. 38Wang Shan’s West Development and Lhasa’s Decade-long Urban Development, China Tibet Online: http://www.tibet.cn, 2010-8-20. 39Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2009, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/12{2/} 831.aspx. 40Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2010, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/12722. aspx. 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 201

During the 10th Five Year Plan period, Lhasa municipal government earmarked a total of 730 million yuan for the upgrade of 15 roads, including widening and tarmacking, installing pedestrian lanes, upgrading road lamps, and planting trees and grasses on both sides. In addition, 230 million yuan was invested to upgrade the city’s water supply system; this led to newly built water supply and discharge pipelines in areas along Dekyi Southern Road, Lingkor East Road’s Southern Stretch, Heping Road, Binhe Road eastern section, Sera Road northern section and the Tuanjie New Village.41 Up until 2010, Lhasa achieved remarkable progress in terms of urban infras- tructure and urban environment: Road system: Road millage reached 311 km, 5.5 times of the 1979 level of 47.8 km. As a result, the road network grew much denser. Water supply: Three new water stations built on three sides of the city: the north, the west, and the east. In addition, the existent water supply system also received an upgrade. By the end of 2010, the total length of water supply pipelines had reached 698.64 km, 98.8 times of the 1979 level of 7 km. Water supply capacity reached 260,000 tons per day, 172.3 times of the 1979 level of 150,000 tons. The annual water supply capacity reached 98.72 million tons, 281.1 times of the 1979 level of 0.35 million tons—year-on-year, the growth rate exceeds 20%. Public green area: By the end of 2010, the public green area had reached 2548 ha, 5.1 times of the 1979 level of 415 ha; the coverage had reached 43.1, 31% higher than the level of 1979. This change to a certain extent reduced the number of Dusty Days and increased oxygen levels. Telecommunication: In 1961, there were only two hundred landline telephone users in the city. By 2010, there were over 99,700, in addition to 589,200 mobile phone users and over 40,000 Internet users; the postal service received annual revenue in excess of 711 million yuan42 (Table 7.3). During the 12th Five Years Plan period, resources continued to be allocated to urban infrastructure upgrade and increasing service while the city’s status as the regional economic center further bolstered. With the New City expansion continued, pressure was relieved from the Old City. The road network and other public trans- portation systems were improved; the buildings’ street-facing facades received treatments to create a uniform traditional Tibetan building appearance; adoption of new heating system continued while centralized cooking gas became more available; total pipeline length grew while more exposed and hazardous pipelines were placed underground; waste water were processed in more scientific ways; the environment surrounding Potala Palace was improved; the Lhasa River banks were reinforced.43

41An Overview of Lhasa’s Tenth Urban Development during the 10th Five-Years-Plan, Tibet Daily, China Tibetan News Online: www.tibetnews.com, 2010-10-12. 42For information about the situation in the end of 2010, read “Lhasa has achieved impressive development socially and economically”, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: www.lasa.gov.cn, 2011-9-27. 43Lhasa Municipal Government’s Outline of the Economic and Social Development of Lhasa during the 12th Five-Year Plan Period. 202 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Table 7.3 Changes in Year Constructed area (m2) Population (10,000 people) Lhasa’s urban constructed area and population since 1951 3 3 Peaceful Liberation 1965 9 5 1975 18 10 1980 25 11 1985 34 11 1991 49.6 11 1995 50.8 17.3 2000 56 20 2005 60.6 30 2010 62.9 40 Note 1. The constructed area number for the year of 1965 is an estimate and may not be accurate 2. The population in the year of 2010 is also an estimate thus may not be accurate Source The data for the year of 1995 were from multiple sources. The measure of urban area between 1995 and 2010 and the city’s population are both quoted from the Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020)

In order to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the Peaceful Liberation, in 2011, Lhasa completed 39 so-called Celebration Projects. In total, 39 billion yuan was allocated to the city’s road network upgrade, burying-pipelines-underground, increasing public green area, installing road lamps, and enhancing street views. By the end of the year, pipeline length stood around 727.92 km. Water supply amount grew to 105,280,000 m3 per day, including life-use water 42,110,000 m3; a total length of 499.8 km of new bus lines began operation. In the same year, five projects involving increasing the green area in 62 parks were completed. The development of the urban infrastructure attained a new height.44 In 2012, four billion yuan funding was spent on 17 infrastructure upgrade projects. The priorities were household heating, bridges and roads. By the end of the year, water supply pipelines length reached 733.15 km, while the daily tap water supply reached 11,640.23 m3. Among them, industry use water 5007.5 m3, public service use water 166,000 m3, household use water 4.908 million m3 and the rest 3.6528 m3. The total length of bus lines reached 528.8 km.45 In 2013, a New City urban infrastructure upgrade initiative with a budget of eight billion yuan was launched. This effort saw the completion of a series of

44Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2011, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/47627. aspx. 45Lhasa Municipal Statistics Bureau’s Lhasa National Economy and Social Development Statistics Communique 2012, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: http://www.lasa.gov.cn/Item/52452. aspx. 7.2 Post-reform and Opening-up Era 203 buildings or constructions either newly built or upgraded: Nachen Bridge, Tsichogling Bridge, Dongyi Road, Tsangre Northern Road, Drabji Eastern Road, Jiarong Road, and Xi’er Road, Xuefu Road and new water supply/discharge facilities. Some others began: Northern Ring Road, Liudong Bridge, Binhe Road, Waste Water Processing Factory Phase Two, Garbage Incineration Center, and Eastern City Water Supply System. Meanwhile, the Lhasa River Bank appearance enhancement project was completed, and some pedestrian overpasses and “con- venient lanes” were introduced, effectively alleviating the traffic pressure.46 These projects not only improved the transportation conditions but also facilitated the development of new urban infrastructure, promoted efficiency and modernization level of the city as well as social economic activities in general.

7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation

In 1951, with the exception of a minority such as monasteries, Yamens and aris- tocrats’ residences, most buildings on both sides of Barkor were in a dilapidated state. In the Old City, urban infrastructure are in urgent need for capacity boost— water supply/waste discharge capacity were in short supply; no electricity or no hard-surfaced roads. Among challenges, the low productivity imposed a hard limit on the city’s development and its capacity to modernize itself (Fig. 7.4). From the Peaceful Liberation to Reform and Opening-up, the appearance of Lhasa’s Old City remained largely intact. Save for a few projects, most of relatively small scale, such as hardened road surface, installment of water supply and dis- charge pipelines, no systematic upgrade had been done. High building density and traffic congestion and poor sanitation continued to trouble the urban district. The alleyways of the Old City often had drainage issue; water pooling in rain season was common. Lack of firefighting prowess made the city ill-prepared for fire hazards. In the Old City, architecture and civilian buildings were mostly stone-and- wood, or mud-and-wood. They were often of low heights, following no uniform standards. The majority was in need of repair or maintenance. These, in conjunction with the slow development speed in the New City, caused great pressure to urban administrators.47 Statistics indicate that before the Reform and Opening-up, houses in need of repair in the Old City of Lhasa accounted for 90% of the total number; 20% were deemed as “too dangerous to live in”.48 In the 1970s, in the Old City area, a total of 283 Vintage Courtyards were used as communal residential homes. Starting in late 1970s, at the behest of the

46To Improve Urban Infrastructure with Another 8 Billion Yuan Investment, China Tibet News Online: http://www.chinatibetnews.com, 2013-1-16. 47Dorje and Tang (2008). 48Dorje and Tang (2008). 204 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Fig. 7.4 An Old City civilian residence in the 1960s (time uncertain). Source Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010) municipal government, more old buildings received more repairs and modifications. Especially after the release of the Lhasa City Overall Development Plan (1995– 2015) and the Lhasa City District History Cultural Famous City Preservation Plan, effort was stepped up to preserve and repair the old buildings of historic value; for the high value ones, great effort went to maintaining the original appearance, structure and color and applying the traditional craft and materials; for less sig- nificant ones, while outside, traditional appearances remained, internally, tradition gave way to modern functionality.49 In the 1980s and 1990s, aside from the 120 million yuan funding raised by Chengguan District government, the national government also earmarked a large amount of funding for Old City’s infrastructure upgrade, especially the road network.50 Lhasa Urban Overall Development Plan (1980–2000) was a landmark urban development plan. Released during the Reform and Opening-up period, the Plan addressed many questions in the process of the Old City infrastructure upgrade, involving water discharge system, demolition of dilapidated buildings, maintaining traditional Tibetan-style appearance when building new ones, repairing and main- taining old ones, protecting the overall appearance of the Old City, improving urban functionality and residents’ living standards, relocating population and mitigating traffic pressure. Although the principles and guidelines in the Plan were generally sound, in practice, the plan was not always stuck to, preventing an optimal outcome

49Li (2012). 50Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010, p. 353). 7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation 205 from being realized. In order to provide more housing, damages were caused to some historically significant buildings. One example is the building of Jokhang Square to the West of Barkor, which irreversibly changed the original layout of Barkor. Starting 1972, the infrastructure of the Old City of Lhasa began to receive large-scale upgrade. Between 1972 and 1978, the national government earmarked 20 million yuan, leading to the construction over 60,000 m2 of new residence buildings and maintenance and modification of 200,000 m2 of old and dilapidated houses. In 1985, another 8.5 million yuan was earmarked for the Jokhang Square project, with a footprint of about 2.2 ha.51 Between 1979 and 1992, 1993 and 2000, 2002 and 2004, the government launched three major initiatives to repair old houses and improve other infrastructure. Between 1979 and 1993, a total of 59.735 million yuan funding was allocated, resultant in 250,867 m2 worth of dilapidated houses being repaired and maintained; over 2000 households moved to new homes, among them, 400 were first-time home owners.52 Starting from Reform and Opening up until late 20th century, a total of 200 million yuan was allocated from different levels of governments to the Old City. 430,000 m2 worth of dilapidated buildings in the area were repaired and over 30,000 m of pipelines were installed. All con- tributed to improvement of living conditions and urban environment.53

7.3.1 Post-reform and Opening-up Preservation and Modification

Soon after the Reform and Opening-up, large-scale repair and preservation was carried out in the Old City district. Between 1979 and 1992, the first of a series of upgrade initiates was kicked off. In 1979, the Old City’s population stood at 11,741 households and 32,282 individuals. Their residences were generally low-height with poor lighting; they also lacked modern means of convenience, waste discharge and firefighting capacity. With central government funding, over 2,390,000 m2 of “too dangerous to live in” houses received maintenance and repair. Remarkable effort was made to keep the buildings’ traditional style and appearance. Although overall, the projects had great benefits, it also left many things wanting: most residences remained small, indoors lighting and centralized heating remained challenges and house functionality in need of further improvement.54 Statistics indicate that between 1987 and 1991 (the 40th anniversary of Tibet’s Peaceful Liberation), a total of 130,000 m2 of old and “too dangerous to live” houses received maintenance and repair. Over 2000 households had new homes;

51Li (1994). 52Jiangcun (2001). 53Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007, p. 714). 54Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007, p. 714). 206 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Fig. 7.5 The Old City and urban area of Lhasa in 1985. Note The red area represents the Old City. The constructed areas surrounding these two areas were all developed after the Peaceful Liberation. Source Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005) among them, 400 were first-time homeowners.55 A total of 49 million yuan was spent on upgrading the road network; 53,011 m2 of road surface was hardened. In addition, a total of 8328 m of water discharge pipelines and 7619 m water supply pipelines were laid and 266 road lamps were installed.56 All these led to substantial improvement to the Old City’s infrastructure (Fig. 7.5).

7.3.1.1 Between 1993 and 2000

Between 1993 and 2000, urban upgrade picked up speed rapidly. In total, 100 residential courtyards were modified, 222,000 m2 of dilapidated and “too dangerous to live in” houses repaired. Aside from the 260 million yuan funding allocated by the central and local governments, the private sector became a significant force in financing the city’s urban development. During the two decades following the launch of the Reform and Opening-up (1979–2000), Lhasa’s urban development received a total of 100 million yuan funding. This, in addition to the 71.208 million yuan from the governments of Tibetan Autonomous Region and Lhasa, 80.745 million yuan were raised from the local residents, which brought about many changes to the city as well as the urban appearance: a total of 218 residential courtyards were modified, 460,600 m2 of new houses were built; 5968 households moved to new homes. A total of 14,474 m of waste discharge pipelines and 13,971 m of water supply pipelines were installed.57

55Zhang et al. (1991, p. 45). 56Zhang et al. (1991, p. 52). 57Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (2010, p. 355). 7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation 207

Table 7.4 Residential Courtyard’s modification in the Old City of Lhasa (1979–2000) Year Investment Number of Total area Resettled Note (10,000 Yards modified residents yuan) Modified (m2) (Household) 1979–1992 5773.50 118 238,777 3547 1993 463.10 7 12,031 248 44 new apartments sold 1994 1467.00 23 34,931 420 124 apartments sold 1995 796.20 12 18,571 278 132 apartments sold 1996 525.00 6 11,168.8 198 1997 2710.30 16 56,465.8 614 1998 2813.90 23 59,243.6 583 1999 1128.30 11 23,705.5 26 201 apartments sold 2000 390.90 2 5798.3 54 1993–2000 10,294.70 100 221,915.0 2421 1979–2000 16,068.20 218 460,692.0 5968 Source Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles (2007)

Between 1985 and 2000, over 4000 households moved to their multi-story new homes. 15 residential compounds were built, housing nearly ten thousands popu- lation. The living conditions further improved58 (Table 7.4). One outcome of the urban upgrade is the replacement of many mud-and-wood buildings by stone-and-concrete ones. The new buildings are more spacious and better lit. Also remarkable is that while modernized, the traditional and Tibetan characteristics were not compromised. One shortcoming of the upgrade model is overemphasis on efficiency resultant in preservation of high-value vintage buildings not receiving enough priority. Many dilapidated vintage buildings were demolished due to a number of reasons: (a) lack of recognition of their value, (b) administrators’ lack of experience and (c) pressing demand to improve people’s living conditions. Some were rebuilt with modern materials and technology, often to the point that is detrimental to the buildings’ historical value. The rebuilt versions were often taller than the original and had more stories; traditional style and methods were not strictly adhered to. All con- tributed to the change of the Old City’s appearance and diminished its value.

58“Lhasa Makes Strides Towards Modernization Fifty Years after Its Liberation”, http://www.cctv. com/specials/xizang/sanji/jubian22.html. 208 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

7.3.1.2 The Preservation Effort and Modification of the Old City of Lhasa in the New Century a. 10th Five-Year Period In March, 2002, Leading Group for the Upgrade Work of the Old City of Lhasa was established with the task of providing guidance pertaining to Old City upgrade. The guidelines include that amidst the modification of dilapidated and “too dangerous to live in” houses in the Old City, the Master Plan of Lhasa Urban Development should be adhered to; consideration should also be given to maintaining harmony with the environment; balancing between the city as a political and economic center and a city of great historic and cultural value; the new buildings’ design and style should be consistent with tradition and demonstrative of the Tibetan cultural and traditional architectural characteristics. The integrity of structure and layout of the alleyways should not be compromised. The high value vintage buildings must maintain their original appearance. After much research and study and over 70 million yuan spent to modify nine high-value vintage buildings and 47 “too dangerous to live in” ones; in total, 70,000 m2 of old buildings were restored functionally as well as their original appearance. A total of 28,000 m2 of buildings were upgraded. In 2003, Tibetan Autonomous Region and Lhasa City earmarked 160,000 yuan to increasing water supply capacity, and upgrading electricity and telecom communication system in the Old City district.59 During the 10th Five-Year period, more roads, water supply/discharge system received upgrades; 793 road lamps were installed, firefighting, urban sanitation maintenance capacity both improved, all having contributed to better living con- ditions and environment.60 Between 2001 and 2004, a total of 68 vintage courtyards received maintenance and modifications. 56 received funding from the government, including the national, municipal and district-level ones. 12 courtyards (including nine “historic artifact courtyards” and three “vintage courtyards”) received funding from the Chengguan District government and the district’s Housing Administration Bureau. In total, 120,000 m2 of old buildings were restored in a 79.49 million yuan program. 12,570 people from 2090 households received new homes.61 In 2004, the Chinese Urban Planning Design Institute, commissioned to compile a plan regarding Old City preservation, conducted a study to assess the value of old buildings in the area. Their report revealed that the majority of buildings in the area were fairly recent and in general, were of relatively low in terms of quality, historic or cultural value. According to the report, over 84.4% of the buildings were built after the Peaceful Liberation. The well maintained ones were mainly heritage and

59Tsidor (2004). 60“The Central Government’s Investment in Lhasa infrastructure Reaches 1.01 Billion Yuan”, Lhasa Evening News, 2005-11-18. 61Lhasa: Old City Residents Move to New Residence; Numbers Indicate New Changes, Tibet News Online: www.tibet.news.cn, 2008-11-28. 7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation 209 religious buildings, and those restored historically significant buildings were rebuilt in manners consistent with the original. Newly built modern buildings accounted for 9.2% of the total constructed area. Among them, the medium and low-quality ones represented 89.6 and 1.2% respectively. In terms of style and appearance, the “stylistically incongruent buildings accounted 10% of the total number, while buildings “that maintained their historical appearance” (including cultural heritage buildings, buildings with “good appearance”, and ordinary traditional buildings) accounted for 15.9%. The rest were modern buildings that were deemed “congruent with the Old City’s overall atmosphere”. These buildings were grouped into four categories: “need preservation”, “need repair and improvement”, “to keep”, and “to modify and upgrade”; the first and the second category require retaining buildings’ historic appearance while modernizing the functionality. Demolition, new con- struction or other activities that would affect the existing structure; to those that stylistically incongruent beyond simple treatment, demolition or rebuilding were two most common ways to make them consistent with the historic and cultural urban quarters (Table 7.5). b. 11th Five-Year Plan Period The 11th Five-Year Plan Period inaugurated a new era for the Old City in preser- vation, maintenance and development. In the Lhasa city’s 10th Five Years Plan, a number projects received high priorities: the preservation of the historic cultural urban quarters, upgrading infrastructure and enhancing overall urban functionality, developing tourism and commerce, and reinforcing the city’s status as a regional destination of tourism, shopping and entertainment. During this half-decade, some

Table 7.5 A Survey Concerning Barkor Street Buildings (early 2000s) Categories Foundation space Percentages (ha) (%) Construction Relatively good quality 4.14 9.2 quality Average quality 40.37 89.6 Poor quality 0.56 1.2 Time of Prior to 1950s 7.04 15.6 construction After the 1950s 38.03 84.4 Appearance Well preserved heritage 1.55 3.4 sites Relatively good appearance 3.73 8.3 Ordinary traditional 1.91 4.2 building Harmonious modern 33.37 74.1 buildings Incongruent modern 4.51 10 buildings Total 45.07 100.0 Source Lhasa Barkor Street Preservation Plan, China Urban Planning and Designing Institute (comp.), 2004 210 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City specific goals were projected pertaining to implementing the Overall Development Plan and Barkor Area Preservation Plan. In addition to continuing improving the Old City infrastructure, repairing the dilapidated and “too dangerous to be live in” houses, protecting traditional and historic appearance also gained priority. In prac- tice, in the process of repairing vintage courtyards, great effort was made with respect to maintaining their original look; attempts were made with respect to developing some to become profitable businesses. The outcome of these experi- ments is generally positive, though, in developing old buildings for commercial use, more approaches remain to be conceived and tested. Between 2005 and 2007, under the stewardship of Chengguan District Urban Rural Construction and Environment Bureau, 26 Old City vintage courtyards with a total area of 3.96 km2 received repair and maintenance for over 50.82 million yuan. 4275 residents of the Old City belonging to 1088 households benefited from this project.62 When breaking down to specific years, in 2006, 11 vintage courtyards with a total surface exceeding 20 km2 were repaired. 1479 individuals of 389 households benefited. Between May and November 2007, with 16.77 million yuan funding, nine more courtyards were restored, namely: Lingkor East Number 39, Number 41 Courtyard, and Tromsikkhang, Tengyelling Yard, Langtong Yard, Janglo Khangchong Yard, Tsokyi Khangsar Yard, Wangten Penpa Yard, Ourong Yard— these nine vintage courtyardshad a collective footprint in excess of 19,500 m2. Over 209 households benefited from it.63 Between 1979 and 2007, within the borders of the Old City of Lhasa, 430,000 m264 of old buildings received repair and upgrade; among them, 289 vintage courtyards. Over 20,000 residents of 7000 households, benefited.65 By the end of the period, the vast majority of the vintage courtyards in the Old City area received repair or modification. In 2008, the national government earmarked 229 million yuan funding for the repair and modification of twelve vintage courtyards, namely Kabsho Nyingpa, Midron, Risurnub, Drokhang, Chagtsel Khang, Zholkhang South Yard, Zholkhang North Yard, Jangdra Lakhong, Gonsangtsi Yard, Chumig Khang and etc.66 The project, which involved 379 households, achieved its goal of improving internal structure and functionality. Part of the effort is to divide the courtyards into apartments of 40, 50, 60 and 80 m2, complete with tap water and drainage. Among the twelve courtyards, four had indoors toilets; all the dilapidated and “too

62Lhasa: Old City Residents Move to New Residence; Numbers Indicate New Changes, Tibetan News Online: www.tibet.news.cn, 2008-11-28. 63Lhasa: Old City District Maintenance Project Completed 10%, Tibetan Business News, 2007-06-19. 64Lhasa: Old City Residents Move to New Residence; Numbers Indicate New Changes, Tibetan News Online: www.tibet.news.cn, 2008-11-28. 65Lhasa: Old City District Maintenance Project Completed 10%, Tibetan Business News, 2007-06-19. 66China to Reform Qumikang and Other 11 Vintage Courtyards in the Old City of Lhasa, China Government Online: www.gov.cn, 2008-05-07. 7.3 Preservation and Modification of Old City Since the Peaceful Liberation 211 dangerous to live in” ones were repaired and maintained; beautification projects by adding flowering plants, lawn and flowerbeds were undertaken in six courtyards.67 In 2009, four million yuan was earmarked for installing pipelines, and improve road surface and road lamps.68 In 2010, five dilapidated buildings were either rebuilt or modified. Among them, there were Drag Khang in Tromsikkhang, Jayang Kyel, and Chogyel Bomtang. The Tromsikkhang project alone cost 16 million yuan, contributed by Chengguan District Urban-Rural Construction and Environmental Preservation Bureau. Between 2011 and 2013, repair work was undertaken to restore Shédra Courtyard, Samdrup Pozhang Courtyard and other vintage court- yards. Among all investors, Tibetan Autonomous Region accounted for 12 million yuan, which was used to restore Shédra Vintage Courtyards.69 Lack of harmony between buildings and surrounding environment and ageing facades were two long-lasting issues. To address these two issues, between November, 2009 and May, 2011, Lhasa Municipal Government earmarked a total of 55.67 million yuan and launched a three-phase program for enhancing street view in Dekyi Southern Road, Nyangre Southern Road, Lingkor North and Lingkor West, Lingkor East northern stretch, and Norbulingka Road and Beijing Middle Road—all told, 22 roads with a collective length of 33.07 km and 140,000 km2 of facades were involved in this program. All street-facing facades were repaired and repainted following the Tibetan tradition: crimson Benpa walls were laid on top of stone walls and murals were painted on the frames of doors and windows, all done in the traditional Tibetan style. Although modern materials were used in some cases, such as white fiberglass window frames, these windows also had traditional decorative patterns. Finally, great effort was made to maintain sanitation, which effectively enhanced the area’s appearance.70 c. 12th Five-Year Period During the 12th Five-Year period, awareness and effort in the Old City continued. Although since 1970s, the Old City of Lhasa went through several rounds of repairs, modifications and upgrades. Due to high population density, the limited scope of these projects, problems remained, in particular, crowdedness and frequent traffic congestion; insufficient capacities of electricity and water supply, waste discharge, firefighting, general public services; aging and dangerous power and communication cables; a waste of water due to incomplete water system and low water pressure. Insufficient drainage capacity and poorly designed pipeline net- works often led to water pooling. Pipelines used in the water discharge system of

67Lhasa to Invest Twenty Million to Repair Dilapidated Vintage Courtyards, Tibet Daily, China Tibet News Online: www.tibetnews.com, 2008-4-27. 68“Four Million Yuan Invested to the Old City’s Infrastructure”, Beijing Office of Lhasa Municipal Government: www.lasarep.gov.cn, 2009-02-02. 69Two Vintage Courtyards Set to Open at the End of the Month, from Tibetan Business News, and Qinghai Lake Online: http://www.amdotibet.com/html/2010-09/11474.html. 70“Lhasa to Retain the Tibetan-Style Buildings–Retrospect of Lhasa’s Transformation in Streetscapes”. China Tibet News Online: www.tibetnews.com, 2008-4-15. 212 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City

Beijing East Road and Jiangsu Road were of low capacity, often leading to con- gestion, spill, and pollution.71 A Lack of standardized signboards, gate plate, and other information display devices often confused tourists. Public sanitation facilities were in short, unstandardized in style and unreasonable in layout. To address these issues, between 2012 and 2013, a 1.5 billion yuan government- funded initiative was launched.72 This initiative covers the following areas: 1. Water discharge system upgrade; electrical supply network upgrade, including modification and standardization of electrical supply systems and installing household electricity gauges; comprehensive modification of power transmission system, involving burying exposed electricity wires and cables to alleviate safety hazard; replacing old electricity wires and cables; rectifying other unsafe practices; eliminating fire hazards by upgrading power supply network; eliminating “power theft”, replacing the aged equipment or components timely; installing more Fire extinguisher pumps; ensuring that fire escape passages remain uncluttered; instal- ling centralized electrical and natural gas-powered heating systems; increasing modern heating system adoption rate; installing measures to protect the Old City original appearance; protecting street-facing facades along Barkor, Yuthog Eastern Road, Beijing Eastern Road; ensure road lamps are stylistically congruent with the environment and eco-friendly; standardize billboards and other information display devices: design and produce standard public information display boards, tourist information display boards, as well as gate plates; improving environment clean- ness: install more garbage collection devices, processing centers and other facilities necessary to promote public sanitation; modify and demolish unlawful buildings, especially those built without proper papers, and those that has negative impact on historic buildings, heritage preservation and firesafety.73 In July 2013, the upgrade had been completed. As a result, further improvements were achieved as regards urban infrastructure, urban appearance and local residents’ living standards. For four decades, social awareness regarding the importance of protecting the Old City continued to improve. More and more resources were directed to pro- tecting the Old City, especially when concerning the repair and upgrade of resi- dences, roads, pipelines, and other infrastructure. Overall, the outcome is positive and in the process many valuable lessons were learned. However, problems per- sisted and mistakes were made. For example, the construction of Jokhang Square compromised the consistency the Barkor area’s appearance; the modification of some vintage courtyards diminished their historical value. By carefully studying these lessons, we can avoid them in future; meanwhile, more prudence should be applied to build a scientific process pertaining to decision-making regarding the preservation of the Old City.

71“Preservation Project of the Old City of Lhasa News Conference”, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: www.lasa.gov.cn, 2012-12-31. 72“A Special Report on 30 High Priority Projects in Lhasa”, Tibet Daily, 2013-5-29. 73“Preservation Project of the Old City of Lhasa News Conference”, Lhasa Municipal Government Online: www.lasa.gov.cn, 2012-12-31. 7.4 Institutional Construction Regarding the Preservation of Old City 213

7.4 Institutional Construction Regarding the Preservation of Old City

Effort to institutionalize heritage preservation in the Old City began in early 1960s, when the government promulgated the Cultural Heritage Preservation Accountability System. However, such effort didn’t receive priority until the 1990s.

7.4.1 Related TAR-Level Institutions

In 1959, at the behest of Tibet Work Committee, the Cultural Heritage Documents Archive Management Committee was established. In 1962, the first list of cultural heritage sites was announced. In 1965, following the establishment of the Tibetan Autonomous Region, the TAR Cultural Heritage Committee was established. In 1995, at the behest of TAR government, the TAR Cultural Artifact Affairs Administration was established in charge of protecting the Tibetan cultural heritage sites. Since 1990s, the Tibetan Autonomous Region-level legal and regulatory environment concerning cultural heritage preservation had matured considerably. On May 31, 1990, TAR People’s Congress passed the Tibet Autonomous Region Heritage Conservation Ordinance; in 1981, Decisions On Better Managing Cultural Relics and Artifacts was passed. In 1993, Additional Measures Regarding Cultural and Historical Artifacts Preservation was promulgated. In 1996 and 2007, a revision of the two documents was undertaken. In July, 2007, at the 32nd Session of the Standing Committee of the 8th TAR National People’s Congress, further review and revision were conducted on Tibet Autonomous Region Heritage Conservation Ordinance. As a result, some new clauses concerning historic urban quarters preservation were introduced, with emphasis on protecting cultural heritage-rich districts, area either with strong regional or ethnical characteristics or of significant historic value—including those that once played a role in the Revolution. After a joint-effort involved multiple-level governments, and cultural artifact bureaus in particular, a report was compiled; construction in the protected historic urban quarters was strictly restricted and subject to multiple-reviews by low-level government agencies and final approval by the TAR government. In March, 2012, the 27th Session of the Standing Committee of the 9th TAR National People’s Congress promulgated TAR Urban-rural Planning Ordinance. The Ordinance made it mandatory that all urban planning and subsequent imple- mentation should include clauses addressing preservation of historical and cultural heritage, projects with strong regional or ethnical characteristics, maintaining tra- ditional urban appearance and natural environment; it also stipulated that protected areas and buildings should be clearly defined with no ambiguity; land-use in the protected area should be strictly restricted; urban quarters, towns, and village son the preservation list need to conceive their own preservation plans; in the process of repairing dilapidated buildings, in case the building has high historic value or is part 214 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City of the protected urban quarters, towns or villages, permission from corresponding governments’ urban rural development departments and cultural heritage preser- vation departments are required; the original height, volume, overall external appearance and colors need to be maintained.

7.4.2 Development of Tibetan Autonomous Region’s Institutions

In 1990, a dedicated team of government officials, headed by the mayor of Lhasa, was formulated tasked with directing the Old City preservation effort. In the mid-1990s, several related protocols were promulgated, namely Lhasa Urban Planning Ordinance, Lhasa Municipal Facilities Management Ordinance, Lhasa Environmental Preservation Protocol and Lhasa Urban Housing Real Estate Administration Protocol. In September 1997, in order to ensure effectiveness of the repair of dilapidated buildings, another leader group was formed, headed also by the city’s mayor. The members include nine senior government officials in related government agencies. Since 2000, Lhasa City further stepped up the historic and urban quarters preservation effort, especially through formalization and institutionalization of procedures. As a result, preservation and upgrade of historic and urban quarters became more specifically outlined in the urban plans. As part of the effort to strengthen preservation, development and administration in the Old City, as well as reinforcing Lhasa’s status as a Historically Famous City, in October 2000, Lhasa Municipal Government promulgated the 14th Ordinance, aka the Provisionary Ordinance On Better Protecting the Old City of Lhasa. Subsequently an adapted version of the 14th Ordinance was released in November 2010, in the form of the 33rd Ordinance. The two Ordinances are two ground- breaking pieces that laid the regulatory foundation for the preservation and administration of the Old City; it clearly defined the areas of responsibility for all related government agencies and requirements pertaining to new constructions and modification of existent ones in the area. A new principle, summarized as “effective preservation, reasonable utilization, strong administration and maintaining historic appearance”, was implemented. According to the Ordinances, new buildings must be built in ways consistent with the traditional style and the city’s overall historic appearance; demolition was carried out progressively to remove buildings that failed to meet the said requirements. In the process of repairing vintage buildings, original structures and appearance were to be maintained. A number of ways were proposed to encourage economic and cultural activities in the Old City, including incentivizing development of new industries, such as museums, tourism, especially culture-themed tourism. In addition, production of traditional handcraft, folk art and tourist souvenir production, and hospitality industries catering to tourists, human-powered commute vehicles, traditional Tibetan entertainment and perfor- mance art, and retail of traditional handcraft products, etc. In addition, Chengguan 7.4 Institutional Construction Regarding the Preservation of Old City 215

District Government also demanded strengthening residence registration in the Old City region. Measures were proposed to facilitate entities and residents to relocate to the New City to reduce the population pressure in the Old City. In October, 2001, TAR government passed the Lhasa Urban Planning Protocol. The Protocol includes some specific stipulations pertaining to urban development planning. It covers a wide range of areas from specifics regarding new urban area development, Old City upgrade, implementation of urban development plans, to clauses assigning legal liabilities. The Protocol proposed some guidelines including “repair taking precedence over rebuilding” and a “holistic and systematic approach”, “maintenance first, reasonable commercialization, adjusting structure and gradual improvement”, “inherit, protect, and uphold the tradition of the his- torically famous city, urban layout, architectural style, and garden building art. The Protocol then listed a number of areas where effort should be made, including: transportation, communication, electricity supply, firefighting capacity, water supply/discharge capacity other public facilities and environment preservation. When it comes to old buildings, the Protocol insisted on balance between preser- vation and modification and that repair should be the most common approach. In addition, unplanned buildings were to be strictly restricted in order to maintain the city’s historic appearance; in areas where buildings were of generally low quality, and concentration level of dilapidated buildings high, road system was backward, modification and rebuilding were to be carried out progressively. Industrial enter- prises or warehouses where combustible, explosives and toxic materials or other hazardous materials were stored were to undertake risk-mitigating measures and depending on the outcome of these measures, those that failed to reach the stan- dards would be closed or relocated elsewhere. Effort was to be made to relocate the population to the New City area. The protected area are to be clearly defined with no ambiguity; holistic measures should be applied in protecting vernacular resi- dences and local tradition, the standards pertaining to the heights, sizes, style, and colors are to be specified. The Protocol is a complete legal document on urban development planning and management; it provided good guidance to the Old City preservation and modification at the turn of the century. In August 2007, to strengthen and increase standardization of planning and administration in the process of urban development, the municipal government promulgated Specifics on Lhasa Urban Planning Implementation. The Specifics demanded responsible government agencies to compile a detailed plan pertaining to the development of tourist areas and historic and cultural urban quarters. According to the Specifics, such plans, once approved, will be executed with full rigor; no government agencies or individuals should overrule the Specifics without going through proper procedures; the locations and layouts of new constructions must be in compliance with overall urban development plan when it comes to land use, development strategies, and standards - for instance, it stipulated that plans were to be submitted to related government agencies for approval before new buildings, modifications or other construction in a “restricted areas, or historic urban quarters” were to be carried out. The Specifics provided guidelines pertaining to maintaining high standards in urban development planning and execution, and played an active 216 7 New Construction and Preservation Efforts in the Old City role in guiding the development of the Old City, preserving the authority of the government regulation and laws and protecting the historical appearance of the Old City. In August, 2005, the Lhasa government released “Suggestions on Further Strengthening Potala Palace Square and Surrounding Areas’ Management Standardization”. The Suggestions mainly address issues faced in the process of the development of the Potala Square and surrounding areas by further reiterating that all developments in the area should be in compliance with World Cultural Heritage Preservation Protocol and Lhasa District Historical Cultural Famous City Preservation Plan; regular inspections were to be carried out regularly to ensure enforcement of regulatory policies; effort were also to be undertaken with respect to maintaining the aesthetic harmony between the Square Area and the Potala Palace Area by maintaining building styles and overall atmosphere. In addition, the Lhasa Master Plan clarified the role of the Square area in the city’s overall development plan and emphasized that a holistic approach should continue to be stuck with and the measures should be in adherence to the city-level urban development plans; unplanned construction were to be strictly banned in the Square area. In 2012, Barkor Old City Administration Committee was established under the Lhasa municipal government, and became the top government body responsible for security, environmental preservation, migrant population management, market order maintenance and other urban development-related regulation in the Old City. In May 2013, the municipal government released the draft version of the Lhasa City’s Barkor Old City Preservation and Preservation Protocol. The draft Protocol represented codification of the original Provisionary Method into a local-level law. This development had made a positive impact on the Old City preservation. Overall, starting 1980s, Lhasa’s reputation as a Historic and Cultural Famous City continued, which further promoted the city’s cultural and historic urban quarters preservation institution-building and system reform.

References

Che, Nianguo. 1987. Urban Construction of Lhasa. In China Building Almanac 1986–1987, ed. Nianguo Che, and Shenzhu Yang, 306–307. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Chen, Jiguang (ed.). 1999. Glorious History—Transformation of Lhasa over Four Decades (1959–1999). Lhasa: Publicity Department of Lhasa Municipal Committee of the CPC. China City Atlas Editorial Office. 1994. China City Atlas, vol. II. SinoMap Press. Compilation Committee of Lhasa Local Chronicles. 2007. Lhasa Chronicle I & II. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Dhondup, Lobsang. 1997. The Contemporary Development of Lhasa. China Tibetology 1997(3): 3–6. Dorje, Trinle, and Haijiao Tang. 2008. Reform and Opening-up, Brings Harmonious and Rapid Development in Chengguan—Review of the Three-decade Reform in Lhasa Chengguan. Tibet Daily, 25 Nov 2008. Fu, Chonglan (ed.). 1994. History of Lhasa. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press. References 217

Jiangcun, Luosang. 2001. The Old City of Lhasa Should Receive Effective Maintenance and Preservation. China News Online: http://www.chinanews.com. Accessed 10 May 2001. Larsen, Knud, and Amund Sinding-Larsen. 2005. Lhasa Historical Urban Altas Collection: Traditional Tibetan Architecture and Urban Appearance, trans. Ge Li, and Munyak Chokyi Gyentsen, 15. Beijing: China Architecture & Building Press. Lhasa Municipal Government. 2001. Lhasa’s Main Achievements during the Ninth Five-Year Plan Period. People’s Daily (Overseas Edition). http://paper.people.com.cn/rmrb/html/2017-03/08/ nbs.D110000renmrb_01.htm. Accessed 25 June 2001. Li, Wenhua. 1994. Retrospect of the Urban Development of the Old City of Lhasa. In Yearbook of China’s Cities, ed. Liu Guoguang, 604–605. Li, Liangqi. 2012. Lhasa Barkor Street Vintage Courtyard Status. Chinese Culture, 8 Mar 2012. Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (chief ed.), and Local Chronicles Compilation Committee of Chengguan District, Lhasa, Tibet (ed.). 2010. Lhasa Chengguan District Chronicle. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Spengler, Oswald, Chunsheng Zhu, and Guilong Lei. 2008. The Changes of Lhasa (1994–2004). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press. Tseten, Dorje, and Norbu Gyaincain (eds.). 2002. Tibet’s Economic History, vol. 2, 2nd ed. Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing House. Tsidor. 2004. The Modification of Dilapidated Houses in the Old City of Lhasa. China’s Tibet 2004(4): 4–8. Wang, Yongping (ed.). 2005. Architecture Cultural Heritage in Lhasa, 20. Nanjing: Southeast University Press. Wei, Jin. 2000. Survey Report on the Benefits of Aid Tibet Projects. China Tibetology 2000(3). Yangdzom, Tsering. 1995. Lhasa Urban Construction: History and Reality. China’s Tibet 1995(5): 10–12. Zhang, Chunrong, Dingxian Liu, and Ru Ma. 1991. Beautiful and Intriguing Holy City—A Review of Lhasa’s Achievement over the Past Four Decades. In Lhasa in Progress. Lhasa Evening News Press. Chapter 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

The far removed that we are from the city’s formative days, the more valuable the historic buildings become. Five thousands years of history left us with many legacies but well-preserved buildings are few. It is unavoidable to see new damages in future. For today’s people who want to learn about early urban civilization and appreciate its relics, the window of opportunities is diminishing. Natural environ- ment, dynasty rises and falls and social changes, all affect historical relics and legacies; some damages are irreversible. Since 1930s onwards, a series of initiatives were carried out internationally to improve the public awareness about preservation of historic and cultural heritage and, in particular, historic and cultural urban quarters. After 1960s, public attitude towards cultural heritage preservation grew mature. With urban administrators’ experience expanding, efforts are becoming more diversified. In general, the focus has shifted from individual projects to a more systematic overall approach. Attention is paid increasingly on surrounding areas; meanwhile, effort continues to be made to foster a mutual-beneficial relationship between social economic development and culture-related industries’ development as well as explore new ways of cultural heritage preservation. In the recent two to three decades, China learned some hard lessons from its experience in its preservation and development. From these lessons, we can formulate methods and directions regarding Lhasa’s preservation and development.

8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa

In the post-Peaceful Liberation era, 0ld City preservation and development mainly focus on three areas:

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 219 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8_8 220 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

i. Redistribution of confiscated properties. Following Democratization Reform, houses previously owned by aristocracy were taken into state properties. The majority of them were modified into residential buildings or dorms to accom- modate government or SOE employees. Some were reopened as shops. ii. Infrastructure upgrade, mainly water supply/waste water discharge, electricity transmission systems, road lamps, public sanitation facilities, electrical cables, road networks, and other infrastructure improvement. iii. Repairing the dilapidated houses. Through structural reinforcement, repair, functionality modernization and rebuilding, these houses were brought back to sound shape. Such efforts were intended to address urgent problems and most achieved positive outcome: Environmental quality improved, causes of hazards mitigated, levels of comfort and convenience grew, living standards raised, new jobs created, material and spiritual needs met. Meanwhile, they also facilitated the New City development by introducing many new pubic service and commercial facilities. However, excessive emphasis on pragmatism had its shortcomings, such as damage to historic heritage and change of historical original appearance in the Old City. Some alleyways and courtyards were seriously damaged in the process.

8.1.1 Multiple Problems in the Process of the Old City Preservation and Reform

One challenge that Old Building preservation faced is ageing and functional obsoletion. As buildings become old, materials degrade, parts disintegrated, structure become less rigid, and maintenance became increasingly difficult. Oftentimes, old buildings, due to limitations in structure, functionality, appearance, design, quality and location, can no longer meet new demands; some doesn’t have enough value to be allowed to continue to exist. This can only grow with time. In Lhasa government’s decades-long preservation and modification effort, we can see the same patterns at play. i. Until mid-1980s, Lhasa’s Old City’s alleyways remained intact. In the early 1980s, a plan to build Johkang Square was proposed and incorporated into the government’s urban development plan. When the project was completed in mid-1980s some traditional buildings to the west of Jokhang were demolished; the layout of Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters was irreversibly changed. In the recent two decades, more demolitions introduced further changes to the historic appearance of the area. ii. In history, Lhasa’s population concentrated in the Old City. As population kept growing, the urban administrators were under constant pressure to pro- vide more living space. After the Peaceful Liberation, confiscated aristocrats’ properties were distributed among locals to alleviate this problem. In some 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the … 221

cases, multiple courtyards were integrated; some had expansions. Although this approach effectively increased living space and provided new homes, it was often done at the expenses of the buildings’ original shape and the neighborhoods’ atmosphere. Due to cost-control reasons, quality and func- tionality were not prioritized; lack of proper management and administration process means such preservation was often carried out with minimal sys- tematic thinking. According to Danish architecture scholar Knud Larson, between 1994 and 1999, the number of historic buildings in the Old City had reduced from 330 to 70. Many were demolished without any traces. Larson admitted that new buildings built in the 1980s and 1990s was efficient in providing the much-needed living space, the higher building density and reduced public space contravened their purpose. He concluded that it was a matter of con- tention how much the living conditions have improved. Due to cost-related reasons, low-quality materials were often used. Larson even alarmed that the upgrade of the Old City during the 1990s ran great risk of “ghetto” the area.1 The map below shows the distribution of buildings in the Old City of Lhasa in the late 1990s. The colored area was built prior to the 1950s; the deep brown was under government preservation. The light brown area represents buildings demolished between 1994 and 2004. One can see that during the decade after mid-1990s, to the north and east of Barkor, to the south of Barkor South and to the north of Beijing East Road, many traditional buildings disappeared. The uncolored buildings were built after 1950 and we can see that they represent the vast majority of buildings, a fact that underlines the decline of overall historic and cultural value of the Old City (Fig. 8.1). iii. Traditional craftsmanship and materials often give way to modern ones. In many cases, original materials or craftsmanship were not stuck to; sometimes even the exterior failed to maintain traditional look. Although new technology is more efficient in providing living space, from the perspective of historic and cultural preservation, this often causes great loss of value. In some cases, while traditional characteristics were retained, they were misused. Examples include the use of components such as a construction Dougong and Door Frames. Traditionally, Dougong was used to indicate social status. In modern times, old rules were often ignored. Some buildings had Dougong on both sides of bathroom doors—which would have been inconceivable from a traditional point of view. Another is some decorative devices traditionally reserved for monasteries now find their ways into civilian residential buildings, such as the Cloud and Auspicious Animals patterns appearing on buildings’ exterior walls.2

1Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, pp. 152–154). 2Liu and Liang (2009). 222 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

Fig. 8.1 1994–2004 Surveyed, protected and damaged buildings in the Old City of Lhasa. Source Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 152)

Several factors contributed to this phenomenon: i. Pragmatism. Urban administrators were under great pressure to upgrade old infrastructure and provide living space to cope with growing population. This contributed to the haste in the modification of old buildings. Many traditional buildings were demolished and replaced by brand new ones. New buildings are often taller and have more storeies. While this may be efficient in providing living space, it has also done much damage to the historic buildings and the district’s appearance. ii. Low awareness of the city’s unique character and superficial understanding of modernization. This often leads to lack of recognition and appreciation of the Old City’s historic and cultural value and excessive tendency to model Lhasa’s development on the inland Chinese cities. Fortunately, in recent years, this tendency was rectified to a great extent. iii. Insufficient effort in institution-building with regards to guiding and supervising the policy-making process, the approach lacks in democracy and scientificness, an effective accountability mechanism remains to be lacking, more effort is needed to increase public involvement and implementation. All these con- tributed to violation of regulations and less-than-ideal implementations, such as radical change from the original appearance in some streets and alleyways. 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the … 223 iv. Imbalance between preservation and development. Master Planning and sys- tematic study were still in short supply, which is especially manifest in developing characteristic industries. There hadn’t been any effective ways to determine which industries should be given priority. The decision-making process is neither democratic nor scientific.

8.1.2 Some Specific Cases

8.1.2.1 Shide Ling and Shenli Times Shopping Mall: How to Choose Between Culture and Business Interest

Shide Ling was one of the four Ling Monasteries in Lhasa. Aside from being Monasteries, they also serve as residences of four prominent Living Buddhas. Shide Ling, for example, is owned by the Reting Tulkus. The other three, Kunde Ling, Tengyel Ling and Tsomon Ling were properties owned by Jihou Tulku, Tsomon Tulku and Demo Tulku. Unlike regular Tulkus, these four were held with such high esteem that the young Dalai Lamas’ regents were often chosen among them. Shide Ling is situated to the southwest of Romoche. It is currently under TAR-level preservation. With a footprint of 6200 square meters, this building includes a prayer hall, Buddha Hall, monk dormitory, kitchen, and warehouses. The main building is three-story tall with a two-story gallery. It is well-designed and fairly large in size. However, long-time neglect has reduced it to a state of dilapidation. First built in the early 9th century AD, Shide Ling was one of the six major monasteries in Lhasa built in the reign of Tridé Tsuktsen. Originally it was a school institution with only four monks. In the mid-9th century, amidst a new round of anti-Buddhist campaign ordered by Langdarma, the monastery ceased to exist after demolition. Between 1239 and 1250, with help from the head of Tselpa Myriarchy, it was rebuilt. The number of monks in residence increased to 20. It was around this time that the new system was implemented requiring civilians to pay levies to monasteries.3 In the mid-19th century, during the lifetime of the 2nd Reting Tulku, Shide Ling changed its subscription from Nyingma to tradition, becoming a subsidiary of the Reting Monastery. Overseen by the Reting Tulku, Shide Ling went through repairs and expansions and was renamed Nyingshi Gonpa (Monastery of Goodness) by Taoguang Emperor of Qing China. The 3rd Reting Tulku was the regent of two Dalai Lamas—that of the 11th Dalai and the 12th. His rebirth was endorsed by the Emperor Xianfen of Qing Dynasty. During the lifetime of the Tulku, Shide Ling experienced constant expansion until 1855, when it assumed its final size and received a new name Xu Zan Zong Yuan—

3Wang (2005), Cultural Relics Management Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (1985). 224 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development in Chinese, these four characters mean Source of True Faith. Afterwards, the monastery became stabilized and became most-recognized one of The Four. In 1862, amidst the conflict between the 3rd Reting Tulku with the Abbot of Deprong Monastery, Shide Ling received serious damage. Reting Tulku went to Beijing to appeal to the Qing emperor, but instead of ruling in his favor, the emperor stripped the Tulku’s title instead.4 In 1935, when the 5th Reting Tulku was in power, Shide Ling was restored and expanded. Some new buildings were added to the existing structure.5 The 5th Reting Tulku was an influential political figure. In 1933, after 13th Dalai Lama died, the Tulku, 22-year-old, assumed Regency. During his tenure, he actively sought to forge a strong relationship with the central Chinese government and weaken the power of the pro-British clique. One example is that he resisted the British’s attempt to establish schools in Lhasa. In 1943, he was elected member of the KMT Central Committee (on probation). In 1940, he was forced to give up his regency after losing his fight with the pro-British clique. His successor, Regent Tadrag, was supportive of Tibet independence and actively engaged in separation activities. In 1947, the Reting Tulku was murdered in prison. Today, the Reting Tulku title had been passed to its 7th incarnation. As of time of writing, the 7th Reting Tulku hasn’t yet finished his Buddhism education at the Sera Monastery. However, Shide Ling, his conventional seat, is in a dilapidated state. Currently, the southwestern part of the Prayer Hall had collapsed. The buildings attached to the west side of the compound had been demolished. There is a stone signboard reminding visitors that this place is under TAR-level preservation. Not too far to its west side, near the intersection between Beijing Middle Road and Dosengge Road, stood a modern shopping mall called Shenli Times Center. The mall is conspicuous with its modern glassy facades, contrasting sharply against the shabbiness of Shide Ling. Almost twenty years after the monastery was put under preservation, the government had yet repaired and provided it with any preserva- tion, a sharp contrast to the prosperity of the area (Figs. 8.2 and 8.3). In 1994, Danish architecture scholar Knud Larson studied the much-ruined Shide Ling. Despite its dilapidated state, the building left the Danish scholar with a profound impression, “The intricately-decorated main building had collapsed, yet the artistic achievement can still be seen from the remaining murals and patterns. Even in its dilapidated state, it can still help scholars to study traditional building craft.”6 Shide Ling and Shenli Time Square are both within the Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters outlined by the Master Plan for the Development of Lhasa (2009–2020). In this district, building heights are restricted; original urban appearance and old buildings are under preservation and periodic repairs are mandatory. Situated in a strategic location between Potala Palace and Jokhang, near

4Cultural Relics Management Committee of Tibet Autonomous Region (1985). 5Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 138). 6Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 138). 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the … 225

Fig. 8.2 Shide Ling partially collapsed (Li Qing 2010-12-04)

Fig. 8.3 The Shenli Times Square (in the Old City) under construction (Li Qing 2012-6-15) the mid-point of the Barkor West, the Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters is an integral part of the Old City cityscape. Here, all new buildings must be considered carefully—systematic thinking and rigorous implementation are both vital. In 2013, construction of the Shopping Mall was completed and it began to see shoppers. The contrast between modern shopping mall and the Shide Ling was 226 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development rather jarring and begs the question: What should be the focus in Lhasa’s urban development? How to build and where to build? How to implement the preserva- tion measures? What are the most important values of the Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters aka Old City? One frequently asked question is whether Shenli Times Square Shopping Mall is a good choice for this district. To answer the question, we need to look at its surroundings. The Shopping Mall is near the intersection between Beijing Middle Road and Dosengge Road. Before the Shopping Mall, on this site, there was Lhasa Construction Bureau, a fairly modern building. In fact, most buildings along Dosengge and Beijing Mid Road were built in the recent decades and Dosengge Road was itself a newly modified clothing shopping street. Overall, prior to the construction of Shenli Time Square, traditional characteristics are not strong in this area, despite a few Tibetan style street-facing facades. Beijing East Road, which in the middle of Johkang and Romoche and a major East-West Avenue in Lhasa, is also the border that divide the southern part and northern part of Lhasa. However, the street-facing buildings, aside from Moru Monastery, Lower Tantric College and Phunkhang Courtyard, the majority of the buildings are new ones. Given the above-listed reasons, there is no reason that new projects, assuming everything having met the government requirements, should not be allowed. The major goal of Shenli Times Square was to create a source of revenue for the government through land rent and commercial activities as well as boosting local land use prices. However, question remains that placing a modern shopping mall in an protected area would diminish opportunities of projects that are potentially more suitable for the area’s overall atmosphere and to a great extent, detrimental to the development of Old City cultural tourism and characteristic industry. From a city-level perspective, this created completion between the Old City and the New City, an area that is better suited for this kind of facilities. What kind of impact did Shenli Times Square have on the Old City? Here are some of the more obvious ones: i. Change to HCUQ’s appearance and overall atmosphere. Although Shenli Times Square’s height is within the restrictions, it was still much larger than typical traditional buildings in the area; in its construction, modern technology and materials were widely used, resultant in lack of harmony with surrounding environment; ii. Large amount of population and automobiles were attracted, increasing the traffic in surrounding areas, especially in the shopping area around Dosengge Road, Yuthog Road and Beijing East Road. iii. There is an oversupply of similar facilities in the area and this shopping mall only makes it worse. There were already a few upscale urban shopping centers along the Yuthog Road. Given Lhasa’s population, it may be the case that supply has exceeded demand, though to answer such a question more accu- rately may mandate further study that is beyond the scope of this book (Figs. 8.4 and 8.5). 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the … 227

Fig. 8.4 Barkor South Nyizang Trinpo Shopping Mall (Li Qing 2009-7-5)

Fig. 8.5 Tengyelling Road Newly-built Dawa Ethnic Handcraft Products Shop (Li Qing 2013-5-22)

Given the above, how do we judge the relative value of different aspects and parts in the HCUQ, which is vital for making a sound preservation plan. Is having a modern shopping mall more important than maintaining the original appearance of the area? How to decide the optimal location for commercial project such as Shenli Times Square? How we answer these questions shows our legal of cultural awareness and understanding. 228 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

8.1.2.2 New Shopping Malls: Business Ecosystem and Old City Structure

In recent years, there emerged a specialty market in Barkor area. For example, the Tangka paintings market on Barkor North; the traditional art market on the eastern end of Barkor East, Nyizang Trinpo Market on the Barkor South, and Namse Market on the Lubug Number One Alleyway to the West of Barkor South, Dawa Ethinical Handcraft Shops along Tengyel Ling Road to the Northwest of Jokhang Square. In addition to these markets, there were also several stores, all fairly large, such as Minzu World Market on Yuthog Road mainly deals Tibetan and imported South Asian handcrafts and ethnical apparel. Some stores and markets were newly built using new materials and new method; lack of consideration in maintaining harmony with surrounding appearance and architectural style is obvious. With all these new buildings, one inevitable question is: First, what impact do these buildings have on Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters? The answer is that: i. New buildings tend to be larger than traditional ones in volume and footprint. Neither does the internal structure bear much similarity with traditional ones. Aside from large sizes, overall, the exterior is in great harmony with the appearance of the Old City; ii. Some new buildings, despite their use of modern materials and methods, also used Tibetan decorative patterns. But the traditional decoration motifs, Benpar are often misused that is inconsistent with tradition. This is especially true in Barkor area, where traditional buildings concentrated, and had certain negative effect. Second, what impact do the shopping malls have on the area’s business ecosystem and the overall atmosphere? Historically, Barkor was a shopping area. Here large numbers of businesses concentrated. Many specialty shops were inside residential buildings. As a result, they were relatively small. This closeness between shoppers and shop owners contributed to a personal and lively shopping experience, part of the charm of the Barkor area. In comparison, while large shopping malls had more merchandise and attracted large number of customers, they had great impact on the traditional business atmosphere and often lacked the traditional charm, thus detrimental to tourists’ perception and experience. However, to gauge the impact accurately require studies that is beyond the scope of this book.

8.1.2.3 Tromsikkhang and Tromsikkhang Market: Modern Convenience and Traditional Appearance

In 2000, after visiting Tromsikkhang Market along Tromsikkhang Road, Danish architectural scholar Knud Larson, an architecture scholar known for his dedicated study of the Old City of Lhasa, wrote: 8.1 Multiple Issues Related to the Preservation and Development of the … 229

Fig. 8.6 Buildings within the Tromsikkhang Alleyway after the Demolition (Li Qing 2011-5-7)

“This market was built around 1990… Prior to its construction, there was a fresh produce market… another rather tasteless modern building. A few years ago, the market was destroyed in a fire. Afterwards, it was repaired and restored. Even though the restoration work was conducted with great care, it still doesn’t blend into the general atmosphere. This doesn’t mean that all modern buildings are not suit- able for Lhasa, and some modern ones did very well. But the proportion and speed should be within control, so is choice of materials, to make these buildings coexist better with the surrounding environment.”7 In recent years, some old alleyways experienced radical changes. Tromsikkhang Alleyway is an example. The Alleyway was right next to Barkor. Today, most street-facing buildings are newly built and not always in the traditional style. Most street-facing shops sell food, kitchenware, and other groceries, their customers are local residents. One particular market, one called Tromsikkhang Market, is situated close to the upper end of Tromsikkhang Alleyway, and mainly deals agricultural products. In recent years, the market had its exterior repaired and renovated, but the Tibetan traditional building characteristics remained missing. Its large size made this building rather conspicuous in the area (Fig. 8.6). As for Tromsikkhang and other Old City residential areas and pedestrian streets that mainly serve local life needs, some questions remain to be answered: First, while we have to admit that businesses serving local life needs are essential part of the Old City, given the limited land shortage in Old City, construction height

7Larsen and Sinding-Larsen (2005, p. 159). 230 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development control and appearance maintenance requirements, more consideration should be given when choosing their sizes and locations. While in principle new buildings should not be strictly banned, they should be added in a controlled and planned manner. In this regard, Tromsikkhang’s modi- fication project, which saw original buildings replaced by brand new one should be seen as a breach of the guideline. Given the circumstances, the government should have considered alternatives such as relocating the produce market to surrounding area, or meet the residents’ demand with smaller shops distributed among the alleyways. In fact, the current produce market not only negatively affected the Old City’s cityscape, but also contributed the traffic congestion. This led to the next question: How should we amend damages that had already been done? First, through decorative work on street-facing facades, it is possible to restore the buildings’ traditional appearance while minimize the change to the buildings’ structure. Great care should be applied to significant public-facing components, such as door and window frames. Second, it may be suggested that the current Tromsikkhang Market be demol- ished. Had that occured, lessons should be learned from it in building new con- struction in that area in terms of maintaining historic appearance and traditional style.

8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa

Through decades of international historical heritage preservation, one trend is manifest, which is that the priority has shifted from individual projects to systemic and overall preservation of the entire neighborhood or towns; it also shifted from tangible items to intangible ones such as traditional craftsmanship and customs. Starting in mid-1980s, historical heritage preservation gradually became more integrated into urban social and economic structure. For instance, historical heritage preservation was included in the regional social economic development plan, urban development plan and urban construction plan—preservation became a part of the city’s organic development. The attitude towards historical urban quarters has changed from simplistic one-size-fit-all approach to one that emphasizes utilization and commercialization depending on the area’s inherent characteristics. People also noticed that: “When people’s focus shifted from important buildings to entire town or city or neighbourhood, then questions pertaining to functionality became more prominent”8. By prolonging the life of historic buildings, which embodied valuable information about a bygone era, we can pass all the wisdom that went into it to

8Heath et al. (2006, p. 4). 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the … 231 generations to come.9 Thus historical cultural heritage shouldn’t be seen as irrel- evant relics in today’s life, rather, they should be treated as integral part of urban life, and measures should be taken to develop them along with the city rather than be in the way of the later. Given the global trend, in the future, Lhasa’s historical cultural heritage preservation administrators should expand their horizon and adopt a holistic and coordinated view regarding making preservation and development plans. While effort should continue to be directed to protecting traditional buildings, a dynamic, coordinated and positively interactive relationship between development and preservation should focus on the following areas: i. Developing a holistic view. Prudence and a scientific attitude are vital in the process of preserving historic information and cultural value as well as the traditional appearance of the historic and cultural urban quarters. While preservation of material heritage should be strengthened, effort should also be extended to protecting the intangible ones, and corresponding measures should be taken. ii. Characteristic development. More effort should go to discovering the con- temporary relevance of historical cultural heritage preservation and finding new ways to leverage cultural heritage to make the city’s unique character more pronounced. This extends to the decisions pertaining to its urban structure and functionality, overall competitiveness, appearance, and the relationship between historic heritage preservation and urban modernization. iii. Scientific management. Strengthen administration of the Old City and form an effective mechanism of Old City preservation through administrational and technological means. Build an information database to store information; strengthen the legislation; continue guiding the public opinion and compre- hensive planning and research effort.

8.2.1 Basic Principles in the Preservation and Development of the Old City of Lhasa

8.2.1.1 Planning Guidance, Scientific Management and Overall Coordination

Since Reform and Opening-up, especially since 1982, when Lhasa was listed as China’s first batch of historical cultural famous cities, Old City’s historic and cultural value received more recognition and became more and more a factor behind decisions pertaining to the city’s character and overall development; to

9[Japanese] Nishimura (2007). 232 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development implement these decisions, the Lhasa government made a series of laws and reg- ulatory policies. In recent two to three decades, the Old City’s regional and ethnic characteristics had become manifest. Old City regional functionality and development direction became increasingly clear. In terms of residential buildings and infrastructure upgrade, great progress was made, while social economic development had achieved substantial progress. In the future, the emphasis will shift more towards planning. More effort will be directed to refining preservation and development planning. Implementation of urban development plans and Old City preservation plans will be prioritized while the principle of holistic preservation will be upheld in heritage preservation be the material ones or non-material ones. Maintaining authenticity of historic buildings and protecting urban historic appearance will be two other priorities. In addition, attention should also be paid to encourage sustainable lifestyle, and coordinate the relationship between Old City and New One, Old City preservation and overall urban social economic development.

8.2.1.2 Overall Preservation, Organic Renewal and Characteristic Development

Ever since mid-1990s, Lhasa government had formed a set of guidelines in relation to Old City preservation. A three-level preservation system was formulated. Going forward, the spirit systematic thinking should continue to be upheld in the preservation work. Specifically, the heritage items should be indexed; old buildings, historic and cultural neighborhoods should continue to receive priority as they have been. A holistic approach will be emphasized when it comes to developing char- acteristic industries. Modification will be conducted in a methodological and orderly manner; the Old City’s preservation and renewal will be undertaken in a specific, organic and targeted manner. Effort should be made to reconcile preser- vation and economic—social development, urban construction and renewal plan; new ways will be conceived to leverage the Old City’s historic-cultural resources to develop characteristic industries, as well as improve residents’ living conditions through developing such characteristic industries and promote a balanced rela- tionship between economic and social development, to achieve sustained, charac- teristic and competitive development.

8.2.2 Ensure Holistic Preservation View

The historical and cultural urban quarters are precious not only because of their aesthetic, cultural value but also their practical and functional utility as they provide for locals, materially and spiritually, on daily basis. Therefore a city should develop 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the … 233 its historical and cultural urban quarters in ways not only consistent to its cultural , but also to its economic wellbeing. The existence of the historical and cultural urban quarters meet locals’ profund spiritual and aesthetic needs “The Old City demonstrates human dimensions, namely humane design, care, handcraft—its level of fineness and diversity is something that modern machine-manufactured buildings can’t match. The later can only excel in one thing—size.”10 Thus for the Old City preservation, not only should we protect and preserve the tangible historical cultural heritage, but also protect the general atmosphere, rational taste and other intangible heritage, the traditional handcraft, the traditional customs and others, to completely preserve the diversity of these cultural treasures. In the future, the city should step up effort in the following areas: First, a robust and multi-level urban historical heritage preservation system should be built. Since mid-1990s, in Lhasa’s urban planning, the city preservation system had been thoroughly discussed. This led to the establishment of a three-level system: cultural heritage artifact preservation, historical and cultural urban quarters’ preservation, and city overall preservation. The three-level system was later increased to four-level—cultural heritage items, historical and cultural urban quarters preservation, city, and preservation of surrounding areas. In the future, effort will continue to be made carrying out national and TAR level regulatory policies, strengthening planning, management, assessment, implementation, and preservation. Through these efforts, we expect to continue promoting Barkor Historic and Cultural Urban Quarters, and borrowing experience of foreign coun- tries in protecting and utilizing historical famous cities, and constantly improving preservation system. Second, a comprehensive preservation system to protect material and non-material cultural heritage is in need. Specifically, this includes: i. Systematically investigate, collect and study material and non-material cultural heritage resources, uphold the principle of “holistic preservation” and “preservation takes priority”; be specific and targeted when treating different kinds of cultural heritage items and develop a repertoire of different protective methods; ii. Strengthen policy-making in relation to cultural heritage preservation. Build non-material cultural heritage “habitats” and incentivize private sector involvement in investing in museums and other venues to enhance public awareness; government will continue to provide funding, space and other necessary means to incentivize public participation in the process; to encourage companies and organizations to engage in research, production and propagation with respect to non-material cultural heritage; cultivate and train skilled pro- fessionals; Protect and restore traditional place names, alleyways and road names; original names shouldn’t be changed without proper process and deliberation.

10Heath et al. (2006, p. 12). 234 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

Third, it’s essential to optimize the renewal and utilization approaches of the Old City. The methodology of developed countries falls into two categories—One, represented by France, Italy, UK and Japan, focus on preservation of entire neighborhoods. This model has a extensive scope, and governments often take leading role; through legislation, systematic planning and investment, the residents’ living quality and neighborhood environment are maintained at high level.11 Also through favorable policies, private sector was motivated to participate in the pro- cess. The second, represented by the US, Canada, Australia, focus only on large public architecture pieces with symbolic meanings. They tend to rely on the market force. Organizations and individuals implement preservation plans or projects; the government is only responsible for making laws and providing favorable policies, and supervising preservation. Commercial development is more common, though many are also developed for public education.12 Based on the conditions of Lhasa, there are some suggestions with respect to urban renewal and development: i. Uphold “Government Leads, Entire Society Participate” principle. Learn from the Category One countries’ approaches; regulate commercial activities; draw lessons from past experience. Use small-scale, gradual and courtyard-by- courtyard individualized approach when it comes to repair and renewal; avoid large-scale demolition and rebuilding. ii. Experiment with multiple approaches, explore and encourage private sector and public participation in policy-making in relation to urban planning and preservation; systematize historical buildings’ long-term repair, experiment with news ways to encourage private sector to invest and otherwise involved in old buildings development and preservation; to explore ways to develop tra- ditional buildings for public or business purposes. iii. Balance between traditional craft and modern technology. Apply traditional building technology when possible. Find an optimal percentage between “de- veloping old building as residential space” and other uses—the former should be prioritized. Balance between restoration and commercial development in treatment of significant vintage buildings. Ensure historic authenticity when restoring damaged vintage buildings and ensure consistence with Old City historic appearance and the city’s development plan.

8.2.3 Development with Characteristics

The Lhasa Historic Urban Quarters is both a historic treasure as well as a vital part of Lhasa’s city life—it is a neighbourhood where people live in and carry about

11Zhao et al. (2012). 12Zhao et al. (2012). 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the … 235 their daily businesses. It is an engine that keeps the city in motion. Lhasa’s experience demonstrates that preservation of the historical heritage doesn’t have to be at the expense of but can promote the city’s general urban development. As China’s urbanization takes off, relationship between historic and cultural urban quarters’ preservation and urban development became increasingly inter- woven. Although preservation is conducive to city’s value in attracting tourists and investors, in practice, short-term interest often in conflict with the long-term ones, and moneymaking often receive higher priority over heritage preservation, the reason why ensuring funding and correctly handling the relationship between preservation and commercial development are important. The end goal of protecting the Old City should always be preserving Old City’s precious historic and cultural heritage while improving local residents’ living quality. History offers many lessons. Among them, “people first” should be a sound guideline to a here to avoid shortsightedness in the process. i. When it comes to the tradeoff between preservation and economic development, planning and implementation are two key elements. For planning, overall and systematic preservation should be rule of thumb of all time, while individual- ization is another sound principle that should be adhered to. A balance should be striked between the Old City and new urban zone to ensure “coordinated and characteristic” development; relationship between overall preservation and promotion of characteristic industries should be optimized, industries should be developed in a fashion coherent to Old City’s historic-cultural character and the city’s characteristic industries should receive support to maintain competitive- ness. Development projects should be in harmony with the city’s overall development plan; non-pollutive and characteristic industries such as tourism and culture-related ones should be encouraged; trials should be carried out to build a business ecosystem without compromising Old City urban overall appearance. New jobs should be created, and new talent should be cultivated. ii. Population density is key to living standards. While new living space should continue to be created, and local residents’ needs of employment, education and spirituality should be met, more can be done in terms of improving business ecosystem, transportation, maintaining traditional life style and characteristics. Meanwhile, for those relocated elsewhere, aid program should be in place to help them get professional training and finding new jobs.

8.2.4 Management with a Scientific Outlook

There is never going to be enough emphasis on implementation. Taken Lhasa’s Old City for example, right now, implementing plans and policies in a balanced and orderly manner remains a bottleneck. 236 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

Based on the current situation, here are some suggestions: i. Strengthen enforcement of regulatory policies pertaining to issuance of land use permit and construction permit. Ensure implementation of Urban and Rural Planning Law and ensure the government’s leading role. Issue land permits strictly in accordance with urban development plans. Resolute and prompt punishment of violation. Supervision should be more democratic; public should have full access to and be allowed to participate in decision-making, especially when pertaining to important projects. Major constructions should be strictly compliant with rules and development plans and to avoid individual leaders’ individual preferences from going unchecked. ii. Municipal government should speed up the process of releasing protocols to guide and standardize heritage preservation, including Lhasa Urban Historical Cultural Urban Quarters Preservation Protocol, Barkor Street Historic Cultural Urban Quarters and Historic Building Preservation Protocol, vintage court- yards overall preservation Protocol, municipal administration Protocol, urban planning management and techniques Protocol, Urban Management Protocol Violation Punishment Protocol, Urban Construction Administration Protocol, Urban Dilapidated Houses Administration Protocol, Historic Building Repair Management Methods, etc. iii. Democratize decision-making and ensure public participation. Build channels to optimize effect of expert feedback, establish institutionalized mechanism to ensure public supervision and government accountability; facilitate fundrais- ing, fund approval and track fund usage. Build a platform to facilitate public participation; enable experts to conduct independent investigation and delib- eration; establish an information sharing system to keep the public informed with the progress. Make sure that violations are punished promptly and ensure that plans and regulation rules properly implemented, especially when key projects are concerned. Ensure the Old City’s traditional appearance remains intact; ensure constant development of characteristic industries and constant improvement of local residents’ living standards. iv. All projects should be assessed by experts with applicable expertise. Such assessment should be conducted in different stages of projects. Based on conclusion of the assessment, proposals will be submitted to rectify faulty practices. v. The government should release a list that contains detailed information regarding specific projects, and a detailed description of the criterion for any project to enter the list, concerning both Lhasa city as a whole and Barkor Cultural Historic Urban Quarters in particular. This list will be used as the basis of preservation. vi. Conduct surveys on historic and cultural heritage. Based on collected infor- mation, a database that includes location, size, history, current status, and development projection will be built. This database will serve the goal of sound judgment in preservation, repair, dissemination, utility and system planning and policy-making. 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the … 237 vii. Establish a spokesperson system and build a website to update public on the latest progress and enable the public to objectively understand the develop- ment. Utilize multi-media technology to increase the efficacy of publicity effort. viii. Bolster Barkor Old City Administration Committee both in terms of personnel and organizational efficiency. Increase involvement of other related govern- ments departments, in particular National Resources Departments and Construction Bureaus—both having their own roles in planning, coordination, expert assessment and feedback gathering and providing guidance. Aside from Barkor Old City Administration Committee, separate committees consisted of social members and experts will be formed in the following fields: urban planning, history study, culture, building, garden architecture, tourism, reli- gion, history, customs and law. They will conduct periodic reviews on projects and submit improvement proposals. The committee members will take responsibility in terms of soliciting, rallying public opinions, suggestions, and demands, thus facilitating communication and coordination between residents, government agen- cies, and enterprises.

8.2.5 Strengthen Comprehensive Planning and Research

Improving planning process and studying issues are all essential to sound policy-making as they have strong implications to the direction and priorities of preservation and development of cultural and historic urban quarters. In the fol- lowing section, we will take a look at the research that has been done in recent years. i. Systematic Planning regarding the Preservation, Development and Management of the Old City of Lhasa: Today, Lhasa has already established a planning system regarding urban development, land use, environment and cultural heritage preservation, etc. Through this system, a number of general guidelines and specific plans were prepared including urban development plans, such as the National Five Year Plans. Comparing different types of plans, those concerning Old City development and administration remained a bottleneck. Aside from National Economic and Social Development Five-year Plans, the main one is tourism development plan; while industrial structure, competitive advantage and direction were not thoroughly studied and planned. This poses a limit on Old City’s development. In addition, the preservation, management and development of the Old City face the following challenges: how to effectively strengthen the management and implementation of urban plans; how to promote characteristic industries and benefit the general public; how to coordinate preservation and develop- ment, and thus achieve mutual promotion. All the above challenges need to be 238 8 Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa: Future and Development

managed by systematic planning. Therefore, the government should develop a targeted, implementable and systematic planning including Old City preser- vation plan and characteristic industry development and management plan; establish correlations among those plans; study the models and paths of Old City’s preservation, development, management with Chinese and Tibetan characteristics; discuss the general guidelines and goals to determine the overall direction, priorities, objectives and solutions of the development of character- istic industries; analyze the industrial structure, and the development approa- ches and cultivation of competitiveness of tourist, cultural and creative industries; research and establish highly unified, efficient and authoritative management institutions and systems to ensure the implementation of strategies and plans so that the preservation, development and management of Old City can support and promote one another. ii. Systematically Study Holistic Preservation and Reasonable Development of the Old City Vintage Courtyards and Other Related Issues. The 56 vintage court- yards are embodiments of historical Lhasa as well as an essential part of modern Lhasa. They are the place where the local people go about life and local industries operate. Without them, Lhasa wouldn’t have been the “historic and cultural famous city” as we know it. These buildings are irreplaceable, mate- rially or functionally. Given their high significance, we should put more effort studying the overall preservation and development and ensure applying long-term and systematical thinking in the process, research preservation and utilization thoroughly and study from past experience of both preserving and commercially development. We should also study different preservation and commercial development models, and through study, identify the role of pro- tecting these courtyards in the overarching scheme of the Old City preservation, and assess their roles in local residents’ life and social economic development. The government should come up with policies and action plans concerning the general preservation and reasonable use of vintage courtyards. For instance, based on Lhasa’s social and economic development and urban planning, the government should coordinate the preservation of vintage courtyards and the overall preservation of the Old City; the preservation and function improvement of vintage courtyards; the preservation of vintage courtyards and improvement of residents’ quality of living; the use of vintage courtyards and development of characteristic industries and participation of residents; the relationship between relocation of original functions of vintage courtyards and the overall con- struction of the city of Lhasa. Moreover, the government needs to conduct in-depth analysis of various problems, contradictions, opportunities and con- ditions faced by vintage courtyards, and study the historical development of the Old City to continue the development in line with the requirements of the Old City’s social and economic development as well as residents’ spiritual, material and financial needs; and develop models and paths of the preservation and use of vintage courtyards with Chinese and Tibetan characteristics. 8.2 Adopt a Systematic View in The Preservation and Development of the … 239 iii. Apply long-term forward thinking when studying and solving issues, in par- ticular, promote characteristic industries, maintain Old City competitiveness, find new models of developing cultural heritage for commercial benefit, developing and improve urban administration system, apply new technology and materials in repairing vintage buildings, developing new ways to revigorate the traditional urban quarters, implement population control, maintain and raise locals’ living standard, improve coordination and mutual-adaption between the old and new urban areas in terms of functionality, population flow and industrial development, finally, protect and inherit Non-Material and Cultural Heritage. iv. Objectively study prior experience regarding preservation and modification. Distill useful lessons. Study major issues arisen in the process of implemen- tation. Conceive scientific methods and approaches regarding the future Old City preservation and modification. Going forward, more research should be done in relation to the Old City preser- vation and development. As improving current preservation, development, and administration system is a long-term, dynastic process, it can be expected that new issues will emerge but it is our duty to address them correctly and promptly.

References

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Tsenpo is the Tibetan word for ruler—Tsenis a deity according to an ancient local religion. Po means man. The founder of Tupo empire (633–842) was Songtsen Gampo. The dynasty he founded had nine reigns. Songtsen Gampo (617–650), also known as Trisongsen, was the son of Namri Songtsen. He came to power in 629 AD. In 633 AD, he relocated the capital to Lhasa where he established the Tupo Dynasty. He created the Tibetan military, economic and political institutions, and the Tibetan alphabet. He was a devout Buddhist believer and it was at his behest that the Lhasa City was constructed, including famous buildings such as Potala, Johkang, Romche. During his reign, the relationship with Tang, Nepal was peaceful. He married the princesses of Nepal and Tang China and received aristocrat titles from the Gaozeng Emperor of Tang Dynasty. Mangsong Mangtsen (650–676), grandson of Songtsen Gampo. His reign lasted 26 years, during which the society was stable and the empire’s prowess increased; the Bon Region remained the primary religion. Though the relationship with Tang Dynasty remained peaceful, territorial disputes arose between Tupo and the Western Region. Trisong Detsen (676–704), son of Mangsong Mangtsen. During a reign of 28 years, the ruler introduced tea from inland China. He died in the middle of a campaign to overtake Nanshao. Tridé Tsuktsen (697–755), son of Tri Dusong. During his reign, Tupo main- tained a good relationship with the Tang China. Tridé Tsuktsen married Tang Jincheng Princess. He also made great effort to develop economy and reform the institutions. His 51 year reign ended after he died in a palace revolt. Trisong Detsen (742–797), son of Tridé Tsuktsen and Princess Jincheng. During his 42 year long reign, Tupo reached peak of prosperity. A devout Buddhist, Trisong Detsen built Tibet’s first “three-in-one” (Fo, Fa, Seng) Buddhist monastery—the Sangye Monastery. He also encouraged the development of Tibetan medicine. Also during his reign, he engaged in military expansion. He died at the age of 56.

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Muné Tsenpo (775–789), elder son of Trisong Detsen. The ruler died at 24. One theory regarding the cause of his death is that he was poisoned by his anti-Buddhism mother purportedly for his pro-Buddhism inclinations. Tride Songtsen (?–818), younger brother of Muné Tsenpo. Tride Songtsen is dedicated to the development of Buddhism and maintained good relationship with Tang China. His reign lasted 16 years. Tritsuk Detsen, aka (806–841), was the third son of Tridé Songtsen. A debout Buddhist. His reign lasted 27 years and was strangled to death of anti-Buddhist aristoricrats. Langdarma (809–846), elder brother of Tritsuk Detsen. His reign lasted 5 years before he died in assassination sponsored by Buddhist believers at the age of 38. Appendix B The Dalai Lamas

Dalai, along with Panchan, was one of the two parallel reincarnation systems in the Kelugpa system. The word Dalai originally comes from , means Ocean while Lama is the word for Guru in Tibetan language. Kelugpa, a school of Tibetan Buddhism, first came about in the second half of the 14th century. It was founded by Je Tsongkhapa. Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), was born in Huangzhong County, Qinghai Province. In Tibetan language, Huangzhong was named Tsongkha, while Tsongkhapa liter- ally means “the man from Tsongkha.” Tsongkhapa’s Buddhist name Losang Drakpa means Kindness and Wisdom. He joined the order at seven. At the age of 16, he moved to Tibet where he system- atically studied religious classics and other related knowledge. From late 14th century to the early 15th century, he was dedicated to religious reform. During the period, he penned some of his most important works. In 1409, he successfully held the first Monlam Chenmo and subsequently established Gandan Monastery, which was perceived the first Gelugpa Monastery. Tsongkhapa’s most famous works include “Transic Discipline Anointation and Achievements”“Nang Ze Jing Si Suoshuo Biqiu Xuechu”, “Road of Diamond Cidi Secret Important Part explanation”, “All Tanteluo Jixiang Jimi Guangshi Mingdeng Lun Guanzhu”, “Anli Cidi Jieshuo Jimi Yaoyi Interpretation”, “Brilliant Illumination of the Lamp of the Five Stages”, etc. Dalai Lama was originally an honorary title that Mongolian Tümed leader Altan Khan presented to the 3rd Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso. His predecessors were posthumously recognized as the first generation and second Dalai Lamas. In the 10th year of Shunzhi (1653), the 5th Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso was given the title by the Chinese as Xitian Dashan Zi Zai Fosuoling Tianxia Shijiao Putong Wachiladanla Dalai Lama. This was seen as the Chinese central authority’s recognition of Dalai Lama’s political and religious authority in Tibet. The 1st Dalai Lama: Gendun Drup (1391–1474), born in Xiadui near Sakya Monastery in Shigatse region. He was a student of the scholar and reformer Je Tsongkhapa. In 1447 (Zhengtong Reign of Ming), he built founded the major monastery of Tashilhunpo at Shigatse, which later became the seat of the Panchen Lamas.

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The 2nd Dalai Lama: Gendun Gyatso (1475–1542), he was born in Tanak, Shigatse region. He was the abbots of Tashilhunpo, Drepung and Sera and founded the Monastery of Chokorgyel in Southern Tibet. The 3rd Dalai Lama: Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), was born near Lhasa in Duilong Deqing. He was the abbot of two monasteries—Deprong and Sera and founded Chunke Monastery in Lithang. During the reign of Wanli Emperor of Ming Dynasty, he was invited by Altan Khan to Qinghai and received the title All-knowing Waqier Ladanla Dalai Lama. Later he was invited by the Khan to prosetylise in Inner Mongolia, where he died in 1588. The 4th Dalai Lama: (1589–1616) Yonten Gyatso, was a prince of the Mongolian Chokur tribe—he was the great-grandson of Altan Khan of the Tümed Mongols. In 1602, he was invited to go to Tibet by three major Tibetan monas- teries. He was the abbots of Deprong and Sera Monastery. The 5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682) Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso: born in Chonggye Valley of Ü-Tsangregion. Due much to his effort, Tibet reached unification in 1642. With the support from the Khoshut Lhan, he established Ganden Phodrangregime. In 1645, at his behest, Potala Palace was rebuilt. In 1652, the Dalai Lama went to Beijing to meet with Emperor Shunzhi. The next year on his returning trip, he received the title “Dalai Lama, Overseer of the Buddhist Faith on Earth Under the Great Benevolent Self-subsisting Buddha of the Western Paradise” and other symbol items including a golden album and seal. The 6th Dalai Lama: Tsangyang Gyatso (1683–1706). Born in Menyu, Southern Tibet. Tsangyang Gyatso is known for his literary talent, in particular his poetry writing. He was born into a turbulent era caused by the death of the Fifth Dalai Lama. His title was later rescinded by the Emperor Kangxi. He himself died on the way when he was sent to Beijing for interrogation. The 7th Dalai Lama: Kelzang Gyatso, (1708–1757). Kelzang Gyatso was born in Lithang of Kuam region. In 1720, he was enthroned in Lhasa. During his reign, significant incidents include the Ü-Tsang War and the establishment of the Amban System, the 1750 Rebellion and the establishment of Kashag System. During his reign, the famous Norbulingka Summer Palace was built. His family resided in the Sanzhu Phodrangin Jidui Alleyway. The 8th Dalai Lama: Jamphel Gyatso (1758–1804) was born in the Upper Ü- Tsang region of southwestern Tibet. In 1788 there was a conflict with Nepali wool traders leading to a skirmish with the Gurkhas. In 1790 the Gurk has invaded southern Tibet and conquered several provinces including Nya-nang and Kyi-drong. The city of Shigatse and the Tashilhunpo Monastery were captured and looted but the Gurkhas were driven back to Nepal in 1791. At the behest of Emperor Qianlong, he, along with the Amban FuKhang Nga, the Seventh Panchan Lama Bainima signed on the 29 Articles on Better Governing Tibet, and the ordinance had been in use until the end of the Qing Dynasty. The Family Members, referred to as the Lalu Family, resided in the Lalu Gacai Courtyard to the North of Potala Palace before they were merged into the family of the 12th Dalai Lama. The 9th Dalai Lama: Longduo Gyatso (1805–1815) was born in Dengke, Kham Region (today part of the Sichuan province). Appendix B: The Dalai Lamas 245

The 10th Dalai Lama: Tsultrim Gyatso (1816–1837). Born in Litang, Kham Region. His family followed him to live in Lhasa near Yuthog Zampa. The 11th Dalai Lama: Khedrup Gyatso (1838–1855), born in today’s Training, Sichuan province. His reign saw war between Tibet and Nepal, which led to signing of the Tibet Nepalese Treaty. The family of the 11th Dalai Lama family resided at the Punkhang Courtyard at Shasarzurn Number Two Alleyway, to the north of Jokang. The 12th Dalai Lama: Trinley Gyatso (1856–1875), born in Niangbu in Ü-Tsang region. In 1865 he ordered military intervention into tribal conflicts in the Kham region in today’s Sichuan (Zhandui Incident). The Tibetan forces occupied Zhandui rapidly and restored the transportation line between Tibet and China. Afterwards, the Qing government granted Zhandui to the Dalai Lama as a gift. In addition, the Tibetan local government also combined the family of the 12th Dalai Lama and the 8th Dalai Lama, both having shared the Lalu Family name. They would continue to reside in the Lalu Gacai Residence. The 13th Dalai Lama: Thubten Gyatso (1876–1933). Born in Thakpo Langdol near Lhasa. During his reign, Tibet saw great social changes. Failing to fend off a British incursion, he went on an exile—first to Mongolia, inland China and then Inida. After Xinhai Revolution, he returned to Tibet and set about to implement a reform. In 1933, he died. The KMT government sent Huang Musong, the general secretary of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission to enter Tibet to attend his funeral and posthu morously rewarded him the title “Master of protecting the state, promoting enlightenment, universal kindness and high achievement”. His family resided in Yabshi Langdol on Jinzhu Road. The 14th Dalai Lama: Tenzin Gyatso (1935–present). Born in Huangzhong county, Qinghai Province. After New China established, the Dalai Lama sent a delegation to Beijing, who signed on the 17 Articles Document on his behalf. In 1959, the Dalai Lama fled to India where he continued to engage in seperationalist activities. His family residence was Yabshi Taktser, on the Beijing Middle Road. Today, this building was renamed Tibetan Autonomous Region Second Guesthouse. References

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Chinese Government Online. www.gov.cn. China Online. www.china.org.cn. People Online. www.people.com.cn. State Administration of Cultural Heritage’s website. www.sach.gov.cn. Tibetan Government News. www.xizang.gov.cn. Xinhua Net. www.xinhuanet.com. Xinhua Net Tibetan Channel. www.tibet.news.cn. Epilogue

I first visited Lhasa on a work-related trip in 2001. During the subsequent decade, I visited the city at least once a year. Over these years, I got to know the city and went from being but a random observer to being a student and a passionate admirer. I am as enthralled by the city’s breathtaking beauty as I am pained by the sight of the damages it has suffered. Over the course of a millennium, the Old City of Lhasa has become a treasure trove of historical heritage sites and cultural relics. These gems never failed to amaze me and continued to shape my academic interests in the city. While limited time and energy often made it difficult for me to focus fully on preparing the manuscript, I was always committed to finishing the project, driven largely by sustained concern for both the inherent value of the city and the growing number of problems in its development process. The book is a distillation of what I have learned about the Old City of Lhasa over the years and an expression of my deep feelings towardsit. I trace my motivation to undertake this project and the font of information from which I consistently drew while completing it to two main sources. One includes my experiences roaming the streets and alleyways in the Old City, being awed by the buildings, old and new, exposure to the city’s rich and unique cultural heritage, and all the related references; the other is the generous help and insightful sug- gestions from friends. Here I would especially like to thank the following indi- viduals: Chilie Dorje, Party secretary of Chengguan District, Kelsang Phuntsok, chief of Lhasa Urban Construction Bureau, Song Yuzhang and Yao Yu’e, deputy chief and division chief of Lhasa Municipal Bureau of Land Resources and city Planning respectively, Jing Yongchun, deputy chief of Lhasa Administration of Cultural Heritage, Nima Yundan, former deputy chief of Chengguan district, Losang Nyandrak and Lhakpa Tsering, former chiefs of Housing and Urban-Rural Development Bureau of Chengguan district, Gelsang Palmo, general manager of Chengguan District Real Estate Company, Cao Pengcheng and Zhang Yong from Barkor Old City Administration Committee, Thundruk Tenzin, Gao Wei, Bianba, Dawa Tsering, coordinators of the Tibet Development and Poverty Alleviation Programme of UNDP. Numerous other friends and associates provided me with help of one kind or another throughout the research and writing process, to all of

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and Social Sciences Academic Press 2018 255 Q. Li, The Evolution and Preservation of the Old City of Lhasa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6735-8 256 Epilogue whom I am deeply grateful. I will forever cherish the memories of the wonderful time we spent together in the Old City of Lhasa. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my family, a reliable source of firm and steady support and encouragement. Thanks also go to Mr. Liu Jun, division chief at China International Center for Economic and Technical Exchanges, professor Maria Csanádi of Institute of Economics at Hungarian Academy of Sciences, assistant professor Ferenc Gyuris of Department of Regional Science at Eötvös Loránd University, Professor Dan Zhu, College of Business, Iowa State University, pro- fessor Ye Yumin of City Planning and Management Department at Renmin University of China, Professor Xiao Jincheng of Institute of Spatial Planning and Regional Economy affiliated to National Development and Reform Commission. Ms. Zhou Li, Gao Jing, Gao Yan and Li Yan, who are professional advisor or editors at Social Sciences Academic Press and Springer respectively, have been instrumental in the publication of this book. Finally, it would be amiss not to mention the important contributions by three people to this project. Eric Mu did a fine job translating the book, Tenzin Dolkar, Associate Professor of Tourism in Tibet University’s School of Tourism and Foreign Language who gave the professional revision and indispensable effort on the translation,, and Wang Chuhan made sure all the figures in the book are of adequate quality. Given the urgent need for urbanization in China, greater research efforts are in order to explore a growing number of theoretical and practical issues about the preservation of historical and cultural heritage and how it relates to social economic development. I look forward to continuing to leave my own mark in this worthy field.

Li Qing June 13, 2017