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Notes on Lac Scale Insect species are used to produce medicines and as a and Sealant in dyes (Arnett 1985:239; also see Colton the Southwestern Great Basin 1944:1). Ethnographic data on the use of the MARKQ. SUTTON, Dept. of Sociology and Anthro­ products of lac insects in Cahfornia and the pology, CaUfomia State Univ., Bakersfield, CA Great Basin are sporadic and often unspecific 93311-1099. (cf. CovUle 1892:361; Sparkman 1908:209; A variety of products were used by the Kroeber 1925:651; Essig 1926:287, 1934:182- Indians of the southwestern Great Basin as 183; Zigmond 1980:89). Among the species mastics and sealants. These included the avaUable in was the scale () from various {Pinus spp.), {Cerococcus quercus), that inhabits oak junipers {Jimiperus spp.), brittle bush {Encelia {Quercus spp.) in the semi-arid mountains of farinosa), and the glue obtained from California and Arizona (Essig 1931:20), and simmering the horns, hide scrapings, and the irregular wax scale {Ceroplastes irregularis), tendons of bighorn sheep {Ovis canadensis) that inhabits various species of saltbush and other . Another mastic was {Atriplex spp.) in California, Arizona, and New derived from the resin of the creosote lac (Essig 1931:20). The wax and gum scale insect {Tacliardiella larrae) found on the from these insects reportedly was used for a branches of the creosote bush {Larrea variety of purposes including , tridentata). This insect resin sometimes has basketry sealant and mastic, ceramic sealant, been improperly identified as a plant product, mastic on bows (Essig 1931:19-20), and tool being labeled as "gum from the creosote handles (Zigmond 1980:89). bush." Although the use of resin from lac DISTRIBUTION AND BIOLOGY insects is known from much of southwestern North America (cf. Standley 1926:641; Ben­ Of particular note here is the by-product nett and Zmgg 1935:147, 158; Castetter and of the creosote lac scale, Tacliardiella larrae UnderhUl 1935:21; Crosswhite 1981:47; Felger (formerly Carteria larrae) that infests creosote and Moser 1985; Ebehng 1986:126, 400), for bush {). The distribution of purposes of brevity, the discussion of its use the creosote lac scale foUows that of the is hmited herein to groups residing in the creosote bush; both occur in the Mojave and southwestern Great Basin. Colorado , and the Lac scale insects (Homoptera: Tachar- Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts of Arizona, diidae) comprise a fairly smaU famUy (some New Mexico, Baja California, and northern 65 species [Arnett 1985:239]), with several Mexico (Hunziker et al. 1977:14) (Fig. 1). species being economicaUy important. These Colton (1943) discussed the distribution of insects exude a resinous substance known as the scale insect and investigated its concentra­ lac, from which a number of products are tions in the Creosote Bush Scrub plant made. For example, sheUac is made from the community in western Arizona. He found exudation of the Old World lac insect that infestation varied from zero (no infesta­ {Laccifer lacca; Arnett 1985:239) whUe other tion) to 54% of bushes being infested, with REPORTS 263

The female produces large quantities of a reddish-colored lac that eventuaUy encases her (Essig 1958:286). Individuals occur either singly or in groups, are globular-shaped, and are about 2 mm. in diameter (Essig 1958:286). Large numbers of insects can aggregate on individual bushes and the ensuing colonies can result in a considerable concentration of lac (Fig. 2). Because females are continually encased in lac, the material is avaUable for coUection and use throughout the year. TECHNOLOGICAL NOTES The resin is present in small clumps on the outside of creosote branches (Fig. 2) and can be removed by hand by twisting it from the branch. This action generaUy would result in serious, even lethal, damage to the branch. In the process of removal, fragments of bark and other plant materials, live and dead lac scale insects, and possibly some ants, are included. The resulting "raw lac resin" Fig. 1. Distribution of the creosote bush, La/n?a/nW«i/aw, in the southwest Great Basin, western Arizona, and consists of a combination of these materials. northern Mexico (after Hunziker et al. 1977, Fig, The quantity of resin present on any single 2-4), and native groups and archaeological sites noted in text. creosote bush varies from infestations on many of the branches to just a few. Given a good concentration, a considerable quantity of between 11.9% and 13.6% being the average the resin can be coUected in a short time. In (Colton 1943:23). one coUecting episode by the author (in 1986), Only one generation of scale insects is several ounces were obtained in just a few produced per year. The adult female hves on minutes (the specific coUection times and the branches of the creosote, completely recovered quantities were not recorded and, encased m a resin ceU. The young hatch due to a fortunate encounter, no search time during February and March, after which the was involved). female dies. The young leave the ceUs and Westgate (1943:198) reported that the lac begin producing and covering themselves with consisted of approximately 23.5% sheUac and lac. The male larva undergoes a fairly rapid 51.9% wax, with the remainder consisting of metamorphosis, emerging as a smaU red "fly" other materials (e.g., bark, insect bodies, etc.). (Colton 1943:27). The winged adult male then copulates with the stiU immature female Experimental Data (in effect creating a "sperm bank") and dies Raw lac scale resin is rather hard and within a few days (Colton 1943:27). Once the brittle. The resin softens at approximately female reaches maturity, the stored sperm is 250 ° F. (as measured in an electric convec­ then used to fertilize the eggs. tion oven), turns dark red, becomes maleable 264 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNLA, AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Neither combination melted, although the resin mixed with sand did seem to retain greater maleabUity than the raw resin alone. Clearly, the sole addition of sand did not improve the usefulness of the resin, at least under the conditions applied here. It is also possible that the resin was combined with another mastic material (e.g., Fig. 2. A colony of lac inscas on the branch of a creosote bush (length of branch is 20.0 cm.). pitch) to improve its performance, although there is no ethnographic evidence and very sticky but does not "melt," at least that this was done. The gas chromatograph not below 450" F., where it begins to produce (GC) profiles obtained from raw lac and from smoke. Removed from the heat, it cools very the archaeological samples from Southcott rapidly, regaining its hardness and brittleness. Cave (Sutton et al. 1987) are very simUar and This rapid cooling makes it difficult to apply do not reveal the presence of any additive. It and might interfere with its utihty. The resin should be noted, however, that these GC must have been applied hot (ceramic vessel results are not particularly sensitive. The No. 4 from Southcott Cave in the Providence experimental work is continuing. Mountains [Sutton et al. 1987] exhibits such evidence). ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA FROM THE SOUTHWESTERN GREAT BASIN The Panamint are reported to have ground the resin along with "pulverized rock" Lac was utUized by at least several native (CovUle 1892:361). It is thought that in doing groups in the southwestern Great Basin. so, several advantages may have been gained. CovUle (1892) noted the use of several The first possible advantage was that the resin adhesives by the Panamint Shoshoni of the would be made into smaUer fragments, VaUey region. These included pine reducing their individual surface area to {Pinus monophylla) pitch, a glue made from volume ratio, and resulting in more even boUing the horns of mountain sheep {Ovis heating. Second, the presence of the sand canadensis), and a gum found on the creosote within the mixture could serve to conserve the bush. He wrote: heat, thereby delaying the cooUng and making This last product is an interesting one. In its the material more useful. crude form the larrea gum occurs in the form To test the merit of these notions, a smaU of small, reddish, amber-colored masses on the amount (1.0 g.) of raw resin was ground with twigs of the shrub, and is deposited there by a minute scale insect, Carteria larreae [Tachardiella a ceramic mortar and pestle and added to a larrae]. The crude gum is mixed with pulver­ smaU amount (1.0 g.) of sand (also ground in ized rock and thoroughly pounded. The the ceramic mortar). Although the two product, heated before applying, was once used ingredients weighed the same, the sand had to fasten stone arrow-heads in their shafts, cmd is at the present time employed for other only about one-third the volume of the resin. similar purposes. At Ash Meadows, , I The combination was then placed in a was shown a broken sugar-bowl cover that had convection oven at 200° F., increasing 25 ° F. been neatly and firmly mended with this cement every 15 minutes to 450° F. As a control, by an Indian [CovUle 1892:361]. ground raw resin with no ground sand was Over 40 years later. Driver recorded the subjected to the same conditions. use of a pitch among the Panamint to seal REPORTS 265 water bottles (1937:78) and to glue feathers to by the Chemehuevi. Lac resin also is noted arrows (1937:71), but the type of pitch was m Chemehuevi oral tradition to repair a knife not identified. Based on the description by (Lau-d 1976:189). Coville (1892:361), it is reasonable to assume Barrows (1900:48) noted that, among the that at least some of the "pitch" related by CahuUla, glue was obtained from several Driver (1937) may have been lac resin. plants, including the creosote. Steward (1933:262) noted that the Owens Glue, san-ot [a generic term for vegetable gum VaUey Paiute used a glue made from "a kind (Barrows 1900:48)], is also obtained from the of sheUac from sage infested by insects." "creosote bush" (Larrea Mexicana), on the bark Although the Owens VaUey is to the north of of which an amber colored gimi is deposited by the normal range of creosote, smaU popula­ a small scale-insect. tions of creosote do occur there (DeDecker Drucker (1937:17) further noted that the 1984:125) and it is possible that the "sage" is CahuUla used "greasewood" gum to produce creosote. It is more Likely, however, that the a black pigment (also see Ebeling 1986:400), plant referred to by Steward was a species of and Rogers (1936:33) noted the use of pitch Atriplex that is infested by the irregular wax among Yuman language groups. scale {Ceroplastes irregularis). It is not known which species actuaUy was utUized by the ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA Owens VaUey Paiute. Although several archaeological examples Palmer (1878:654) reported the Paiute use of the use of lac scale insect products are of the "gum" from the creosote but recorded known from the Southwest (e.g., McGregor the material as "pitch" rather than the by­ 1943:292; Felger and Moser 1985:92), such product of an insect. He did note, however, examples are very rare in the Great Basin. that the Paiute used the material to cement Euler and Jones (1956) identified lac scale projectUe points to foreshafts. resin as a sealant on a hermeticaUy sealed oUa Both the Ute and Southern Paiute made containing processed mescal. The vessel was glue from horn (as CoviUe noted for the found near Kingman, Arizona (Fig. 1), and Panamint), but "larrea gum" was not men­ was dated to approximately A.D. 1300 (Euler tioned by Stewart (1942:266). The use of a and Jones 1956:88). pitch was recorded among the Ute and A stone bowl fragment containing an Southern Paiute (Stewart 1942:271) and the unknown material was recovered during Chemehuevi (Drucker 1937:20) for water­ excavations at the Oro Grande site located on proofing baskets and for gluing feathers to the Mojave River (Fig. 1). Most of the arrows, but the pitch is not identified. archaeological remains at the site date to the Zigmond (1980:89) reported that a red pitch last 1,000 years (Rector et al. 1983). A found on creosote bushes (undoubtedly lac) sample of the material was removed from the was used by the Kawausu to fashion handles bowl and subjected to chromatographic for awls and knives. analysis. The preliminary resuhs (van Balgooy Laird (1976:6) noted that the Chemehuevi 1983:178) suggested that the substance within routinely stored seeds "in storage baskets the bowl was a wax: capped with suitably shaped potsherds and A conservative guess is that the bowl was used sealed with greasewood (creosote) gum." Van to store, grind, or collect wax-containing Valkenburgh (1976:12) recorded the use of material. This could have been beeswax, other "greasewood pitch" to repair (ceramic?) bowls insect wax, or wax-containing plant parts. 266 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNLA. AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

The high wax content of creosote lac scale lac the identification of additional examples of (Westgate 1943) also supports this possibihty. the use of lac scale resin. Since the Panamint ground creosote lac scale ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS resin prior to its use (CovUle 1892:361), it is possible that the material from Oro Grande This is an expanded and revised version of a paper originally presented at the 1989 meeting of also was ground, or that the bowl was used to the Society for Ethnobiology. I am indebted to E. process or handle lac. N. Anderson, Jr., Walter Ebeling, Michael K. Lerch, A reddish-colored material was found John Pinto, PhUip J. Wilke, and anonymous referees adhering to the rims of several ceramic vessels for their comments. I thank Stephen L. Pentoney and Aldo Giorgetti of the Department of Chemistry, recovered from Southcott Cave (Sutton et al. University of California, Riverside, for their consid­ 1987), in the eastern (Fig. 1). erable assistance with the gas chromatography work. It was determined, using voucher specimens and gas chromatography, that the material REFERENCES was creosote lac scale resin. A radiocarbon Arnett, Ross date of 2100 ±230 radiocarbon years B.P. 1985 American Insects. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. (UCR-2034/AA-2467) was obtained on the material (Sutton et al. 1987), which seems Barrows, David P. 1900 The Ethno-Botany of the CoahuUla entirely too old. At nearby Mitchell Caverns, Indians of Southern California. Chicago: Pinto (1989:51) tentatively identified lac resin University of Chicago Press. as the adhesive on several hooked poles Bennett, WendeU C, and Robert M. Zingg (apparently) used to capture chuckwaUas 1935 The Tarahumara: An Indian Tribe of {Sauromalus obesus) and from a knife. Northern Mexico. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. CONCLUSIONS Castetter, Edward F., and Ruth M. UnderhUl 1935 The Ethnobiology of the Papago Indians. TTie majority of the ethnographic refer­ University of New Mexico Ethnobiolog- ences to greasewood gum or creosote gum ical Studies in the American Southwest probably refer to the resm of the creosote lac Bulletin II. scale. This conclusion is based on the fairly Colton, Harold S. consistent color (red) of the reported materi­ 1943 Life History and Economic PossibUities of the American Lac Insect, Tachardiella al, that the creosote bush itself does not pro­ larrae. Plateau 16(2):21-32. duce usable (i.e., flowing) sap, and the lack of 1944 The Anatomy of the Female American evidence that a creosote plant product (sap) Lac Insect, Tachardiella larrae. Museum was ever used. Examples in the archaeologi­ of Northern Arizona BuUetin 21. cal record are rare, but it is possible that Coville, Fredrick V. many such examples remain unrecognized. 1892 The Panamint Indians of California. American Anthropologist (o.s.) 5:351-361. The identification of such resin and informa­ tion on its distribution would be of great value Crosswhite, Frank S. 1981 Desert Plants, Habitat and Agriculture in in the dehneation of trade patterns and Relation to the Major Pattern of Cultural technology (cf. Euler and Jones 1956). Differentiation in the O'odham People of Examination of museum specimens and a the . Desert Plants 3(2):47-76. more careful scrutiny of newly discovered DeDecker, Mary archaeological materials, rather than rehance 1984 Flora of the Northern Mojave Desert, on the assumption that extant pitch is some California. Berkeley: Cahfornia Native other type of gum, probably would result in Plant Society Special Publication No. 7. REPORTS 267

Driver, Harold E. Proceedings of the American PhUosophi- 1937 Culture Element Distributions: VI, cal Society 86(2):270-298. Southern Sierra Nevada. University of Palmer, Edward California Anthropological Records 1(2). 1878 Plants Used by the Indians of the United Drucker, Phillip States. American Naturalist 12:593-606, 1937 Culture Element Distributions: V, 646-655. Southern CcUifornia. University of Pinto, Diana G. California Anthropological Records 1(1). 1989 The Archaeology of MitchcU Caverns. Ebeling, Walter Sacramento: California Department of 1986 Handbook of Indian Foods and Fibers of Parks and Recreation, California Archeo­ Arid America. Berkeley: University of logical Reports No. 25. California Press. Rector, Carol, James D. Swenson, and PhUip J. Essig, E. O. Wilke, eds. 1926 Insects of Western North America. New 1983 Archaeological Studies at Oro Grande, York: MacmiUan. Mojave Desert, California. Redlands: San 1931 A History of Entomology. New York: Bernardino County Museum Association. MacmiUan. Rogers, Malcolm J. 1934 The Value of Insects to the California 1936 Yuman Pottery Making. San Diego Indians. Scientific Monthly 38(2):181- Museum of Man Papers No. 2. 186. Sparkman, Philip S. 1958 Insects and Mites of Western North 1908 The Culture of the Luisefio Indians. America. New York: MacmiUan. University of California Publications in American Archaeology £md Ethnology Euler, Robert C, and Volney H. Jones 8(4). 1956 Hermetic Sealing as a Technique of Food Preservation Among the Indians of the Standley, Paul C. American Southwest. Proceedings of the 1926 Trees and Shrubs of Mexico. Contribu­ American Philosophical Society 100:87- tions from the L'nited States National 99. Herbarium 23. : Govern­ ment Printing Office. Felger, Richard S., and Mary B. Moser Stewart, Omer C. 1985 People of the Desert and Sea: Ethnobo- 1942 Culture Element Distributions: XVIII, tany of the Seri Indians. Tucson: Ute-Southern Paiute. University' of University of Arizona Press. California Anthropological Records 6(4). HunzUcer, J. H., R. A. Palacios, L. Poggio, C. A. Sutton, Mark Q., Christopher B. Donnan, and Naranjo, and T. W. Wang. Dennis L. Jenkins 1977 Geographic Distribution, Morphology, 1987 The Archaeology of Southcott Cave, Hybridization, Cytogenetics, and Evolu­ Providence Mountains, California. tion. In: Creosote Bush: Biology and Journal of California and Great Basin Chemistry of Larrea in New World Anthropology 9:232-250. Deserts, T. J. Mabry, J. H. Hunziker, and D. R. DUeo Jr., eds., pp. 10-47. Strouds- van Balgooy, Josephus N. A. burg, PA.: Dowden, Hutchinson and 1983 Chemical Analysis of Residue from a Ross. Stone Bowl. In: Archaeological Studies at Oro Grande, Mojave Desert, Califor­ Kroeber, Alfred L. nia, Carol H. Rector, James D. Swenson, 1925 Handbook of the Indians of Cahfornia. and Phihp J. Wilke, eds., pp. 177-181. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin Redlands: San Bernardino County No. 78. Museum Association. Laird, Carobeth van Valkenburgh, Richard F. 1976 The Chemehuevis. Banning: Malki 1976 Chemehuevi Notes. In: Paiute Indians Museum Press. II, David A. G. Horr, ed., pp. 225-253. McGregor, John C New York: Garland Publishing Compa­ 1943 Burial of an Early American Magician. ny. 268 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNLA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Westgate, Mark W. monographs (Cook 1976a, 1976b; Cook and 1943 Pinyon Resin and Stick Lac from Borah 1971-1979). Cook's studies not only Arizona. Washington: National Paint, and Association initiated the discussion of the topic for the Circular No. 665. Alta California missions, but more important­ Zigmond, Maurice ly, provided an empirical and theoretical 1980 Kawaiisu Mythology: An Oral Tradition framework for subsequent research. Despite of South-Central California. Ballena Cook's positive contributions to the field of Press Anthropological Papers No. 18. historical demography and California Indian and mission history, his works have increas­ ingly come under attack, especiaUy within the context of the current and controversial campaign to promote the canonization of The Population of the Santa Franciscan missionary Junipero Serra, O. F. Barbara Channel Missions (Alta M., architect of the Alta California mission California), 1813-1832 system. Scholars who favor Serra's canoniza­ tion have systematicaUy attacked those ROBERT H. JACKSON, Dept. of History, elements of Cook's interpretations, even if Southern Univ., Houston, TX 77004. substantiated by empirical evidence, that do THE demographic coUapse of the native not reflect weU on their own colored view of populations in the Americas in the four mission history, the Franciscans, or Serra the centuries foUowing sustained contact with man (Lothrop 1989; Hornbeck 1990). Eurasia has been a major topic of discussion One scholar m particular, who can be among scholars for decades. Much of the considered a strong advocate of Serra's debate has been based on the assumption that canonization and a sanitized version of Alta epidemics of contagious diseases such as California mission history, went so far as to smaUpox and measles were the primary causes attack the rehabUity of the sources for the for the rapid dechne of the Indian popula­ study of the historical demography of the tions. Yet, few detaUed studies have exam­ California missions. He did so despite the ined Indian demographic coUapse using parish fact that these sources are the most complete registers, censuses, and reports that record and among the most reliable for colonial vital statistics for Indian populations. One Spanish America. Historian Harry Kelsey, notable exception is the case of the frontier who has no practical expertise in the field of Indian mission communities of Alta California historical demography and brings a decidedly established by Franciscans between 1769 and Eurocentric view to his interpretation of the 1823. The rich data avaUable on the missions, history of the California missions, wrote in a including complete Usts of baptisms and footnote in a recent article that discussed the burials, and detaUed annual and biennial development of the buUding complex of San reports, provide the basis for local demo­ Juan Capistrano mission: graphic studies that can test the basic There are no accurate population statistics for explanations for the causes of Indian demo­ the missions. The figures listed in annual reports and mission registers need to be graphic coUapse. approached with a great deal of caution. There Sherburne F. Cook pioneered the study of is no modern mission population study based on the causes of Indian demographic coUapse in careful and critical research in the original the Alta California missions in a series of sources [Kelsey 1987:30 nt. 22].