ACCESS GRANTED Art-Historical Art and Woodblock-Printed Books in Eighteenth-Century Japan
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CHELSEA FOXWELL ACCESS GRANTED Art- Historical Art and Woodblock- Printed Books in Eighteenth- Century Japan Abstract Contributors to this volume have linked the flourishing of art-historical art in the Song period (960– 1279) and beyond to an overall change in historical consciousness. The surge in art- historical art in eighteenth- and early nineteenth- century Japan similarly marks a fundamental change in historical consciousness and methodology. From the early 1700s onward, Japan saw the dawn of an information age in response to urbanization, commercial printing, and the encouragement of foreign books and learning by the shogun Yoshimune (in office 1716– 45). This essay explores the impact of this eighteenth-century information age on visual art, distinguishing new developments from earlier forms of Japanese art- historical consciousness found primarily in the Kano school. Printed seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Chinese painting albums and manuals arrived in Japan shortly after their issuance, but certain conditions had to be met before similar books could be published in Japan. First, artists and publishers needed to circumvent the ban on publishing infor- mation related to members of the ruling class (including paintings owned by these elites). Second, independent painters who had been trained in the Kano school also were obliged to find a means of breaking with medieval codes of secret transmission in a way that benefited rather than harmed their careers. Finally, the emergence of printed painting manuals was predicated on the presence of artists and audiences who saw value in the accurate transcription of existing paintings and their circulation in woodblock form. In the 1670s and 80s, the Edo- based painter Hishikawa Moronobu (1618– 1694) popularized the ezukushi (exhaustive compendium) form of illustrated book. While some of his images were based loosely on existing paintings, his books show little interest in faith- ful reproduction. By the late eighteenth century, by contrast, the market saw the appearance of numerous books about painting with the stated goal of the reproduction and circulation of painting models for the historical or practical benefit of their audiences.Ō oka Shunboku (1680– 1763), one of the most important contributors to this trend, presented his own compilations of pictorial models as a response to Honchō gashi (A History of Painting of Our Realm), the textual history of Japanese painting that had been published in Kyoto in 1693. From this, we can conclude that the rise of woodblock- printed painting compendia emerged from broader changes in historical consciousness, and would, in turn, come to affect the ways in which painters and audiences perceived the act of creating new paintings. QUICK CITATION Foxwell, Chelsea. “Access Granted: Art- Historical Art and Woodblock- Printed Books in Eighteenth- Century Japan.” Ars Orientalis 49 (2019): 79– 105. 79 Across the twentieth century, as art history developed as a discipline and grew progressively global in scope, historians, artists, and aesthetic philosophers experimented with ways of defin- ing art. In the 1960s through the 1980s, Arthur Danto and others proposed that art could be defined by its groundedness in “a progressive, cumulative tradition”; “a tradition of art- making that has internalized, reflects on and develops from its own history.”1 As noted by the anthro- pologist Alfred Gell, however, this mode of defining art was based so closely on Euro-American models as to be potentially irrelevant to large areas of non-Western art: historians of regions such as Japan or Southeast Asia would be hard pressed to construct a single, cumulative, and self- referential tradition of art without inadvertently excluding large categories of important objects.2 In some regions, thoughtfully made objects were crafted in relative isolation from objects from adjacent periods or regions; in other cases, the paucity of surviving works has prevented scholars from reconstructing a cumulative tradition even if it did exist. The existence of art- historical art is wholly reliant on the more basic question of access: namely, the ability of artists and viewers to attain the shared knowledge of canonical works of the past. In Japan, those conditions of access— particularly of shared access— to past masterpieces were met in only limited ways until the eighteenth century. The 1720s onward saw the widespread emer- gence of woodblock- printed image compendia, usually described as huapu 畫譜 in Chinese and gafu 画譜 or edehon 絵手本 in Japan. When woodblock- printed books of famous paintings and iconographies did emerge, they enabled a form of widespread access to famous images that remained unsurpassed until the emergence of Japan’s first art exhibitions in the 1880s. The present article proposes two reasons for the rise of woodblock- printed reproductions of famous paintings in the mid-Edo period (1615–1868): the stimulating arrival of woodblock- printed Chinese huapu, and increasing flexibility regarding hierarchies of social status (mibun 身分) and the public nature of knowledge. The mastery of printing technology alone was not enough to enable the rise of illustrated compendia of famous paintings; changes to the social fabric and economic conditions of early modern Japan played an essential role. Across the eigh- teenth century to the age of the Manga 漫画 (Idle Sketches) by Katsushika Hokusai 葛飾北斎 (ca. 1760– 1849) in 1814 and beyond, printed painting compendia facilitated the growth of a shared art- historical consciousness. Print in Seventeenth- Century Japan: Knowledge, Power, and Commerce Never simply a matter of technological mastery, print culture develops and flourishes only as a result of certain social and economic conditions. The historian Mary Elizabeth Berry has emphasized this fact in her book Japan in Print, noting, “What is surprising . about commer- cial publishing in Japan is that it developed so late.”3 Woodblock- print technology was used to produce Buddhist materials in Japan as early as the eighth century, but only the urban growth of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries gave rise to the concentrated markets of financially stable samurai and commoners to whom printer- booksellers (and soon, for- profit lending libraries) began to cater. Because few printers could invest in sets of movable type or manage the design issues caused by use of the multiple scripts and syllabaries necessary for written Japanese, books generally were produced by carving an entire block for each page spread; although time- consuming at the outset, this method did allow for the preservation and easy re- use of block sets, which also could be sold as valuable stock for reprint editions. The prevalence of the block- carving method meant that a large workforce of skilled carvers and printers possessed the means to freely combine text and image. In Edo Japan, as in China during the late Ming (1368–1644), booksellers observed that books with pictures enjoyed brisk sales.4 80 ARS Orientalis 49 Commercial woodblock- print publishing flourished in the Kyoto- Osaka region before spreading to Edo 江戸 (present- day Tokyo), the headquarters of the shogunate. Konta Yōzō 今田洋三 writes that, in order to cope with a crowded market and narrow profit margins, the pioneering Kyoto booksellers of the Kanbun 寛文 era (1661– 73) had no choice but “to carve out a new sales route: the active cultivation of new readers among the common people.”5 Early Japanese illustrated reference works based on the model of Chinese encyclopedias (lei- shu 類書) provided easy access to miscellaneous information culled from a variety of sources. They included the Kinmō zui 訓蒙図彙 (Illustrated Encyclopedia; Kyoto: Yamagataya, 1666) by Nakamura Tekisai 中村惕斎 (1629–1702) and the Jinrin kinmō zui 人倫訓蒙図彙 (Illustrated Encyclopedia of Humanity; attributed to one “lacquer artist Genzaburō,” maki eshi Genzaburō 蒔絵師源三郎, 1690). Modular, entertaining, and informative, these books could be perused casually without regard to order or continuity. The accurate crediting of sources, whether textual or visual, was not high on the list of expectations. Indeed, as numerous case studies of illustrated manuals and encyclopedias have demonstrated, information that was repurposed from other sources was repackaged and even retitled until the boundaries between the new work and its sources had become vague.6 We need not view this in disparaging terms, but this phenomenon should be distinguished from cases of more precise historical consciousness.7 The emergence of illustrated, woodblock-printed painting albums in seventeenth-centur y China marked a shift from the anonymous appropriation and re-use of book illustrations as generic visual information to the understanding of paintings as authored creations that could be cited and recognized as such, even when they appeared as woodblock- printed reproduc- tions. In China, painting catalogues, books of painting theory, and historical lives of the artists had a long history stretching back well before the Tang dynasty (618–907). It was only a mat- ter of time before Chinese authors and editors already accustomed to the genre of illustrated general- use encyclopedias arrived at the practice of adding illustrations to textual sources about famous paintings. As Craig Clunas and others have noted, one culmination of this process was the Gu shi huapu 顧氏畫譜 (Master Gu’s Painting Album, official name Lidai minggong huapu 歴代明公畫譜, Album of Famous Paintings Throughout the Ages; 1603 preface), published