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Eating Habits 181 Meals 181 Food for Special Occasions 187 Food for Special Groups 206 FOOD IN THE ANCIENT WORLD lOAN P. ALCOCK Food through History Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alcock, Joan P. (Joan Pilsbury) Food in the ancient world : / Joan P. Alcock. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-313-33003-4 1. Food habits—History. 2. Food—History. 3. Civilization, Ancient. I. Title. TX353.A47 2006 641.30093—dc22 2005026303 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2006 by Joan P. Alcock All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005026303 ISBN: 0-313-33003-4 ISSN: 1542-8087 First published in 2006 Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www. greenwood. com Printed in the United States of America @r The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10 987654321 The publisher has done its best to make sure the instructions and/or recipes in this book are correct. However, users should apply judgment and experience when preparing recipes, especially parents and teachers working with young people. The publisher accepts no responsibility for the outcome of anv recipe included in this volume. For John Marshant, an excellent friend and stimulating colleague This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Acknowledgmentss ix Introductionn xi Classical Authors Mentioned XV Abbreviations for Notes XXV Time Line xxvii 1. Historical Overview 1 Population 1 Agricultural Practices 4 Trade 24 2. Foodstuffs 31 Grains 31 Legumes 35 Fungi 38 Fruits 39 Nuts 47 Vegetables 49 Root Vegetables 51 Salad Vegetables 55 Weeds 55 Herbs 56 Spices 60 Meat 64 viii CONTENTS Game 69 Fowl 70 Eggs 75 Fish 75 Crustacea 80 Dairy Products 82 Condiments 84 Beverages 90 3. Food Preparation and the Food Professions 103 Procedures, Equipment, and Utensils 103 Professionals 118 Dining Establishments 123 4. Food by Civilization 135 The Egyptians 136 The Greeks 150 The Romans 161 The Celts 172 5. Eating Habits 181 Meals 181 Food for Special Occasions 187 Food for Special Groups 206 6. Concepts of Diet and Nutrition 227 Theory of Eating 227 Humoral Theory 229 Food Supply 230 Diet 233 Scarcity, Famine, and Malnutrition 237 Taboos 242 Teeth: Diet and Hygiene 245 Cemetery and Tomb Evidence 247 Selected Bibliographhy 25 23 Indexx 263 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am most grateful for the help that is always freely given by the librarians of the Institute of Classical Studies, University of London. David Allen and Caroline Brick of the Horniman Museum Library, Forest Hill, London, provided help with the Egyptian literature and produced books with their usual courtesy. Professor Emeritus Bryan Reuben, London South Bank University, made valuable suggestions for the improvement of the text. I am especially grateful to Wendi Schnaufer at Greenwood, who allowed me extra time to complete this book, which was delayed through a series of accidents and misfortunes. Her patience has been exemplary. This page intentionally left blank INTRODUCTION The interest in food in its historical content has increased enormously since the early 1990s, and food studies have become an important part of history and literature. People have to eat, and become curious to know what and how our ancestors ate, especially in more distant ages. Historical studies of food help to satisfy that curiosity. This book dis­ cusses food grown, produced, and eaten from the beginnings of the Egyptian predynastic civilization, about 4000 B.C., to the end of the Roman Empire, in the fifth century A.D. It concentrates on four civili­ zations: the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Celts. Each of these civilizations developed in a different way and each had its own individual history, the Egyptians developing a unique and outstanding civilization based on kingship, the Greeks evolving the concept of democracy, and the Celts ranging across Europe, extolling a warrior aristocracy whose prowess was honored by heroic deeds in battle. These three civilizations were eventually conquered by the superior military might of Rome, and if this book concentrates more on Roman methods and practice, it is because Rome subsumed these three other civilizations, concentrating on molding them into a coherent whole. The history of Rome is that of a controlled, politically organized republic becoming an ambitious expanding empire, consisting of 40 provinces, which at its zenith straddled the Mediterranean and expanded into central Europe. United under a competent, centralized government, the Roman administration allowed the civilizations it conquered to retain many of their individual characteristics and native Xll INTRODUCTION laws and customs. At the same time, it enhanced the development of food production and distribution by means of the introduction of new farming techniques and opportunities for trade. At its best, the Roman Empire provided strong government, established a network of roads along which goods could be carried, and provided conditions in which trade could flourish while under the protection of a disciplined regime. Toward the end of the fourth century A.D., this protection was men­ aced by the invasions of barbarian hordes, which both the Greeks and the Romans had despised. Yet though the empire disintegrated and the trading network col­ lapsed, the legacy of Rome was available to successive ages through the writings of Greek and Roman scholars. In addition, Greek and Roman writers interpreted Egyptian and Celtic customs. These have been used to provide firsthand evidence in this book. Egyptian culture is illustrated by hieroglyphics and scenes painted and carved on Egyptian tombs. Additional knowledge of the Celts comes from archaeological evidence and legends and mythologies, which have been passed down orally or were written down by scholars from the fifth century A.D. onward. Archaeology has provided an enormous amount of material, ranging from discoveries in tombs, paintings and carvings in pyramids, and discoveries in buried cities to more humble artifacts in the form of dining and kitchenware. Modern archaeologi­ cal techniques have revealed food remains, eating habits, methods of cooking, and the circumstances in which meals were eaten. All this evidence allows a considered estimate to be made of food produced and eaten in four great civilizations of the ancient world. There are other factors to be considered. Over the period of time considered in this book, society moved from a hunter-gatherer one to one preferring settled agriculture. This occurred at different times in dif­ ferent areas, but it began in the Near East about the ninth century B.C. and spread through Egypt, the Mediterranean, and northward throughout Europe. The result was a change from gathering wild plants to cultivating new ones in tended plots, from hunting animals to better breeding techniques, this in turn led to a more settled exis­ tence, an increase in population, organized societies, and a determina­ tion to keep and protect land, with the inevitable result of ensuing conflict. The four civilizations met and controlled this agricultural revolu­ tion in different ways, some more efficiently than others. They also expanded their knowledge of food by experimenting with preparing and cooking it and broadening their taste horizons. This was obvious INTRODUCTION xm with the expansion of the spice trade, importing new textures and flavors from different areas of the world and enhancing food experi­ ence. Curiosity is only one of the aspects by which human beings expand their knowledge; obtaining new foods and experimenting in food cultures allowed them to do this. Not everyone was able to enjoy this experience. For many in society, life was a hard existence dependent on climate, the state of the land, and the growth or failure of the harvest. Obtaining enough food to live at a subsistence level could be a struggle, especially during the winter months. Crop failures, poor or rotten food, food poisoning, and eating of plants with little value to humans were part of daily life. Many sought a protector or patron who would ensure a regular food supply or relied on private or public charity. In the Roman Empire at least half the population of the city of Rome was dependent on the state handout of grain, much of it shipped from Egypt and taken from the peasant society there. At the other end of the social scale were those having an ample supply of food with a wide variety of products and tastes. They could indulge or overindulge their appetites in a vari­ ety of ways, some seemingly bizarre to modern taste. This book con­ siders both these aspects of society as well as those who grew or gained sufficient food to live an uneventful life. It was during this period that urban life developed, resulting in a society that was a consuming, and not a producing, society. This group had to be fed, and arrangements were needed to do this. The result was improved trading methods, covering everything from transport to monetary calculations. This book also mentions other areas, such as the Near East and northern Europe, when comparisons need to be made or when new foods and cooking methods appear. It is written for the nonspecialist who wishes to know what food products were available, how they were cooked and served, what people ate, and how they ate then. It touches on the enjoyment, and sometimes disgust, that food gave to people. It relies, as indicated, on written and pictorial evidence supple­ mented by archaeological data, and where possible sets the food into its historical context. The texts are referenced, but other references are kept to a minimum. More detailed studies will be found in books and articles mentioned in the bibliography.
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