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The Dilemma Between Aluminum and Cast Iron

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The Dilemma Between Aluminum and Cast Iron energies Article Life-Cycle and Energy Assessment of Automotive Component Manufacturing: The Dilemma Between Aluminum and Cast Iron Konstantinos Salonitis , Mark Jolly * , Emanuele Pagone and Michail Papanikolaou Manufacturing Theme, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedford, MK43 0AL, UK * Correspondence: m.r.jolly@cranfield.ac.uk; Tel.: +44 (0)1234 758347 Received: 6 June 2019; Accepted: 30 June 2019; Published: 3 July 2019 Abstract: Considering the manufacturing of automotive components, there exists a dilemma around the substitution of traditional cast iron (CI) with lighter metals. Currently, aluminum alloys, being lighter compared to traditional materials, are considered as a more environmentally friendly solution. However, the energy required for the extraction of the primary materials and manufacturing of components is usually not taken into account in this debate. In this study, an extensive literature review was performed to estimate the overall energy required for the manufacturing of an engine cylinder block using (a) cast iron and (b) aluminum alloys. Moreover, data from over 100 automotive companies, ranging from mining companies to consultancy firms, were collected in order to support the soundness of this investigation. The environmental impact of the manufacturing of engine blocks made of these materials is presented with respect to the energy burden; the “cradle-to-grave approach” was implemented to take into account the energy input of each stage of the component life cycle starting from the resource extraction and reaching to the end-of-life processing stage. Our results indicate that, although aluminum components contribute toward reduced fuel consumption during their use phase, the vehicle distance needed to be covered in order to compensate for the up-front energy consumption related to the primary material production and manufacturing phases is very high. Thus, the substitution of traditional materials with lightweight ones in the automotive industry should be very thoughtfully evaluated. Keywords: Manufacturing; energy efficiency; life-cycle assessment; aluminum; cast iron 1. Introduction Over the years, the material selection for modern car components changed a lot. As a reference, in the 1970s, a design engineer would have to select from four to five sheet forming grades, whereas today there are more than 50 options [1]. A number of material selection criteria need to be considered including corrosion and wear resistance, crashworthiness, and manufacturability. At the same time, legislation pushes for lighter vehicles, on the basis that lighter cars result in lower fuel consumption. Since 1995 in Europe, the average car CO2 emission requirement dropped from 186 g/km to 161 g/km in 2005, and it is expected to further reduce to 95 g/km in 2021 [2]. For achieving these requirements, automotive manufacturers opt to use aluminum alloys in vehicles as a “lightweight” material. The average usage of aluminum (Al) in a passenger car varies from 12% to 60% depending on the vehicle. With regard to cast Al alloys, these are mostly used for engine blocks, cylinder heads, and wheels, although they are increasingly used for nodes in the chassis structure and can potentially reduce weight by 40%. Substituting with lower-density materials leads to lower tailpipe emissions; however, this does not consider the CO2 footprint of the materials used in the manufacturing of vehicles. The CO2 footprint of Energies 2019, 12, 2557; doi:10.3390/en12132557 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 Energies 2019, 12, 2557 2 of 23 footprint of any material is related to its embodied energy, which is a synonym of the “track record” of a material and the way it is produced. In every production phase, energy is needed for changing any material is related to its embodied energy, which is a synonym of the “track record” of a material the phase, geometry, and properties of the material. This energy is, thus, virtually embodied in the and the way it is produced. In every production phase, energy is needed for changing the phase, material. Ashby et al. [3] presented the embodied energy of producing components for the geometry, and properties of the material. This energy is, thus, virtually embodied in the material. automotive industry and discussed the contribution of each life-cycle phase. According to their Ashby et al. [3] presented the embodied energy of producing components for the automotive industry investigation, the energy involved during the use phase of a vehicle is much larger than that during and discussed the contribution of each life-cycle phase. According to their investigation, the energy the material extraction and manufacturing phase. Similar conclusions were reached by Sorger et al. [4] whoinvolved investigated during the the effects use phase of substituting of a vehicle an is aluminum much larger cylinder than thatblock during with a the newly material developed extraction one andmade manufacturing of cast iron (CI phase.). Their Similar results conclusions showed that were the reached CI engine by Sorgerblock presents et al. [4] some who investigatedsignificant the effects of substituting an aluminum cylinder block with a newly developed one made of cast iron (CI). advantages with respect to cost, energy savings, and CO2 emissions. TheirManufacturing results showed process that efficiency the CI engine can obviously block presents have a great some impact significant on the advantages energy consumption with respect to duringcost, that energy life-cycle savings, phase and of COthe2 vehiemissions.cle. Salonitis and Ball [5] highlighted the importance of energy efficiencyManufacturing for both manufacturing process effi ciencyprocesses can obviouslyand systems. have One a great of impactthe most on theenergy energy-consuming consumption manufacturingduring that processes life-cycle is phase casting of (when the vehicle. considering Salonitis all sub and-processes Ball [5] highlightedsuch as melting, the importance holding, of finishing),energy and efficiency a lot of for research both manufacturing is undertaken processes on how andto improve systems. its One energy of the efficiency most energy-consuming [6–10]. The castingmanufacturing process is used processes in the automotive is casting (when sector considering for the manufacturing all sub-processes of a number such asof melting,components holding, bothfinishing), in the powertrain and a lot ofand research in the isbody undertaken in white on (BIW) how. toA improvecouple of its attempts energy e ffiwereciency also [6 reported–10]. The on casting the useprocess of different is used inmaterials the automotive for the casting sector forof automotive the manufacturing components of a number [11,12]. of components both in the powertrainThe objective and of in the the present body ininvestigation white (BIW). is Ato coupleestablish of a attempts methodology were alsofor the reported environmental on the use of impactdiff erentassessment materials of substitution for the casting of material of automotives in thecomponents automotive sector [11,12]. so as to improve the current decision-Themaking objective practices of the in the present automotive investigation sector. The is to discussion establish ais methodologyon whether Al foralloys the are environmental a better optionimpact than assessment cast iron (CI), of substitution when the total of materials energy burden in the automotive is considered sector (and so not as toonly improve the tailpip the currente emissions).decision-making For assessing practices the energy in the required, automotive an extensive sector. The literature discussion review is on was whether undertaken Al alloys, and are a overbetter 100 experts option thanfrom cast the iron automotive (CI), when supply the total chain, energy such burden as original is considered equipment (and notmanufacturers only the tailpipe (OEMsemissions).), engineFor design assessing consultancy the energy firms, required, foundries, an extensive mining literaturecompanies, review primary was alloy undertaken, producers and, over and100 recycling experts companies, from theautomotive as well as machining, supply chain, heat such treatment as original, and impregnation equipment manufacturers companies, were (OEMs), contacted.engine The design case consultancy study selected firms, wa foundries,s the engine mining block, companies, as it is the single primary heaviest alloy producers,component and in most recycling passengercompanies, cars. as well as machining, heat treatment, and impregnation companies, were contacted. The case study selected was the engine block, as it is the single heaviest component in most passenger cars. 2. Methodology: Assessment Approach 2. Methodology: Assessment Approach Focusing only on the use phase, or only on the manufacturing phase for the assessment of the overall environmentalFocusing only impact on the useof a phase, product or onlydoes onnot the allow manufacturing for a full understanding phase for the of assessment the whole of the picture.overall The environmental “cradle-to-grave” impact approach of a product aims doesto include not allow the energy for a full consumption understanding that of occurs the whole due picture.to resourceThe “cradle-to-grave” extraction and approachprocessing, aims component to include and the energyproduct consumption assembly, thatuse, occurs and dueend- toof- resourcelife processingextraction of a and vehicle processing, (Figure component1). The evaluation and product of
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