Planning History Bulletin

1983 Volume 5 Number 1

Planning History Group PLANNING HISTORY BULLETIN 1983 Vo1.5 No.1

CONTENTS

CHAIRMAN ' S NOTE

TREASURER ' S NOTE

MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES

Planning 1930-1960 Planning History Group Meeting , Oxford, September 1983 Geddes at Dundee Planning f o r Health, 1850-1950

BOOK REVIEWS

John Hall, The Geography of pLanning decisions (Derek Gunby) 4

Derek Fraser (ed) , Municipal. reform and the industria~ city 5 (Richard Dennis) F .M.L. Thompson (ed) , The rise of suburbia (James H. Johnson ) 6

THESES 8

PUBLICATIONS 10

NOTES AND NEWS 1 3

NEW MEMBERS 14

WORK IN PROGRESS 16

ARTICLES

John Sulman and ' the laying out of towns'. 18 Robert Freestone.

Site- planning and the contro l of social behaviour: the 24 'ideology' of residential areas. Gilles Barbey.

Factory housing in early Victorian Lancashire. S.M. Gaskell. 29

Ostend and Antwer in the 33 e.

A hundred years behind? Thomas Hall.· 38 Chairman's Note

The term of office for the following members of the Executive will come to an end in August 1983:

U.K. non-U.K.

Or M. Cuthbert, Department of Town and Country Or M.J. Bannon, Department of Regional and Urban Planning, Heriot-Watt University Planning, University College Dublin Or S.M. Gaskell, Assistant Principal, City of Ms Eugenie Birch, Graduate Programme in Urban Liverpool College of Higher Education Planning, Hunter College New York Or M. Hebbert, London School of Economics Professor B.A. Brownell , Department of Urban Studies, University of Alabama Or R.J.P. Kain, Department of Geography, Uni­ versity of Exeter Mrs Christiane Col1ins, Adam L. Gimbel Library, Parsons School of Design New York Ms Joan E. Draper, History of Architecture and Art Department, University of Illinois Professor D. Hu1chanski, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto

The Group's Constitution provides for an annual opportunity for new blood on the Executive. There is, therefore, an annual election system based on a postal ballot. The names of those PHG members wishing to offer themselves for election o r re-election should be submitted to me in writing not later than 30 June 1983. There are no requirements for proposers or seconders.

If there are more than the required number of names submitted (four for UK; six for non-UK) there will be an election by postal ballot, and voting slips will be enclosed in the August number of the BuUetin. The December issue will announce the result, but the Executive will be in post before then.

Exhortations to membe rs to pay their annual subscription early in the year seem to have been well received, particularly in the UK where 73% of the 139 members have already paid. For non-UK countries the figure is 54% of 138 members, so there is still some way to go. If you have not yet cleared your 1983 membership subscription please do so quickly.

The Editor has been able to assemble a number of papers of international interest for this issue. The broad breadth of appeal is certainly something we wish to main­ tain and indeed develop: over to you, please bombard him with your offerings!

Gordon E. Cherry TREASURER'S NOTE

PLANNING HISTORY GROUP: BALANCE SHEET FOR 1982

E Income E Expenditure

Balance from 1981 1192.17 Bulletin printing costs (4 issue s) 4 81 . 98 subscriptions for 1982 1113 . 35 550 . 10 Subs for other years 103.80 Membership Mailing 1217.13 Administration & Charges 7 6. 72 1 42. 30 Publications leaflets 225.00 Tax Interest on deposit accounts 110. 52 11 5 1.10 surplus on Dublin seminar 156 . 36 Carry forward to 1983 1750. 08

E2901.18 E2 90 1.1 8

Bank Accounts at 31.12.82

General Fund Current 298.42 Deposit 11)67.73 Giro a /c 88 .15 Helf for General Fund in seminar a/c 179.93 2 in Dublin 115.85

E1 750 . 08

Notes 1. Income tax paid on deposit account interest for the year 1981- 2 2. Held in local currenc y converted at Invoice Rate at 31.12.82 of El.OO El. 165 lRL

I confirm that I have audited this set of accounts as at 31.12.82 a nd they appear to be in order.

(signed) J . L. Batty Assistant Manager, Williams & Glyns Bank PLC 2 . 2.83

1982 was yet another successful year financially for the Gr oup which lea ves u s w1 th a healthy balance f or the coming year. Though expenditure was at the level predic t ed , income far exceeded my perhaps rather cautious estimate . Some sources of income arc unpredictable, however; partic ularly the surpluses on seminars and the payments for t he distribution of publishers ' leaflets. You should n ote t hat the first c all o n the surplus from the Dublin seminar will be for the eventual public atio n o f the Dubl1n papers, which leaves a true balance for general purposes of just under E1,600 .

Costs are continuing to rise, inevitably. A.bigger BuLLe ti ncosts more t o print and mo r e to send by post. Two factors look likely to increase expenditure rather faster 1n 198 4

than even the enlarged BuLLetin and general price increases would suggest. The f i rst l S that for the first time we are having to use outside printers for the production o f the BuLLetin rather than the cheaper Un iversity of Birmingham Print Unit. The seco nd is that o ur fixed costs for administration are also likely to rise from t h eir currently very low level. Wh ereas for the first, an increase in membership only increases costs pro rata, for the second, an increase in membership will help to reduce average c osts, so there is an added incentive· for us to find new members. Philip Booth two events, both of which included con­ Meetings and Conferences tributions from Helen Meller whose book­ length re-appraisal of the Scottish sage PLANNING 1930-1960: A PERSONIFIED is near completion. In Marcn a one day DEBATE symposium was organised by the Department The Centrum voor Stedebouwkundige Ges­ of Town and Regional Planning o f the chiedschrijving (Centre for Urban His­ Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and toriography) is organising a Planning University of Dundee to mark the Geddes History Seminar on this theme at Leuven anniversary. In the centenary year of University on 28- 29 April, 1983. The the University, it also marked his con­ provisional programme includes contri­ nection with the then University College, butions on Doxiadis and Serge Chermayeff, Dundee, where he was part-time professor and on the course of French and German of botany from 1888-1919. The symposium reconstruction after 1945. An English programme began with a short introduction text of most lectures will be available to Geddes in Dundee, by Or Donald South­ in mimeo- form, and the proceedings and gate, the author of the o ffical Univer­ papers will be published in a special sity history. A public lecture was given issue of the Dutch architectural maga­ by Dr Helen Meller on the Indian town zine, Wonen - TA/BK. Admission to the planning reports of Geddes, based upon Seminar is free, and hotel accommodation her SSRC sponsored researches in India. and meals can be arranged. For further The two papers in the afternoon session details, contact Lucia Adams, c/o were : ' What is living and what is dead Centrum voor Stedebouwkundige Geschied­ in the work of Patrick Geddes?' by John schrijving, I . I.S.R.O. , Celestijnenlaan Hasse1gren, and 'Retrospect on the Out­ 131, Belgium 3030 Leuven (Heverlee) look Tower' by Dr Mi chael Hebbert (a (tel. 016/22.09.31, extension 1695). lively attack on the Geddes ' legend'). The proceedings of the symposium are available in a special occasional paper PLANNING HISTORY GROUP MEETING : (No.8) priced £2.00, available from Dr SEPTEMBER 16-17, 1983 John Moir, Department of Town and Region­ Oxford Polytechnic al Planning, Duncan of Jordanstone Col­ Details are currently being finalised lege of Art, Perth Road, Dundee DOl 4HT. for a two-day Planning History Group Meeting. The first day will focus on In November Helen Meller returned to con­ planning and economic change. The sec­ tribute to a symposium organised by the ond day will include a half-day trip to Historians' Committee of the Duncan of sites of planning history interest in Jordanstone College of Art, entitled Oxfordshire, and a half-day on the sec­ 'Art, Design and the Quality of Life in ond theme of 'Images of the Future City turn of the century Scotland 1890-1910'. in Film'. Dr Meller spoke about ~atrick Geddes and "City Development" in Scotland'. There Fuller details and booking slip are en­ are plans to publish the talks given in closed with this issue of the BuZ.Z.etin. this two-day event in the near future. Enquiries should be addressed to Stephen JOHN HASSELGREN Ward, Department of Town Planning, Department of Town & Regional Planning Oxford Polytechnic, Gypsy Lane, Oxford.

PLANNING FOR HEALTH 1850-1950 GEODES AT DUNDEE A joint conference of the Planning History The 50th anniversary of Patrick Geddes' Group and the Society for the Social His­ death has bee n celebrated in Dundee by tory of Medicine was held in early Dec- 2 3

f ound e rs , d id no t g i ve enough respo nsi­ When the NHS wanted to expand the hospi­ ember 1982 at t he Pauling Human Sc i e nc es the 1~ th c e n tury. Or Garside argued that bi l ity to th e i nd i v i dual for h i s o wn tal system in the 19 50s and 1960s the Centre, Univer sit y o f Oxford. Health g o vernment response t o the problem had health to which h e s hould contri bute by history o f hospital building in the and social conditions h ave been linked l e s s t o d o with market forces or s ocial a s ma l l fee and participation in the Manchester area had created inequalities 1.n the public mind sinc e t he last c en­ justice than wi th the perception of the soci a l activities of the Centr e. Not from which four types o f development emer­ tury, and even in t he 19th century there pro ble m as solvable within a limited time surprisingl y t he Centre d id not gain the ged. There were those towns where the was an attempt thr o ug h legislation to and with limited resources. vo luntary hospitals or the municipal hos­ eli minate what we r e seen to be the s uppo r t of t he Medi cal Of f i cer o f Health In 1919 there were two distinct problems o r l oca pitals expanded , or wher e geog~aphical and c auses of i ll-health in the mass o f the l GPs , and after t he war nego­ which bo th seemed overwhelming: a simple t i political problems produced a mis -match populati on . One ve ry interesting result a t ions wi t h t he NH S f ailed and it sho rtage ot houses for the needs of the in what was needed and what was provided. to emerge from t h i s c o nference was the c l osed . population, although it was recogn ised And fina lly , there were areas where new realisation tha t the definition of ill­ Or Ch a rles We b s t e r ( Dir ector , W ellcomc that the need was of a specific type of hospitals had to be built. Or Pickstone ness and health c hange s constantly. It Unit f o r the History of Medi c i ne) set dwelling in certain specific areas; and analysed the cotton towns according to would not be wise for the historian to the f i lm in the conte xt o f the evoluti on overcrowding of the urban populations in their post-war development and showed take the assump t ions of the planner at o f h ealth centre s. Lord Dawson, c hair­ worn-out housing. In their legislation ho w they fell into the four categories their face va l ue . ma n of the commis s ion w hich produced the the Government tackled the first problem of development by virtue of the pre-war Oawson Re po rt in 1920 , w as already in Or Michael Ha rrison (Birmingham Poly­ of new overcrowding by providing dwellings legacy of hospital provision. 19 18 wo rki ng o ut the model for a s ystem technic) t ook for the not for slum dwellers, but for those who starting point of of healt h centres based on his experien­ Martin Valins (MARU, Polytechnic of h1.s paper Manchester's high death rate under 'normal' circumstances would be ces in the Army Medical Corps . One of North London) concluded the day with a in 1868 and the very slow progre ss tha t a ble to find their own housing. The old the succe ssf ul cen t r es was the Finsbury summary of primary health care from 1911 was made unt i l 1 9 14. At first the r ea­ slums were left as they were while an Healt h Cen t r e, a p r oject of the public and the introduction o f the n ational l.n­ s o ns for the h igh death rate appear o b­ Unhe althy Areas Committee was established health authorit y , which was built in an surance bill until the present. With vious enough : o r ganic filth; o verc r owd ­ t o repo rt on the situation. The solution inner city are a with severe housing prob­ the advent of mass health car e there was ing; smoke pollution, etc . In fact, they c ame up with was no wholesale slum lems a nd e xpected to ser ve a population always the question of who should pay and ' poverty ' provides a large part of the clearance, but amelioration and housing of 70 , 000. La ter, during the political for what. At various times health cen­ explanation. The peo ple who suffered management to be c onfined to selected un­ d e bate o n wha t f o r m a comprehensive tres were seen as an equita ble solution, most from an unhealthy environment were healthy area schemes . health service should assume , t he con­ but GPs , afraid they would lose their those with least power to change their By 1930 time had run out in the urban cept o f the health c ent re became a con­ autonomy and become involved in e x pense , lot i n life. Suc h a change was attem­ centres and connections were being made trove rsia l i s sue . were r eluctant to join them. In 1963 pted , inst ead , by the Medical Officers between poverty and poor housing. Legis­ The ne xt s pe ake r, Or J. Pickstone the ' Doctors ' Charter ' , whic h provided of Health a nd those middle class assoc­ lation was enacted with the intention of (UMIST ) sta rted from t he fact that in a direct reimbur sement to cove r the major iations whi c h b o the red themselves with attacking the overcrowded slums, but even 19 48 the NH S had a p r oblem planning a cost of ancillary staff and the rent of the health of t he general population. these measures were deliberately limited hospita l system from an already exist­ premises , made health centres an attrac­ The Manches t e r St a tistical Society was in their e f fect because once again it was i ng hospital stock w hich had evolved tive proposition, especially as it had such a body. The health o f Manc hester realised that the full problem would in­ without previ ous planni ng . A study of been discovered how expensive hospitals d1.d not improve , h owever, until city­ volve an unacceptable level of public ex­ hospital p r ovision in the cotton towns were t o run. From 1966 until 1974 and wide improvements in the provision o f penditure. around the reorganisation of the NHS, health pure water and adequate sewage disposal . Manche s t er in 1939 has revealed centres One o f the great pleasures of the confer­ t wo hospit a l t y pes. These were the continued t o be built. In 1971 A significant point wh i ch emerged from the ence was the film about the Peckham Health voluntary hos pitals , dating from t he General Practice Financ e Corporation the discussion f oll owing Or Harrison ' s Centre. The film was made immediately philanthr opic act ivities of Victorian was set up to p r ovide interest-free loans paper was that fashio ns in diagnosis after the second world war by the Central industrialists . They were usually in for GP premi ses. Now the direct subs1.dy somet imes make it difficult to correlate Office of Information for the Foreign the centre o f t he town a nd deal t with to the GPs to up- date their premises or the death rate with the causes of death. to Office to show Britain rising from the acut e a nd sur gica l c a ses . The second build new ones has become the favoured Thi s makes the interpretation of the ashes. The founders of the Centre wanted group cons isted of Poor Law Hosp itals way of financi ng primary health care. statistics very much more problematic to emphasise the preventative element in whic h we re a d ministe r ed by the Publ i c The f inal d i scussion brought comments tha n might o therwise be expected. health care and so set up the Peckham Health Committee o f the l ocal a utho rity . f r om b oth the histor ians a nd those e n­ The s e hospitals we re usua lly furthe r Or P .L. Garside (Polytechnic of North Health Centre as a recreational and so­ gaged in t he a dministration of health f rom the town centre a nd were concerned London) dealt with the problem of ' over­ cial c l ub where members were given regu­ care. Concer n wa s expressed about pres­ with the chronically i l l a nd psych iatr ic crowding' whic h had been considered one lar medical examinations or ' overhauls' . en t d evelopmen ts which had been set in cases. of the elements in unhealthy areas from State health care, according to the con tex t by t he day ' s speakers. The 5 4

Derek Fraser (ed.) Municipal reform and the much more concerned with this internal answer is often very little influence, general conclusion was that the joint industrial city (1982), Leicester Univer­ competition for power than with a fear of conference had been very illuminating to as has been demonstrated by the work of sity Press, 165pp, £12.00. ISB~ 0 7185 the poor, despite the image so frequently Blowers (1) and McConaghy (2). Hall both the planning historians and those 1176 X. (Themes in Urban History series) presented of a city of two polarised clas­ involved with medicine, by suggesting uses six case studies, based on a modi­ ses. Moreover, Manchester's class struc­ This collection of three essays on l-1an­ the many assumptions lying be~ind deci­ fied Coleman typology of scapes, to ture was complicated by the existence of chester, Leeds and Bradford is derived sions taken in planning for health. illustrate the range of conflicts gener­ a substantial petty middle class of shop­ from recent doctoral theses, and pre­ ated by recent major investment decis­ keepers and craftsmen, and it was this TANIS HINCHCLIFFE faced by a general introduction by Dcrek ions. Disappointingly he fails to gener~ class that underpinned Liberal success in Urban Planning Research Unit, Fraser . At first sight, it might appear Polytechnic of North London alise from the case studies, or to use parliamentary elections and its control to allow a direct comparison of govern­ them to illuminate his review of the of the c ouncil after 1838. What the coun­ ment in three of England's foremost planning process attempted in the last cil actually did is not discussed. Incor­ northern industrial cities . Although Book Reviews chapter of the book . To my mind all six poration was about local democracy: the the essays do touch on common issues - studies show that, faced with crucial Municipal Corporations Act defined the John Hall, The geography of pLanning decisions, for example, the role of the ' shopocracy' planning decisions, the Government has electorate, but did not specify the acti­ {1982) , Ox ford University Press : Theory and the effect of the Small Tenements always opted for ad-hoc mechanisms which should spend Rating Act - they are not in practice vities on which Corporations and practice in geography series, 62pp, by-pass the local statutory town-planning truly comparative. Rather, they follow their time. £2.50, ISBN 0 19 874034 4. system, invariably strengthening central the spirit of Briggs ' Victorian Cities. Gattrell's paper is the most elegantly control at the expense of local democracy. It is symptomatic of such a small volume Each essay emphasises a particular theme, argued of the three, but it is probably covering such a large subject that it The book contains a very lucid historical as illustrated by the experience of a of less interest to planning historians . survey of town planning, concentrating should conclude with a series of questions single city. than either the essay by Barber on Leeds onwards. My one quibble is John Hall manages to pack a surprising on the 1930s o rd . The former Fraser' s introduction identifies three or by Elliott on Bradf the extent to which amount of detail into this slim book but that it underplays ities of Leeds themes central to research on the his­ e xamines the varied activ naturally raises many more hares than he the town-planning framework was largely 1835 and 1914, almost tory of local government: an interest in Corporation between has ground to run down. This is not to established before the second world war. central-local relations (undergoing a to the exclusion of a political dimension, say the book is not valuable. The neat, The war experience enabled the legisla­ revival as these relations loom large in perhaps because the latter has been so brisk style of writing is well-suited for tors to exploit the already-established current political science); a focus on thoroughly covered in previous studies by the intended audience of geography under­ framework to the limit, although they the sources of political power, the so­ Fraser and Hennock. Far from being a graduates, sixth-form teachers, councillors failed to link planning to central pub­ cial composition of voters, councillors pioneer act of concerned l ocal government, and laypersons interested in the planning lic expenditure. This weakness became and officials; and an inventory of the the Leeds Improvement Act of 1842, like system. With an admirable economy of style more evident, as Hall shows, during the extension of urban administration into the Liverpool Sanitary Act of 1846, was presents an up-to-date overview of growth decade of the 60s and, with the Hall introduced for fear of something incre~singly diverse fields - from muni­ actually Britain ' s statutory town planning system. onset of stagnation and recession, in cipal sewers by way of municipal trams 'worse' being imposed by central govern­ The clarity of the prose is matched by the 70s and 80s. It has undoubtedly to municipal orchestras. The three ess­ ment. Here, in his discussion of nego­ the crisp diagrams and the purpos~ful use been an important factor constraining ays that follow his lntroduction consol­ tiations between the council a nd Local of refe r e nces. the way planning decisions have been able idate these fields of interest and pro­ Government Board over slum c learance and to affect the geography of Britain. Hall's main concern is to show how the vide valuable case studies. They do rebuilding, and in a brief review of DEREK GUNBY planning p r ocess operates and what are the not, however, take the history of local local government finance, Barber is con­ 1. A. Blowers, The Limits of Power ( 1980) , attendant problems and issues. In this, government in any new direction. cerned with central- local relations. But Oxford, Pergamon Press. for the most part, his sto r y is confined he succeeds well. The title of the book The essay on Manchester is only concerned t o the third of Fraser' s themes, e xplor­ and Hall ' s stated purpose, namely ' to show 2. D. McConaghy , Setting up Six Towns: with the second of Fraser's themes, and ing the justification for successive ex­ how statutory planning is contributing to An Urban Strategy Gap , Town Pl.anning with the obtaining of incorporated stat­ ~ensions of local authority control . the changing geography of towns and coun­ Review, (1978), 49 (2). us in 1838. It ends with incorporation, Early on it was agreed that l ocal author­ try in Britain' are, however, too ambit­ Plartning in a Critical Decade, The which is where the others begin, and is ities should provide necessary functions ious in such a limited format. The ques­ Planner, (19 81 ) , 6 7 ( 1 ) . concerned with the struggle for power be­ which private enterprise failed to supply: tion as to how much influence town plan­ tween a loose knit, outward-looking sewers, paving, lighting, but not water, ning has exerted on the investment decis­ Toryism and a close-knit, inward-looking private agencies is of gas or other utilities where it was assum­ ions of public and Uni ~ arian Liberalism. Gattrell stresses ed that competition between private com­ central concern to all practising plan­ that the Manchester middle classes were ers and students of the system. Sadly the panies would ensure a satisfactory supply. 6 7

London subu When it became apparent t hat these ut­ F.M.L. Thompson (ed) ( 1982), The rise of f or suburban life as given , or at least rb between 1841 and 1881. workment ' s cheap ilities too were supplied on terms which suburbia, Leicester University Press, to assume that, once the desire for sub­ fares were fought off amounted to monopolies, local government Themes in urban history series, 274 pp. , urban homes had been establshed, the and the e xtension of a tramway to the felt justified in taking control. It £22.00, ISBN 0 312 68433 9. creation of further suburbs was almost town was resisted, so that, by the late was also argued that if the c.orporation 1870s, Bromley had become a wealthy As in earl ier volumes in the series, the self- sustaining. After 1830, those who maintained the roads, it should also have middle-class suburb with many of its book consists of contributions from a controlled the supply of suburban houses responsibility for the pipes, cables and middle-classes working in London. Its number of research theses, specially sum­ could assume a continuing demand . The rails embedded in or underneath them. peak in population expansion occurred marised for this book. The impact of question which developers addressed was Public housing, however , proved harder between 1861 and 1871. each is heightened by being presented how to fit a particular housing develop­ to justify, particularly when central with other similar work and, in particular, me nt into the precise needs of a local Michael Jahn ' s contribution is concerned government forbad the building of hou­ by being pre faced by a perceptive editor­ market . The emphasis i n r esearch , there­ with suburban development in outer west ses a t rents affordable by the poor, ial introduction , which reveals the fore , becomes o ne of discovering how, London between 1850 and 1900, an area whose needs were ignored by private ent­ broader perspective of nineteenth- century why and when urban residential shapes on which included Acton, Chiswick and Han­ erprise. suburban development in Britain. the ground took on the particular form well , and a period which saw three booms Elliott ' s paper covers a shorter time­ they did . in house- building. The course of this Professor Thompson's scholarly overview span, from 1837 to 1860, but is the only Thompson extracts four general points general middle-class development contras­ of nineteenth century suburban growth one to cover all three o f the themes from the local studies presented here. ted with much of metropolitan Essex and begins in 1815 and ends in 1939. Although identified by the edit o r. The distinc­ One was the recurring importance of pre­ the Lea valley. There were also detailed the idea of the superioL residential sub­ tion between pro- incorporation Liberals urban features of landownership and land­ differences related to the local pattern urb c ertainly e xisted earlier, it was not and anti- incorporation Tories pare lleled scape, which in turn affected the precise of landownership, the attitudes of dif­ in his view until after 1815 that ' modern' t he situation in Manchester, but the form of urban development. A second was ferent railway companies to the type of suburban development occurred on a sig­ 'shopocracy ' was never as powerful. As the manner in which transport services traffic they were attempting to attract, nificant scale. He also argues that in Leeds, bye-laws promised more than assumed varying r oles in different situ­ and the timing of initial residential residential expansion has been much more they delivered. I t was one thing to ations: the p r esence of a railway station, developments . in t he f o rm of physically legislate against pollution, another to - distinct towns, for e xample, was a necessary, but not a C. urbanized villages, infilling and redev­ Treen's chapter examines the process enforce the legislation, especially where sufficient, condition f or outer suburban of suburban development in north Leeds eloped o lder suburbs since the end of the the lawbreakers were councillors and prom­ growth. A thi r d element was the mixed second world war rather than massive from 1870 to 1914. This was an area of i nent industrialists. Elliott also re­ social character of nineteenth-century sub-urbanisation around the outer fringe about 12 square miles and grew around assesses central-local relations, arguing subu rban districts, wh ich at the very of large cities. several distinct foci for new development. that the initiative invariably lay with l e ast had t o include indoor servants and These clusters began to coalesce after local government. It was rarely a case Thompson a ccepts, but not without some a diverse array of service workers as well 1870 and, rather than the railway, the of a domina nt central authority imposing well-discussed areas of doubt, that the as middle-c lass residents if the suburb horse-drawn tram provided an important its wilal o n reluctant local board. evolving form of suburbs was an expres­ was to function e ffectively. Finally, stimulus to growth. While Elliott's paper is the most wide­ sion o f the rise of a distinctive bourg­ suburban growth in any particular dis­ Finally M.C. Carr explores the develop­ ranging , its parts unfortunately do not eois ideology, f or which the detached or trict wa s not a continuous process: it was ment and character of Bexley in Kent. add up to a satisfactory whole: sections semi-detached house, set in its own gar­ long drawn- out and much i nterrupted. The He is essentially concerned with suburb­ on the electoral geography and social den, provided a necessary context. The endemic over-optimism o f developers led to anisation after 1800. The growth of the composition o f Bradford councillors sit comp onents of this ideology included a the over-provision of housing and subse­ town as a dormitory took place between uneas~ly alongside discussions of public desire for a clear separation of work quent set- backs, t hus tending to produce 1880 and 1920; the 1920s were a period health and the po lice. a nd home, an insistence o n the need to a contrasting patchwork of architectural distance one ' s family from those of lower of transition in its becoming a metro­ In sum, this is a useful collection of styles and social classes. social status , and a view of the home as politan suburb; Bexley emerged finally essays, far from comprehensive, challen­ Three of the four substantive studies in a feminine domain. It also embraced an as a mature suburb in the 1930s. Carr ging o rthodox wisdom on a number of im­ the book are concerned with parts of met­ emphasis on domestic privacy, a society .envisages a situation in which the pace portant issues , but more often reinforc­ ropo litan London, whic h makes it possible based on male economic dominance and fe ­ and scale of suburban growth were deter­ ing than rewriting our knowledge of to compare various types of development. male domestic subordination , and a code mined by broader influences, operating nineteenth-century local government. On ly one chapter penetrates the suburbs of morality nurtured by home-based family o n a national and metropolitan level, RICHARD DENNIS of a large city in the north of England. life. but with the detailed spatial pattern of Department of Geography, J.W. Rawcliffe examines the evolution of the suburb being decided by more local University College London The authors of the substantive studies in Bromley from a Kentish market town to a factors. In particular, an important this book feel able to take the demand 8 9 role w.1s pl.1y.ad by earlier development , The basic research methods were t o exam­ t o l ocal circumsta nces and needs . Al­ sty le of city planning had emerged, em­ 1nto wh1ch further suburban reside ntial ine deposited plans relating to the study tho ugh the Norwegian c apital o btaine d phas i sing the use of terr ain , and relying growth h.1d to be fitted . area , in o rder t o t r ace the devel opmen t its firs t m o dern building laws in 1827 , on Norwegian housing types , notably the of the existing housing stock, and to Th1s useful book is elegantly produced and the o ther cities by 1850 , c ity p l a n­ detached house . and carefully cd1ted. One can under­ carry out site visit s t o r ecor d b uildings n i ng was fragmented, cove ring m any In the same period, housing sho rtages stand why a book of this kind must cost a nd their architectur a l chara c t er. It fields . Among these were health r e ­ and overcrowding , as well as poo r h ous ­ E22 1n the bookshops, but it was then possible to a nalyse the persons remains a f o rms, building designs, architecture ing conditi ons f o r the working class, m.1tte r for r e gret that it is clearly and processes involved and t o assess the and road- and street-engineering . The became a major concern and aroused poli­ destined for library shelves rather than e nd product . The findin gs a re r e l a t ed latter dominated city planning . This tica l i n terest. The health and ' moral t o housin g the bookcases of individual scholars devel opment gener a lly in study traces the evolution of c i t y pla n­ standards ' o f l arger cit ies, as well as where it certainly deserves to nineteenth-century L eeds and t o othe r be ning from 1850 to 1905, focussing o n amon g peasan ts a nd labourers in rural found . Even libraries have to think relev a n t stud i es o f the Vic torian suburb . the various professions involve d, im­ area s , called fo r i mprovemen ts . The twice about paying this much for an The study area dat a indicate thre e major provement of health , social hous ing, No rwegian Society f o r Housing Reforms , 1nd1vidual book , at a time when s ub­ conclusions . Fi r st , t he trad ition that laws and regulations, and politic al id­ with c l ose con nect ions to the interna­ scrlptions f o r periodicals are bei ng builders erected the majority o f s pecu­ eas . Military engineers yie lded t o tion al garden city movement , tried to cut . The work is we l come , but i s the lative houses b y using rule - of-thumb c ivil engineers and architec t s ; s terile att ack these problems by means o f infor­ format right ? methods and standar d pattern books does g ridplan cities were the n o rm of plan­ mation , education and moral pressure . JA.HES H. JOHNSON not seem t enabl e when t he comp l e xi t i es ning p rac tice. Small technica l depart ­ It flourished for some years. Its inspir­ me nts were esta Department of Geogr aphy of building legisl ation, t h e t y pe of blished in t he lar ge r ation was late r reflected particularly U~1vers ity of Lancaster cities. The pri builder i n volved and the professional mary aim was t o p r epare in the organisat ion of social housing. advisers concer ned are e xamined sho rt term plans . Sec­ for city g r owth and to The various efforts to solve hous1ng ondly , the areas of specul a t ive te impro ve fire protecti r race o n a nd s anita ry problems did not , however, begin t o pro­ Theses housing , although appar ently homogeneous s tandards. duce r esult s until after World War II. in character , w ere us ual l y car r i ed out From about 1905 the new ide a s o f Cami l l o F . Trowell , Nineteenth century specul.ative There was a s t eady increase in the num­ on a piecemeal basi s , wi thout an y plan­ Sitte inspired developments in Swe d e n ilc...using i~1 Leeds, with special. r eference to the ber of b uilding l a ws with planning p r ov­ ning policy to relate t h em to o t he r ad­ and Germany. 'Straight line ' planni ng suburb of fleadingl.ey, 1838- 1914 , unpublished isions through the period. In 192 4 a join i n g estat es . Thirdly, the involve ­ was replaced with curves. Zoning was D.Phi l . thesis , Institute of Advanced quit e advanced law was enacted, and me n t of the a r c hite ctu ral pro f ession in use d t o protect housing 3reas from heavy Architectural Studies , Un i versi t y of carri ed into effect in 1929 . This req­ t he design of o r d inary ho using was fa r traffic and the growing industry, a n d Yo rk, September 1982 , t h ree volumes. u i r ed all t owns and urban areas t o carry greater t ha n p r evious r e s earch w o u l d t o c urb public expe nditure o n r oads . suggest . o u t c i ty plan ning to professional stan­ This thesis examines the process by S l owly more attention was a l so p a i d to dards . It also r equired specific admin- which areas of open fields were devel­ social housing, garden-city princ iples , istrative a r rangements. It remained in oped into peopled streets in the latter modern transporta tion, and pub lic l a nd ­ force until 1965. half of the nineteenth century , and the Rolf H. Jensen , The origin of modern city ownership. The young No rweg i a n planni n g Norweg extent to which the emerging local ar­ planning in Norway (Moderne Norsk BypZ.anZ.egging p rofes sio n managed in a s hort t ime t o i an city planning a chieved a n at­ ional resp chltectural p r ofession was involved, bZ.ir tit) , Ph . D. thesis i n Social Plan­ compete with the mo re develo ped Swedish ect and internatio nal fame 1n the 1920s both in th1s process and in detai led ning , Nordic Institute for Ur ban a nd and Finnish planners, through an e xte n­ with the help of Professor Sverre aspects of speculative housing desig n . Regional Studies , Stockholm, 1981 , 567 s ive and systematic use o f ope n c ity Pedersen . Pedersen ' s planning was based upon To ach1eve these aims , part of a sub­ pp., (in Norwegi a n ) , ISBN 91 86248 00 6 . planni n g competitio ns, the first t a k ing his eye for a city's natural urb of Leeds was selected as a repres­ p l a c e i n Trondheim in 190 9. The m ajo r features and his use o f t opography and Examines foundations of moder n c ity plan­ entative study area . I t contains hous ­ a spe c t s o f a plan were taken t o be : terr ain . Hi s forms gave impressio ns o f ning in Norway , as i ndicated by contem­ i ng of all types , ranging from detached transpo rtation (roads and t e rmina l s) , domin ant axial p atterns stressing natural porary technical journals and gen e r al v1llas to small back- to- back t erraces, land-use (industrial effic iency a s the viewpoints . Bu i l d i ngs were usually sym­ p l a n ning fiterature , especiall y that and was typical of subur ban a reas in most important criteria) , the l a yout fo r ~ t r i cally p laced a l o n g t he axis , inten­ written by Pr o f essor Sverre P edersen . (1) many o ther towns. The major s our ces o f different types of housing, d e sign of s ifying nature 's f o r ms with his designed o riginal and unpubli shed inf o r mati o n No rwegian c ity planne rs t ook a s t heir business districts, the location o f pub­ patte rn. He was inf lue n ced by h isto ry, comprised deposited estate plans , de­ models e xamp les from c las sica l pla n ning lic buildings (as monuments), and the especi all y the baro que period . A nation al posited building p l ans , a nd s ome house history a nd conte mporary modern c las sics creation of parks and recreational areas mo d e l o f g rea t impo rta nce was de Cicignon ' s deeds , all held by Leeds Corpo ratio n. f r om Eu rope a nd US A in t he latte r half which could also serve as buffer zones c ity-pla n for Tro ndhei m of 1681. Func ­ o f the 19th century . Each wa s a d a pted in case s of fire. By 1920 a more nationa l tio n alism reached No rway in the late 10 l I

l9~0s and ' JOs . Young radical socialist Highlight s t h e indirect effects of urban 1882 to 19 28 , they ranged Jn oc~l~ fr0m small borders to cornpll'tl' CJDrd,.ns intP­ ~t ch 1tccts campaigned for a new a nd d i f­ Pub I icat ions developme n t o n t he countryside by exam­ f~rcnt society . Science for them should ining the e n vironmental pro blems that fJr clLcd into the house plt.~n - from 'l<•mi• pl.ly .1 tund~mcnt.:~l role in planning , and Nige l Morg a n, An Intr oduction to t he arose from the urban abstraction of un­ wlld 9ardens to formal partl'rrrq ~nd planners ought to understand the political sociaL histo ry of hou s ing i n Victor ian derground water supplies , a s they were t ank garden s . The plans dt"vlL~d provldP lmplic~tions of their work . They should Praston (1982) Curriculum De ve l opme n t perceived i n H ertfordshire and Shrop­ many ideas Cor novel and unusual planl .:~lly themse l ves with the underprivileged centre , Lanc ashire Educ ation Committee , shir e , England , in the late n ineteen th associations a nd for plantln~ pl~nn Jn wotklny-class. Before long , however , 5 C amde n Plac e, Pre ston PR1 3DL, 116pp. a nd ear l y t we n tieth centuries. rnodern g.trdens of difforr>nt siu•s , •,o11•; , most of these young radicals had aban­ climate and aspect. Pre pare d at the Preston Curriculum De­ doned their i nternational models of de­ ve lopme nt Centre , as a means of supply­ Robin Fiowerdew (ed), Cnoiiiutiono and tached apartment-buildings and adopt ed ing t eac hers in loc al schools with mat­ aeoaraphical patterns ( 19 82 ) , London, Croo m E. P. llennock , Cen tral/local govr•.rnm('n L a more moderdte line to which m a ny of t he erials for a study of the local environ­ He lm, JJ l pp ., £14. 95 , ISBN 0 312 41806 relations ln England: c1n outlin(' 1800- tradltional city planning principles we r e ment, the booklet illustrates how some 8 . 1950 , Urban lliaiory Yttarbook ( 198/) J8-4'J. attached. During this period , region a l o f the more important historical sources I n t he p ublisher ' s series o n ' Geography planning was introduced as a logi c al e x­ The author has revised a paper , or191n~l c an be found and us ed in a reconstruc ­ a nd e nvironment', the volume illus trates tension of c1ty p lanning in order to ob­ ly given at t he SSRC seminar on thf' chan­ tio n o f the s ocial histo ry of Preston ' s the effects of institutio nal structure tain land needed for city growth. Rural g ing relations between central and locc1l ho us ing . Some o f the sources are ideally and action on such issues as rural dev­ areas and their natural resou rces were a government (held at the Univrrslty of suite d f o r prac tic al a nd first- hand elopment, industrial location , migratio n source of great concern . Most No r wegian York in 1980), in which he recounts how activity, e ve n with quite yo ung pupils . and environmenta l policy in Britain , the planners believed that people should local government evolved in the ec1rly The n i neteenth c entury is divide d into United States and Europe. Contributions continue to l1ve in small towns , instead n ineteenth century , the manner in which three pe riods , name l y the years up t o include : Institutio ns and rur al develop­ of migrating to the larger cities . knowledge was both centralised t.~nd dis­ 1850, 1850-1880 , and the period befo re ment , CORDON CLARK ; Institutions affec­ persed , the role o f central f)rant~, and Under the leadership o f Sverre Peder sen, the firs t wo rld war. A c ase study is ting environmental policy , THIOTIIY the changing character of centrdl/local Norwegian city planning stuck to its mad e o f the Plungington area. O' RIORDAN; Envir onmental policy a nd in­ relations during the present century. basic formul a of planning for recon­ dustri al location in the United States , struction during World War II . After the KEITII CHAPMI\N; The local s tate and tht" Lester Rowntree , Creating a sense of War, however, a very distin c t c h ange t ook judiciary ; i nstitutions in American s ub­ place : the evolution of historic pres­ /\ndre w Gibb , The developmtmt, of public or•f'tor place as a ne w generation of planners u rbia , R. J . JOHNSTON . in Glasgow (1982) Centre for Urban t ook over . In the pursuit of effect i ve e rvat ion of Salzburg, Austria, Jo~~ of housing Regional Research , University of modern recons t r uction, a nd abov e all in Urban History ( 19 81) 8 (1) , pp. 61-7 6 . a nd Mich ael a n d Rosanna Tooley , The gardens Glasgow, Adam Smith Building, Glasgow an effort to cope with city growt h and The process of creating and maintaining of Gertrude Jekyll i n northern £'ngZand ( 19 82 ) GJ 2 8RT , Discussion Paper 6 , 32 pp. new developme nt, the traditional Nor­ a unique sense of place began in the The Old Vicarage , W itton-le-Wear , I SSN 0263 1075. wegian planning model was a b a ndoned o n 1860s as a c onservative reac tion to the Bishop Auck land , Durham DL1 4 OAN , 60 pp., the prem1se that 1t was outdated o r threats o f new tec hnology and indust­ Outlines the development o[ munlcipdl £2 . 00. 1 rrelevant . A building heritage was al­ rialism to the traditional cityscape . involvement in the provision of housing most complet ely lost until a r enewed The paper describe s the role of Max Publi s hed to commemorate the fiftieth in Glasgow and the subsequent growth of 1nterest for the natio nal root s of mod­ Dvo rak and his catec hism for preserva­ anniversary of Miss Jekyll ' s death, it the public sector to its present role . ern city plann1ng came about i n the mo re tion, and the Historic Preservation Law descr ibes eight of the nineteen gardens Three approaches to the liv1ng environ­ unce r ta1n m1d 1970s . o f 1923 and its successor of 1967. An she designed in the north of England , ment may be discerned, beg1nning Hith ~ a nalysis o f the major steps taken over namely Br ackenbr ough , Dyke Nook Lo dge, broadly based assault on sanitation and architect, 1 . ( 1882-1971) , the c elebrat ed Lindisfarne , Re nish aw, Gledstone , planner and consultant . H e s e rved as the last hundred years supports the public health and , by the first world city planner in Trondheim un til , in no tion that landscape tastes , o nce c o ­ Blagdon , Br adl ey and Bishopsbarns. To ­ war , moving to the more localised scale 1920, be became the fir s t c ity plan­ gether, t hey r epr esent the different nlng professor in Scandinavi a at t he dified, b~ come a conservative element of of the home . From the 1920s , there was Norwegian Institute o f Technology. culture and change little through time. styles of gar dening that Miss Jekyll an enormous improvement in physical hous­ p r acti sed as the f irst horticul t u ral ing conditions but , whilst peripheral (Or Jensen is a Vi siting Scholar in the i mp r essi o n is t - p ai n ting gar den pic­ schemes a nd high-rise flats were t o be dur­ John Sheail, Underground water abstrac­ University of Washing ton, Seattle, tures . Appendices identify a l l the gar­ tion: indirect effects o f urbanization s ucce ssful in reduc ing indices o C over­ ing 1982/83.) d e ns in no rthe rn En gland , a n d t he plants on the countryside , JournaL of HistoricaL crowding , the general well-being o( the r ecomme nde d f o r garde ns of different Geography (1982) 8(4), pp. 395- 408. community suffered. By the 1980s , the over a long period , interes t . De signed e mphasis was less o n the house and more 12 13

life was o r ganised by a Mutual Im­ on 1ts dwell e r s. ing adviser to the Commission o f Conser­ the author reviews the origin and evo ­ cial vation in 1914. Gal vanizing the infant lution of the ear liest urban land-use provement Society, tac itly suppo rted by Canadian planning movement, he gave it a planning adopted by the Provinc e. It a paternalist management. Gerald Wibber ley, Countryside planning: a comprehensive legislative , institutio nal focusses on the three key planning-re­ The 1illage is now the property o f rersona L e va Luation (1982), Wye College, and professional structure by 1914. Like lated statutes adopted prior to 1920. UNICHEMA , a subsidiary of the Unilever Ashfo rd, Kent TN25 5AH , 30 pp. his hosts , h e was a utilitaria n, a melior- A detailed examination of the factors organisation , and houses only a small The monograph marks the retirement of 1st and a functionalist . His system broke leading to the adoption of the enabling minority of the factory ' s workforce. Pro fessor Wibberley from the Ernest Cook down in the 1920s when the atmosphere was legislation provides insights into the Faced with the problems of increasing Chair of Countryside Planning in the not congenial for planning, a nd Canadian social and political dynamics which in­ costs of maintenance , and the need t o mo d­ University of London. In an account of society too immature to accept his mes­ fluenced the specific approach to urban ernise many o f the older properties, the h1s career as a student, civil servant sage. Little of his actual structure now planning during the period. There is company is presently demolishing the cot­ and academic, and his considerable in­ survives but Canadian planning philoso­ an assessment of how far Ontario's lar­ tages as they become vacant. To date , volvement in a wide range of rural issues phy remains essentially utilitarian. gest municipality, Toronto, took advan­ 11 bloc k s (containing 44 housing units) in Britain, Professor Wibberley illus­ This article discusses Adams ' British tage of the legislation. have bee n lost and others are likely t o trates how the perception and management background, his aims and policies in be cleared in the future. Unlike its of the countryside have changed dramati­ Canada, his successes and failures and better-known neighbour, Port Sunlight, Notes and News cally over the last fifty years. his significance in Canadian planning his­ the village does not have Conservation tory. BROMBOROUGH POOL Area status at present and none o f the buildings is listed. Mary Ellen Cavett , H. John Selwood and It may interest members to hear of re­ Patent John C. Lehr , Social philosophy and the Mi chael Simpson, Me l iorists versus in­ c ent developments at Price's STEPHEN J ACKSON & DAVID STENH OUS E Candle Company settlement, Brombor o ugh early development of Winnipeg's public surgent planners a nd the problems o f New Department of Geo graph y parks, Urban History Review (1982) 11 (1) , Yo rk, 19 21-1941, Journal of American Studies, Pool, on Merseyside. This village is City of Liverpool College o f Higher Educatio n pp. 27-39 . (1982), 16(2), 207-28. described by Tarn (1973) as a precursor of the model industrial settlement, and Intended both to enhance land values and American planning has been dominated in Tarn , J . N. The Model Village of Bro mbo r­ contains much of value to the planning o ugh Pool , in D. Mills (ed) EngUah RuraL to improve the quality of life in the twentieth century by a meliorist London, Macmillan, pp. historian . It represents an early Co11V11unities, (1973) Winnipeg , Canada, the parks laid out in approach to environmental problems. The 145-54. attempt at the construction of good the late nineteenth century served the sharpest exchange with a more radical quality company housing, and at the interests of real estate promoters and tradition occurred in the city and state creation of a community where the mat­ MOVING ON satisfied the demands of social reform- of New York between the wars. It led t o e rial conditions of the workforce were ers. a n abortive proposal for a state plan on In July 1983 , Dr J.D. Hulc hanski mo ves t o amply catered for. Amongst the more the part of the radicals or insurgents, Vancouver to take up a full-time perma­ notable features are its spacious layout, and the Regional Plan for New York and ne nt position a s Assistant Pro fesso r in Leonard K. Eaton, Warehouses and ware­ the provision of accommodation in semi­ its Environs of 1921-30. The paper e x­ the School of Community and Regional Plan­ house districts in mid-American cities, detached cottages or small terraces, the plores the problems of the metropolitan ning, University of British Co lumbia. Urban His t ory Review (1982) 11(1), pp. 17- e mphasis placed on large individual gar­ region in the inter-war years, the alter­ His main teaching r espo nsibilities will 26 . dens and the allowance made for a wide native strategies put forward, the con­ involve the areas of: (i) urban planning Studies the process by which wholesale range of community facilities. troversies between the opposing schools history; and (ii) housing and l a nd u se dlstricts were formed in the late nine­ of thought, and their relative successes Development of t he village began in 1853 policy. He will be teaching one c o urs e t eenth century. Often structures of and failures . with the construction of 76 cottages, in pla nning history and supervising a unusual architectural distinction, the situated along two parallel streets. planning history workshop, in additio n t o warehouses , together with the railway These were extended in the early 1870s any thesis work on planning histo ry. He stati on , o ften became the civic monu­ J. D. Hulchanski, The evolution of Ontario 'a and at the end of the century. At its research advisor for the early urban. land use planning r egulations, 1900- is the national ments of the North American city. height the village contained a popula­ 1920 (1982), University of Toronto, Centre Co-operative Housing Foundation of Canada. tion of approximately 700 people, living for Urban and Community Studies , Research Michae l Simpson , Thomas Adams in Canada, in 140 houses, and included a chapel, Paper 136 (Land Policy Paper 2) 39pp, NIEUWSBRI EF 1914-19 30 , Urban History Review ( 19 82) , school , village hall, cottage hospital $3.00 . ISSN 0316 0068 ISBN 0 7727 1299 9 . Published in the Dutch lang uage , this is II ( 2 ) I pp . l -15 . and several s hops, together with a cric­ the title of the Newsletter o f the Assoc­ In this paper, originally presented at ket pitch , bowling green and e xtensive Thomas Adams (1871 - 1940), a leading iation for the Study o f the History of the Canadian- American Compar ative Urban allotments. The community ' s active so- British planning pioneer, became plann- History Conference at Guelph in 1982, Planning in the Netherlands . Founded in 14 15

1980, the Association o r g anises meetings and seven feet of material , were donated Adenauer- Strasse 16, 53 40 Bad Honne f , every three months, attended by schol ars to Yale by Edward J . Logue in 1980. A Rhondorf , We st Germany . and students in planning, architec ture , 166 page guide to the col lection is now Professo r Rolf H. Jensen , Department of geography, art history, a nd economic and available . Requests concerning the Urban Planning , University of Washing­ soc~al history . The edit o r s of the News­ guide or use of the collectio n should be t on , Seattle , WA 98195 , U.S . A. letter are ~ chie l Wagenaar and Arnold addressed to: Manuscripts and Archives, van der Valk, p/a Sociaal Geografisch Yale University Library, Box 1603A Yale Mr Takashi Ka wanaka , Building Research Instituut, Jodenbreestraat 23, 101 1 NH, Station, New Haven, Connecticut 06520 . Institute , Ministry of Construc tion , Amsterdam. 1 Tatehara, Oho-mac hi, Tsukuba-gun, Ibar aki-ken 305 , Japan . New Members EDWARD JOSEPH LOGUE PAPERS 1931-1975 Or Hideyuki Koba yashi , Building Research United Kingdom I n stitu te , Ministry of Construction, The Logue Papers document the career of 1 T atehara , Oho -machi, Tsukuba-gun, a major figure in t he field of urban Professor John Burnett, Department of Ibaraki-ke n 305 , Japan. planning and development between 1950 Government, Brunel University, Uxbridge, and 1970 . As a lawyer, p lanner, admin­ Middlese x UBS 3PH. Dr Yasuo Nishiyama, Department o f Archi­ ~strator and educator, Logue oversaw Professor Harold Carter, Department of tecture , Gok iso Showa 466 Nagoya , Japan. comprehensive urban redevelopment pro­ Geography, University College of Wales , Mr P. Potter, Un terer Torackerweg 10 , grams . He headed thr ee major urban re­ Llandinam Building, Penglais, Aberyst­ 7487 Gamme rtingen 2 , West Germany . newal projects in the East, namely as wyth, Dyfed, SY23 3DB. Professor L . Sandercock , Centre for En­ development administrator for: Mayor Mr Jonathan Coopersmith, Brasenose Col­ vironmental & Ur ban Studies , Macq uarie Richard Lee ' s New Haven Redevelopment lege, Oxford OX 1 4AJ. University , N. Ryde 2113 , New South Agency (1954- 60); Mayor John Collins' Wa les, Australia. Boston Redevelopment Authority (1960- Mr Gerald Daly, Darwin College, Camb­ CB3 9EU . 67), and as president and executive ridge Or Takashi Suzuki , Nishi- Narashino 2 - officer o f Governor Nelson Rockefeller's Mr H.N.B. Morgan, 30 Manor Avenue, Ful­ 21-15, Funabashi- shi , Chiba-ken 274 , New Yo rk Urban Development Corporation wood, Preston, Lancashire PR2 4DN. J a pan. (1968-75) . Mr S.H. Pickett, 6 Crown Circus, Inver­ Overseas Institutions Files for these projects contain exten­ ness, IV2 3NQ. Bryn Mawr College , Bryn Mawr, Pennsyl­ sive correspondence with politicians and Or D.K. Stenhouse, Geography Department, vania 19 0 10, U. S .A. political age ncies, architects and ur­ City of Liverpool College of Higher Ed­ ban planners , municipal o fficers and or­ ucation, Liverpool Road, Prescot, ganisations , and numerous city residents Merseyside. and businesses . Inter- o ffice memos and 34 Hall Park Avenue , correspondence provide furthe r insight Dr F. Trowell, LS18 5LR . into these operations, as do detailed Horsforth, Leeds clippings files , pho tographs, and prin­ United Kingdom Institutions ted material . Two additional facets of County Planning Department, Hertford Logue's career a re also represented in County Council, County Hall, Hertford these papers . His service in India as SG1 3 SON . an assistant to Ambass ador Chester Bowles (1952 - 53) , and his unsuccessful Overseas campaign for mayo r of Boston ( 1967) are Mr Frederick H.A . Aalen, Department of well documented. The papers include Geography, Trinity College , Dublin 2, personal letters with friends and fam­ Ireland. ily , student papers and material from University of his years at Yale University , and files Mr Michael J. Carley, 6333 Memorial Road, relati ng to his work with Connecticut ' s British Columbia, Vancouver BC, Canada V6T 1W5. Democratic Party (1949-51) . Dollen, Dr-Konrad- The Logue Papers, totalling one hundred Dr Busso von der 16 17

or P . M.J . L . Lombaer de , B e l gielei 48/1 3 , B- 2018 Antwerpen , Belgium. Work m Progress Al Louvain- la- Neuve: image et contre-image d ' une vilLe, APLUS (1978) , 45 , pp. 1-30. SUPPLEHENT 1 A2 Shifts within the concept of town planning: from a perspective towards a semidogicaZ approach, (Ma rch 1982 ) , P h .D., K. U. Leuven, 483 pp; there is a summary in the English lang­ In this fl.rst supplement t o ' Wo r k in Progr ess ' (P/18 4 (3) , 1 982 ) a distincti o n is uage a vai l able . again drawn between r ecent publicatio ns and a c tivi t ies (A) , a nd wor k in progres s (B) . A3 Urban developmen t o f Antwe r p from the 12th until the 20th century: a brief over­ view. Publi shed in t he Du tch language in Antwerpen: van nederzetting tot metropooZ, Professor Do natella Ca l abi , Castello 5878 - 30122 Ve nezia, Italy . (19 81) , An t we rpe n, pp. 23- 34 . Al Il. Caso Inglese: materiaZi per il cor sa di storia deZL 'Urbanistica, Ed . Clu ua , Ve ne zia , f ace o f a ma ritime town: the case study o f Ostend during the period 198 t. A4 The changing from 1865-1878; this a rticle , w ritten in the French language ( 45 pages) will be A2 Mod

Al H isto r~ cal Background and Eval uat ion of t he Town Plan ning Ac t 1968 , Toshikeikaku (City Planning Review), April 19 82 , 1 19 . A2 I ntroduc tio n of the For e i gn Bu i l din g Line Sys t em a nd Unders t a nding of its Fun c ­ tio ns , Sogo Toshikenkyu (Comprehensive Urban Studi es) March 19 82 , 15 . Bl H ist o ry o f Land Re adj ustment a nd De ve lopme nt o f Urban Periphery i n J apan. 18 19 Notes and Articles sulma n gave frequen t public lectures , and published widely in journals and newspapers. some o f the latte r pieces we r e consolidated into pamphlets such as The Improvement of JOHN SULMAN AND ' THE LAYING OUT OF TOW NS' Sydney ( 1907 ) , The Federal CapitaL (1 909 ) , and Tht Traffic Problems of Sydney (192 7 l · Before his An Introduction to the Study of Town Planning In Australia (1921 ) the only home-grown Wh1le J . S . Nettlef o ld is most frequentl y c r e dite d with coin ing the term ' town plan­ books on the s u b j ect we re t he p olemical Town Planning for Australia ( 191 4 ) and Town n1ng ' in 1906 , Tony King ' s rece nt e t ymol ogical sortie r e ve als its use at a confer enc e Planning with Conunon - Sense (1918) , both by the redoubtable Geor ge Taylor, editor of the r s to hun t 1n Melbourne by John Sul ma n as e arl y as 1890 . I s ( 1) hall leave it to othe i nfluential Sydney j ournal , Building. The most notable feature that Patrick for earlier p r ecedents, but readers may be interested to l earn mo r e about Sulma n, Abe r c rombie c oul d point t o in Tayl o r ' s first book , w ith its ' crudity of general his 1890 paper , a nd his r o le i n the introduc tion of ' town planning ' to Australia. fo r mat ', was Sulma n ' s intro duc t ion . (6) Sulman ' s o wn 250- page book assembled the t we nty standar d lec tures he gave regularly as the Vernon Memorial Lecturer in Town Sulmun was born i n Gr eenwich , Londo n, in 1849 . A f rie n d of Wi l l iam Mo rris , he Planning a t Sydney Unive r sity, an appointment lasting from 19 17 to 1927 . He rarely studied at the Ro yal Academy and was articled to t h e a r c hitect H.R . Ne wton . He ve ntur ed into technic al i ties in pri n t , b u t h is authority as an a d v iser is evident in emi grated t o Australia in 1 885 , and left behind a good r eputati o n, inc l uding a t e rm p ublished t ranscripts of his e v i de nce to major government e nquiries on city improve­ as Vice- Presi dent of the Ar chit e c tura l Association , a nd a healthy architect ural p r ac­ ment in 1908-1909 , metro politan gov e rnme n t in 19 13 , hous ing conditions in 1915 , and tice , speci a l ising in churches . He settled in Syd ney. With churches , banks a nd wo r kers ' housing in 1918. (7 ) In N. S .W. his formal gov e rnment positi ons included office buildings as staple commis sions , he prac t i sed from 1886 to 1908 , a n d t hen membe rsh ip of the Building Regu l a t i o n Advisory Boar d ( 19 21- 1934) , President of the assumed the r o l e o f consulting archite ct and town p l a nne r until his retiremen t in Publ i c Memorials Adviso ry Board (1 91 9-1928) , and Pr esident o f the Town Planning 1928. He lect u r e d in Architecture at the University of Sydney f r om 1887 to 1912 . Ad viso ry Bo a r d ( 1918- 1928) . Hi s m ost senior plan n i ng appoi n t ment came in the federal The Royal Au s tralian Institute of Arc hitects annually makes an award in his n ame for as Chairma nt o f he Federal Capital Advisory Committee (1921 - 1924) , a body that a build1ng of out s tand ing merit . sphere t ook over r espo nsibility for Canberra after the departure of the beleagured Walter A conservat1ve , rathe r patrician, a nd s eemingly hu mou r less i ndivid ual , he was no ne­ Burley Gr iffin . Su lma n wa s awar ded a knighthood in 1924 - eight years before theless possessed of ' amazing energ y ' . He was the ' typical Englishman - polished , Raymond Unwin . erud1te , aggressive , d e bonair always; f o r ceful and d eci s i ve in actio n and spe ech ' . Su lma n w a s well- travel l ed , maki ng regular visits to ' the Old Country ' w1th occas1onal It was ' a stubborn o bstruc tio n ' t hat turne d ' aside the great wind of h is purpose ' . (2) detrips to c o ntinental Eu r ope a nd North America. Hi s i nter national outlook was He died ' after a vigorous old age ' in 1934 . si ma t ched only by Charles Reade, the Government Town Planner of South Austral1a (1916- Austral ian citi e s must h a ve been a shock for Su l ma n, for whom even L o nd on pa l ed in 1920) . Hi s international r eputati on was exceeded only by that of Griffin , although comparison w ith Paris and i t s ma g nificen t tree-li ned bou l evard s. He f irst t o u r ed h i s only paper t o a ttrac t a significant i nternational audi ence was ' The Federal t he con t i ne nt and h ad t he inkli ng of makin g town planning ' a s u b j ect of s pecial Capital of Australia ' pre pare d , perhaps at the s uggesti o n of Aston Webb, for the RIBA eff o r t ' i n 1873 on a Pu g in Trave lling S t udents hip. He had won t his Royal Institute To wn Planni ng Conferenc e in 19 10. (8 ) Bu t h e mo ved effor tles sly in international of Brit i sh Arc hitect s ( RIBA) award f r om a f i e ld o f competitors that i nc lud ed his plann i ng c ircles and was a Vice-Presiden t of the I n terna tio nal Garden Cities and friend As ton We bb. (3) On a rriving in Au stralia, he toured a l l the capital cit i e s Town Plann ing Ass ociatio n from 1 923 until his death . (9) At its 1924 Amsterdam con­ and some r egional centres. On the whole he con ceded tha t f e r e nce he was , along with suc h lumi naries as Patrick Geddes and Joseph Stubben , one of the ' g rand old me n o f the o ccasion'. (10) ' though s lums were few, a nd p l enty of space h ad been allocated i n ... t raf f ic needs had not been studi e d , most c ases for t r affi c , ' The Layi ng Ou t of Towns ' the commo nplace chessboard system of plann i ng ~eing a l most universa l ' . (4 ) Sulma n used the t e r m ' t o wn planning ' once in a paper deliver ed to Secti on J (Arch1- and Engineeri ng) at the second meeting of the Australasian Association fo r Austr a l ia t hus p r e sented h i m with the o pportun i ty for further i ng h i s town planning tecture i n Januar y 1890 . (11) He int e r ests . The 1890 paper i n M elbourne was his first , a nd arguably his bes t , major the Advanceme nt o f S c i e nce (AAAS) at Melbour ne University recalled t he i mmediate b ackg r o und to the paper statement, but not until the l a te 1900s did he find the time a nd financial i ndepen­ later dence to p l u nge mo r e f u lly i n t o the subject . ' During tha t summe r I r e nted a furnished cottage at Ka toomba (in t he Blue Mo untains west o f Sydney) a nd was s t r uck by t he ba d layou t of A high p r ofil e in the f l edgli ng Australi a n town-planning movement was not d ifficult , ma ny of t he roads in that mo untai n resor t , some of them s o steep t h at but Sulman e n joyed m o r e r espect tha n most of his f ell ow advocates . His d irect ly vehi cular traffic was impo ssible a nd e v en walking a diffic u l ty. Being ver y busy I had not had time to prepare t he paper o n ' The La y ing O u t ' p r actical ' wo r k w a s mainly limited to subdivision desi g n, b u t the res u lts we re no t o f Towns ' which I propose d r eading ... until I was actually on the (I) wrote t he manuscript in a l ways particularly distingu ishe d. Involved i n the pla nning of t he fir s t state train where I t hough t out my points , a nd the ho t el bedr oom afte r my arrival. ' (1 2) g arde n s uburb at Daceyville in Sydne y (1 912), he mu s t have been s ure l y e mb a rrassed whe n Ewa rt Culpi n lambasted the design by no ting that ' practica l ly t he o nly f e atu re Under fiv e genera l h e ad i ngs (and paragraphs) the paper cri ticized the ' happy- g o ­ common t o Garde n Subur b s i s that the area is pre -planned! ' ( 5 ) His r e a l str e n g t h l uck y ' appr oach to urban l a y ou t e mbo died i n the rec t a ngul a r g rid of the ' c hessboar d ' c am e as l o bby i s t, teacher, and exper t a dvise r . s ystem, a nd argued no t only for a mo r e r a t ion a l, e f f i c ient, and aes t hetic s e nse o f 20 21

tightly regulated procedure for the initial development desig n, but also for a more sulman was not the only figure advoc ating a break from e stablished prac tice of u r ban o f t owns and suburbs. layout and a g reater degree of state interventio n , albe it of the most mi l d k i nd. ( 18) But he was a well-known and respected architect , his pape r was comprehens ive a nd a r­ Pro per layout began with the Location of ne w settlement. Only a reas with growth ticulate , it was aired at a national forum , a nd was far more wide ly read t han a nyth i ng po tent1al should be considered , and the site should be healthy, free from flood hazard his peers could off er, being reproduc ed in The Surveyor o f t he N. S .W. Ins titution of and with a well-drained soil. The desirability o f car eful siting of urban functions, surveyors , the Melbourne-based Building and Engineering Journal, and in pamphle t f o rm. suc h a s the pre-planned grouping of public buildings, was conside r ed under Utilisation. The AAAS even set up a committee to c o nsider the pape r and a succ inc t report p resente d Sulman preferred the 'spider's web' as a starting template for town design , and he 1891 meeting fully endorsed its legislative suggestions. (19) Re actio n in consistently returned to this simple model in his later writing. (13) The geometry at the and trade journals was generally favourable , although the surveyors we re of the 'spider's web ' offered intrinsic potential for town Decoration, and he also professional fully convinced by the ' spider ' s web ' idea and downright indignant about a n discussed other possibilities: curved streets , tree planting , and i maginative siting n o t architect ' s ' attempt to jump the claim of surveyors ' to town planning expertise. (20 ) and shaping o f parkland . Adopting the utilitarian stance that prevention was better than cure , Sulman argued t h at absolute freedom in u rban design could no l o n ger be The rein troduction of ' town planning' c ondoned . Six suggestions for Legislation were listed: the banning of dwellin g con­ struction on floodable land; prohibition of town sites on ' soil of unhealt hy c h a r ac­ While Sul man ' s use of ' town planning' now claims our atten tion , ninety years a go i t ter'; limitation of population density through minimum allotment size; r elating the was just a felicitous yet inconspicuous choice of words. The term did not stick in proportion of reserves and streets to town or estate area; prevention of sprawl by the professional or popu l ar imagination. Indeed, the re was a general do wn turn in all fixing a maximum areal extent to both town and suburb; and a requirement that all ' planning ' talk in the 1890s - paralleling the state o f the nationa l e c ono my . subdivision plans together with an accompanying drainage and water suppl y scheme be a few months of Federat1o n a officially inspected and approved. The new century started more promisingly and within congress was held in Melbourne ' to discuss questions relating to the laying out and In considerlng the Realisation of this new approach in the last paragraph, Sulman building of the federal capital'. (21) This was the first national c o nferenc e on highlighted the likely professional opportunities for architects. The reference to modern town design in Australia, and may well rate as one of the earliest i n the wo r ld . ' town planning ' comes in this final section. Referring to the recent design for a Delegates e ndorse d the resolution that ' the Federal Capital should be lai d out in t he model suburb in Sydney he notes t hat most perfect manner possible ' but in none of the twelve contributed papers wa s the r e mention of ' town planning' , let alone what the ' most perfect design ' l ooked l i ke . ' The plans of Kensington w ere designed by an architect , laid out by a surveyor and checked by an engineer. That is as it should be. Sulman was not present at the gathering, and although his 1890 paper was not c i ted a The architect is the one man who by trainin g and experience combines reference to a possible ' radiating ' plan suggests it was not entirely f o r g o tten. (22) in himself a knowledge of all the conditions of town-planning, and to him should be entrusted the task of initiation. ' (14) The oversigh t was soon corrected whe n G.H. Knibbs acknowledged his indebtness t o Sulman' s paper i n his own formidable treatise on ' The Theory of City Design' r e a d 'The Laying Out of Town s ' was animpor tant step in the transformat ion of rudimen tary before t he Roy al Society of N.S . W. in September 1901. (23) But 'town planning ' l a yout of colonial towns to modern town planning. It antici pates some o f the style still did not surface , and in the early t 900s ' city impr ovemen t ' and ' the city beau ­ of Australian p lanning thought in the early twentieth century: pragmatic rather than tiful ' see med respectively to foreshadow its pragmatic and idealistic c onno tatio ns . utopian; awake early to the economic and professional benefits of skill ed design; conc erned more with effici ent traffic c irculation than housing; preoccupied with In 1907 Building reprinted Sulman ' s pape r as ' How to Lay Out a T own'. The deci s i on land s ubdivision; and ready to equate t own planning with s uburban planning. The was prompted less by perception of urban crises than the stimulus to t o wnsh1p f o r ma ­ paper is also sprinkled with remarkably advanced physical planning ideas. Zoning is tion supposedly given by the rural settlement and railway construc tio n p o lic ies o f appeared in January 19 0 8 and suggested in the comment that various g overnments. (2 4 ) The last of three instalments covered the Realisation section of the paper, thus reintroducing t he term ' town plan­ 'It should not be forgotten a modern town is an o r g anism with different ning ' to a new, or at least an older , a udience. Times were more propitious t han t he functions for its different members r equiring separate treatment, and it 1s just as easy to allot these to suitable positions at first, as last decade of the nineteenth century and events no w moved more swiftly. Sydney l ed to allow them to be shaken with more or less difficulty into place'. (15) the way, and Sulman' s newspa per articles on ' The Impro vement o f Syd ne y' in 190 7 we r e an important catalyst. In May 1908 the state governme nt appointed a R o yal Commiss i o n The recommendation into the improvement of Sydney and suburbs , with traffic p r oblems as a special brle f. ' That no town or suburb contain a greater area than one square mi l e, The Commission's f i nal report, submitted jus~ over a year later, no t e d J o hn Burns' with a belt of r eserved land at least 1/8 of a mile in width between Housi ng, Town Planning, e tc. Ac t which had been reintroduced into the House of Commons. the same and the adjoining suburb ' (16) After summarising the main features of this proposed legislati on, the Commission rec ­ not only p r edates Ebenezer Howard ' s use of Adel aide as a model for t own growt h, but ommended t h at a s i milar measure be adopted in N. S .W. with 'extens i on ' of powers t o also Unwin ' s influen tial interpretati on o f Howard ' s social city as s a telli te s u b­ include ' t he regulation of subdivisio ns both as to f r ontage and depth of eac h building lot' . (25) urbs. (17) 22 23

From the winter of 1909 onwards , the t e r m ' town planning ' diffused into general use Sydney: N.S .W. Government PrinLer; Ur>J'Ot't of the Uoyal Corrmisr.ion oj' -•1/uit'y into Li1c Qul!stion of the Constitution of Greater Syinf'y (1913), Sydney: N. S .W. G0vernmcnt Print:!r; 1n N. S .\~. and elsewhere . Building began featuring the term in major headings of ar­ Evidl!nce taken by the Royal Conrnission on tht. /lousing Cot. Jitions of th Pco{l• •:n thf' .'.tt troroL~s tlcles from 1910. (26) Town planning was , in the words of an editorial of the lead­ and in the Populous Centr es of the Stat<- (1917) , Melbourne: Victor1an Governmen~ Printer; Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works, Report to')ethrr untl~ . lng architectural journal in 1910 , ' one of the subjects of the hour '. (27) •ninutes o f evidence relating to the Proposed S<'h(·ma for Housing Commonwealth :.•or>".mP.n at. £-, tnJOW (1918) , Melbourne: Government Printer . Envoi : theory and practice 8 . J . Sulman, 'The Federal Capital of Australia ' , Transactions, Town PLanning Conft..rf'nre John Sulman liked to see himself as the ' father ' of town planning in Australia, and (1910) , London: RIBA , pp.604- 61 0 . The paper was not read through lack of t1.me , a l though it is not clear whether Sulman was there to read it anyway. h1s contemporaries ce r tainly accor ded him this honour . His important role in the early history of modern plannin g in Australia is indisputable. Yet while the personal 9 . The Association was renamed the International Federation for Housing and Town Planning in 1926 . A personal diary kept by Sulman during his 1924 trip rewards we re handsome , he must have died a disappointed man . Au stralia generally , and (Research Collection , Graduate School of the Built Environment, University of N. S.W. specificully, had nothing to match the f o r eign i n itiatives with whic h h e was N.S.W.) records some of the contacts made in England : Raymond Unwin, George Pepler, Thomas Adams , Ebenezer Howard , Thomas Mawson , We rner Hegemann, and at familiar . Sulman w as a s u ccess as pro p agandist , educator , adviser, f i gur ehead - Welwyn ' two young American architects , Mr Stein a nd Mr Wright'. This trip also r o les matching ' the great wind of h is purpose ' . But the political a nd e conomic e n­ resulted in two government reports: Commission Government in America (1925), Me lbourne: Commonwealth Government Printer, and Town PZ.anning in Great Britain, Europe, and vironme nt in which h e laboured was not receptive to the modest ' reform ' proposals America ( 1925) , Sydney: N. S .W. Governme nt Printer. he so publicly stood for . The judgement seems unfortunate, but his concr ete ' achieve­ 10. C .B. Pur dom, ' International Town-Planne rs in Holland ', Garden Cities and Town Pl-an ­ ments over a forty- year period were minimal '. (28) ning ( 1 92 4 ) , 1 4 ( 9 ) , p . 1 9 3 •

' The Laying Out of Towns ' was a good twenty years before its time . Even the use of 11. J. Sulman , 'The Laying Out of '!'owns ', Proceedings of the Second Meeting of Uu Austral-asian Association for the Advancement of Science ( 1890) , Melbourne , pp. 7 30- 7 36 ; ' town planning ' in the repr int ed vers1on of 1907 was precociou s by Australian stan­ reprinted as Appendix A in Sulman, op cit, 1921, pp.214-216. dards, a lthough by then ' town planning ' was coming to stay . However, not until 1920 12. J . Sulman , ' Town Planning ' , unpublished memoir, Research Collection, Graduate woul d an Australian parliament pass town planning legislation , and by the time School of t he Built Envir onment, University of N. S.W. , pp.1-2. Reade ' s p1oneering act had passed through a hostile Upper House in South Australia 13. For example : ' The Architecture of Towns ', Proceedings of the Third \feer;ing of thf 1 t was l ittle more than a subdivision control bill. (29) The 1928 Town Pl-anning and Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science (1891) , Christchurch, pp.425-426 ; , . v.:loprn,·nt Act in Western Australia was the first Australian legislation to permit ' Town Plans Illustrating Senator Millen' s Paper', VoZ.ume of Proceedings of thl'? Second Australian Toz.,'n Planning Con f erence and Exhibition (1918), Brisbane, pp. 48-49; preparation of compr ehensive town planning schemes although nearly thr ee decades Town Planning: A Sketch in Outline (1919), Sydney: N.S .W. Government Printer, pp . 11 - 13; later not one local authority had been abl e to do so. (30) And Sulman would have had 'Town Planning ' , The Australian Surveyor (1928) , 1 (3) , p.l9, etc . ry Planning) to live another eleven years for the N.S.W. weal Gove rnment (Town and Count 14 . Sulman, op cit, 1!390, p . 736. Am.'ndm,_nt Act of 1945 - the first town planning legislation to become law in h i s home 15 . Sulman, op cit, 1890, pp. 731-732. state . 16 . Sulman, op cit, 1890 , p . 735; sec a lso p . 732. ROBERT FREESTONE Centre for Environme ntal and Urban Studies, 17. See f o r example Culpin , op cit, p. 6 . M ~cqu arie University , Ne w South Wales 18. For example, a series of papers read before the Victorian Institute of Surveyor s and published in its Proceedings is a neat c hronolgy of increasingly s ophisticated 1. ' The Origin of the Term "Town Planning " in England ', Journal of the Town Pl-anning thought on town design in Australia: T. Couchman, ' The Survey and Laying Out of Institute, (1929) , 1 5(11) , pp. 310- 311; T. King , "'Town Planning": A n ote on the Townships' (March 1876) , R . li . Shakespear, ' The Subdivision, Marking Out and o rigins and use of the term', Planning History Bulle tin (1982), 4 (2), p .15 ; Me thod of Description of Town Allotments ' (September 1876) , J .M. Coane, ' Sanl­ L. Sandercock, CitiesforSale (1975) , Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, p .1 6 . tary Subdivision of Land ' (April 1889), and a fourth paper that rivals Sulman ' s in its prescience by J . Keily , ' Study on Unity of Design in Planning New Towns 2. ' Personal- John Sulman', Architecture (1919), 5(5) , p.147 . Other biographical and New Suburbs' (September 1 889) . See note on Keily ' s paper in: J .M. Freeland, no tes include: ' An Australian Architec t who has made town planning h is special Architectur e in Australia: Australia: A History (1972), Melbourne: Pelican, p.223. study ', BuiLding (1913) , September, pp.69- 73; ' Sir John Sulman ' , Architecture (193 4 ) , 2 3 ( 9) , p . 19 3; P. Sear le, Dictionary of Australian Biography ( 19 4 9 ) , Sydney: Angus and 19. 'Report of the Committee . . .. ', Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the Australasian Robertson , pp. 39l- 392 . Association for the Advancement of Science (1891), Christchurch, pp . 540- 5 41; see also: J .M. Powell, Environmental Mana gement in Australia, 1788- 1914 ( 1976) , Melbourne : Oxford 3. As secretary of the RIBA, Webb was later to charge Sulman w ith ' cleaning up ' the University Press, pp. 159-160 . architectural profession in Sydney, a mission which proved very controve rsial . See: J .M. Freeland , The Making of a Profession: A llistory of the Growth and r>'ork of the 20 . E . Herborn, Letter to the Editor, The Su r veyor (1890), 2(10), pp .15-16 . Architectural Institutes o f Australia (1971 ) , Sydney: An gus a nd Robertson, pp.60-61. 2 1. Congress of Engineers , Architects, Surveyor s, and Members of ALZ.ied Professions, to iiscuss 4. J. Sulman, An Int roduction to t he Study of 2'own Planning in Australia (1921) , Sydney: Questions rel-ating to the lAying Out and Buildirza of the Federal Capital. and matters of Profes- N. S .W. Government Printer, p.xiii. sional Interest Generally (1901) , Melbourne. '

5 . E . G . Cu lpin, The Ga rden City Movement Up- to-date (1913), Lo ndon: Ga r den Citi es and Town 22. G. S . Jones, ' Some Thoughts Concerning the Federal City ' , Congr ess of E.'nginrers Planning Association, p.64. Architects, Surveyors .... , op cit, p . 22. Jones had been a member of Sulman's p;ivate architectural circle ' Th e Palladians ' in the early 1890s (J . Sulman, ' Reminiscen­ 6. (P . Abercrombie) , ' Two Australian Pamphlets on Town Planning ' , Town Planning Review ces ', unpublished me moir , Research Collection , Graduate School of the Built (19 14) , 5(3) , p.241. Environment, University of N. S .W.).

7 • ReporL of the RoyaL Commission for the Improvement of t he City of Sydney and its Suburbs ( 1 9 0 9) , 24 25

23. G.ll. Knibbs, ' The Theory of City Design', Journa~ and Proceedings o f The Roya ~ Society residential areas, usually discussed in terms of density or building orientation , can or N.S.W. (1901}, 35, p.95. also be analysed in terms of the concept of social control. 2 4. Introduction to ' How to Lay Out a Town', Building (1907), November, p.44 . The built environment as a social regulator 25. Repor t or the Royal Cotmrission for t he Improvement of the City of Sydney and its Suburbs cs of ma n-made space ( 1909} , p. lvii. It is important not only to refer to the physical characteristi (size, symmetry and axiality) but also to evaluate them on the basis of objective 26. For e xample ; 'House and Town Planning ', Building, February, pp. 70-77; ' Town Planning ', Building, May, pp. 59-64; B. Pite, ' Town Planning for Australia', criteria and not solely according to how residents appraise them. The built environ­ Btdldi'lg, October, etc. A regular ' Town Planning' section appeared in 1912. ment can be considered as a mechanism for social regulation. 27 . Foreward, ArtandArchitecture (1910}, 7(1), p.1. In the wake of the industrial r evolution traditional architectural guidelines were 28 . Sandercock , op cit, p.27. not so much challenged as toppled by numero us purely utilitarian constructions , such 29 . C.C. Reade, ' Town Planning Legislation in South Australia -A Retrospect', as factories and workers' housing . By their ve ry numbe r, they generated new building Tor.m P'Lanning Review ( 1 921} , 9 ( 3} , pp. 15 7-161 . types. Mo re than any class of public buildings , this segment of the built environment 30 . H. Boas, ' The Evolution of Town Planning i n Western Australia', paper read to has been subjected to the logic of soc ial regulation and control. In this respect , the Fourth Australian Planning Congress (1956), p.7 . the rol e assigned to the buildings has not yet been adequately studied by the his­ torian . •••••••••••••••••••• One can hypothesise that every group o f buildings bears the hallmark of its protagon­ ists and that, by its morphology, it indicates the main functions it is intended to SITE- PLANNING AND THE CONTROL OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR : serve. The built environment is created by the imprint of social customs and the THE .IDEOLOGY' OF RESIDENTIAL AREAS ' ideology' of specific professional groups. For example, one can show certain associations between specific architec tural types and their corresponding social The influence of architectural and planning considerations on behaviour control has groups. Here, however, it is necessary to introduce a digression related to the often been identified by historians and social scientists as an important topic - scale of specific building complexes . Alberti (2) , Durand (3), and Sitte ( 4} evoked particularly insofar as architectural layouts might affect or induce social behaviour. in turn the homology between the city and the dwelling unit. It is the residual The relationship has, however, seldom been analysed in detail. The 'ideology 1 of site­ spaces, rather than the enclosed building volumes , which are of primary concern; planning remains a difficult issue, which should receive more attention from research­ ' The forum is to the city what the atrium is to the family residence ; the principal ers. room arranged with care and richly decorated'. (5} The urban square or central space is assigned the function of establishing unity within urban d i versity by link­ In a recent article entitled ' The building type e nvisaged as the re-use of figures', ing not only the viewpoints but also the pathways of a centripetal layout provided the architectural historian, Xavier Fabre, has examined the architectural language with social connotations. used to describe the continual re-use of building forms , following their e volution of functions. (1) Fabre was discussing the case of the castles , where the medieval The notion of over-valued and under-valued spaces defensive system has been replaced by a vast complex of gardens, with a corresponding The vast extension of stately reside nces of the Ancien Regi me in France expressed not extension of their architectural limits. Such a type of territorial control can be only the social and economic superiority of the aristocr acy but also the social used to demonstrate the nature of ruling social power. Similar considerations can distance that prevailed inside the mansion between the master and his servants. This be elaborated further from various examples of the history of site-planning. A social distance is clearly expressed by a plan with separated parts, in which the specific chapter of the history of architecture refers to an 'ideology ' of the morph­ central sections harbour fashionable r ecepti ons and the side wings contain the ology o f the built environment, as expressed by the layout of residential areas. At service quarters. The elongation between the respective parts of the mansion is, the s cale of the neightbourhood, collective dwelling types are based upon a rigorous above all, an expression of the segregation between different classes o f people spatial distribution, because they must obey the rules relating to the social organ­ living under the same roof. isatio n o f small groups of people. The ensuing relationships, which have frequently been studied with respect to the planning of whole towns (especially new cities), The extension of buildings in the form of a c rescent around a court of honour tends have nonetheless been neglected in research on the layout of residential areas, in­ to establish the concept of over-valued space, one characteristic of which is a cluding specific housing estates . geometrical form that is easy to see f rom a·specific viewpoint and provides a stage scene adapted to the social ritual of reception. This example illustrates, at least The following is based upon the postulate that space is inserted between buildings, in this case , how the principle of architectural composition is founded upon the as if it were a malleable material, which can be moulded to establish and safeguard concept of a central space that serves as a reference point for the layout of build- specific kinds of social organisation. There are numerous examples which illustrate ings and over-values that central space . It wou ld b e easy to prove, in turn, that this hypothesis by showing how space around buildings can be employed as a medium for over-valued spaces acquire a form of over-decoration that reflects a monumental and freedom or repression in respect to the daily lives of the residents. The layout of symbolic dignity . 26 27

Unlike these examples of architectural ost e ntation , which express social powe r, there Environmental psychology e xplo res the validity o f those theories which expect spec­

~s a category of building types which is intended for those whose lives a re inten­ ific social behaviour to be determined by spatial layouts. Oscar Newrnan suggests t~onally regulated by religious, military and administrative controls (monasteries, that the vast residential schemes in New York City were not designed with any m~litary barracks and workers' housing). The primary means of social control are the adequate concept of 'defensible space '. They were dangerous because crime, vandalism corridors wh ich channel pedestrian circulati o n between groups of detached buildings. (6) and assault could occur frequently. (8) Accor ding to Newrnan different design strat­ The pathways used by this circulation of people can be consider ed as under-valued egies might have provided greater residential security . Such considerations have spaces which extend over vast distances without variation of their a rchitectural been criticised in turn by Bill Hillier, who argued that territo r iality is an ignor­ treatment. The obvious equality of this spatial organisation is founded upon social ant view of human behaviour which has been largely disc redited by anthropo~igical equidistance. In terms of uniform occupation of land no space is p rivileged to the research. (9) Such controversy proves that the spatial distribution of social detriment of another. The principle adopted in this architectural layout is the behaviour is complex and cannot be solved wi th a mere deterministic approach. intentional under-development of a complex of under-valued s paces leading to minimal It seems , however, that the spatial characteristi cs of a residential area may re­ dimensions that guarantee a spatial order founded upon discipline a nd obe die nce . flect the nature of the d esired relations between residents at the beginning of the If we admit the existence of these t wo opposed spatial and socia l systems , t he first design process and before the residents have arrived. The example of t wo residen­ one being central and over-valued, the second ma rginal and u nder-valued, we also tial areas built from 1906 for the staff of a n iron and steel works at Ugine in the realise that both systems conform to the same and consistent concepti on of built Department of Upper Savoie (France) pro vides an opportunity to compare the compact space imposed over the centuries by the ruling c lasses. The laws of spati al and site plan of the housing area for unmarried workmen with the more individual group­ social control were analysed historically by Mi chel Foucault in his essay on prisons, ings of houses for the managerial staff at the Plateau o f Charmettes. In the first where he described the total and permanent character of the surveillance that prisoners case, a central avenue is surrounded by buildings that bring together pedestrian undergo in the 'panopticon '. (7) This may sound an extreme case but it indicates pat hs which can be continually observed by the management. The vagabonds cannot very well how constraint and discipline can be imposed upon tenants. escape the attention of the overseers and can easily become discouraged by the str~ct work schedule . This site plan displays a similar type of central, somewhat repres­ Spatial organisation and social significance sive, space, that can be observed in Van Gogh ' s paintings of a hospital (figure 1). By creating a hierarchy of space in a residential neighbourhood the designer discrim­ In the second case, the subtle distribution of individual d wellings in a tree-lined inates between under-valued and over- valued spaces, t hus e xpressing priorities with park guarantees the visual privacy o f each household, while permitting the develop­ respect to the design of his project: the search for unity in the site plan l eads the ment o f neighbourly relat ions by people of the same socio- economic group. Here, ~n designer to choose the concept of over-valued space upon which the whole composition contrast, the layout is not subordinated to a xial and orthogonal r igour, but follows depends; in contrast, economic constraints and rationality r esults in the inclusion the topography of the land to suggest a rustic revival. The housing development is of under-valued spaces , such as the spaces between the various building blocks . reminiscent of paintings by Cezanne showing houses surrounded by trees and inbedded in nature (figure 2). The discriminatory process of architectural design, appare ntly logical and objective, includes the assignment of moral and social values to the morphology of residential The first site plan is devoted t o the provision of an over- valued space by treating areas . The site plan suggests (either by its geometrical regularity or irregularity) it as if it were under-valued, whereas the second exalts the absence of under­ a more or less compact and ordered social landscape. It is meant to symbolise a valued space with an imaginery, over- valued space. The respective divergences community of individuals who are dependent upon each other. The site plan must also between these two plans may be the functi on of well disguised intentions. take account of the residents' wish for solitude. These contradictory requirements The legibility of a residential area is dependent on the facility to identify the frequently confine the site plan within a neutral corset , in which any effects can be relation between over-valued and under-valued spaces: the cour tyard types of space overcome by their opposing kind: the p resence of compromise is patently obvious . are supposedly places for convergence and reunion; these may be contrasted with the The design of a residential area which r efers to well known spatial models (such as garden type established as a place for tranquillity, whatever its topographical the piazza, village or citadel) often proceeds by spontaneous actions that assimilate characteristics. On the contrary circulation spaces serve e q ually wel l as places behavioural properties . Architects and planners working during the 1960s and 1970s for reunion. reacted against the designs employing dispersed site layouts built during the 1950s. To sum up, the buildings in a residential area can be characterised by their access­ These projects were founded upon an equal distribution of building volumes which ibility to a large range of soci~l purposes.. Such a finding underlines the weak- symbolised the principle of social equality. The obje~tive consisted in grouping of any approach which assig ns to specifi c social characteristics residential buildings so that the j uxtaposition of their inhabitants was expected to induce har­ ness in particular geographical conte xts. In this r espect, the implicit meaning of mony and warmth ( ... ). Architectural or environmental psychol ogy has effectively areas through the spatial c haracte ristics demonstrated, however , the i neptness of this sort of conjecture . It has highlighted site plans may reveal allusions of human behaviour embody. Their study could lead to the identification of the social intentio ns the reluctance felt in certain residential areas to enter into the kind of human they of their authors during the design phase. But there is nothing to indicate that the contact supposedly brought about by these specific architectural designs. total social value of a residential area can be anticipated correctly prior to occupancy. 28 29

FACTORY HOUSING IN EARLY VICTORIAN LANCASHIRE

In the history of the nineteenth-century town , the industrialist and business man have been given both an important and enigmatic role. Though recent writers have generally attached some significance to them in terms of both the provision and the improvement of working-class housing, there has been no quantitative anaylsis of their contribution. Ashworth wrote of a continuing tradition linking the new town s of the twentieth century and the small settlements of the early factory system. (l) Darley identified across the century productsof ~dividual industrialists ' initiative which were of both architectural and social significance. (2) Burnett concluded that ' employers ' housing often had a philanthropic aspect in the textile areas of the Midlands and North, factory owners seem generally to have been disposed to provide above average housing ' . (3)

What does all this add up t o? The evidence has been based essentially on individual examples, and the conclusio ns are largely impressionistic. There is no overall assessment of the material contribution of industrialists to the housing stock of nineteenth-century Britain, nor within that any analysis of the different motives behind such activity. Basic questions remain unanswered: how extensive was industrial housing; did the pattern vary significantly over the course of the nineteenth century; what proportion of such housing was of an 'improved' nature? This limited piece of 2 research attempts to initiate that investigation by looking at the practice in one particular area. So far it has o nly a local significance and its conclusions are tentative. It does, however, draw attention to a gap in our knowledge of nineteenth­ century urban economy and industrial enterprise , and it illustrates the kind of Figure 1. above: Sketch of Vincent Figure 2 . above: Sketch of Paul research which needs to be undertaken, at both a l ocal and a regional level, if this van Gogh ' s painting of the hospital at Cezanne's painting of a house at Auvers. gap is to be filled. Arles. 1889. 1872-1873. Despite the generalised stateme nts made by housing historians, only a small propor­ below: Sketch of site plan. below: Sketch of site plan. tion of nineteenth-century industrialists built any houses. I n a purely numerical Dwellings for bachelors at Ugine. 1906. Residences at Charmettes , Ugine . 1906. sense, their total impact was limited . Taking the Report of the Factory Commissioners of 1834 it is evident that the general situation in the growing industrial towns was GILLES BARBEY similar to that reported in Leeds, where only three out of sixteen firms in the town 11, bd de Grancy, Lausanne owned any houses and, of these, t wo firms owned less than ten each and only one had built many houses (around s eventy) . ( 4 ) Professor Pollard has estimated that by 1. Xavier Fabre, ' Le type comme reuti1isation de figures ' , Archithese, 4- 82, p.34-38. 1870, when the steel industry was expanding so d ramatically , there were only two 2. Leon Battista Alberti, De Re Aedificatoria (1485), I, 9 . firms in Sheffield that owned more than 50 dwelling houses. (5) He described how,

3. J. N. L. Du rand I Lecons d 'architecture. Examen des pl"incipau:c types d 'edifices (1 a l s) I Paris, .... as the East End expanded the owner s of large new firms did not p.19. engage in building for their immigrant workers ... The bulk of working class dwellings was owned in blocks of from 10 to 50 houses , repres­ 4. Camillo Sitte, L'art de batir Zes viZZes (1889) Vienna; (1980) Paris, p.8-9. enting investments of between El,OOO and ElO,OOO made by tradesmen, publicans and men of like status. 5. Ibid, p.8- 9.

6. Gilles Barbey, L'habitation captive (1981), St.Saphorin, p.56. In the Northern Township of Manchester , the·number of houses owned by industrialists was between 10 and 12 per cent ot the total and, of these, only three firms held 7. Michel Foucaul t, SurveiUer et punir. Naissance de l.a prison ( 1975) , Paris, Gallimard. blocks of as many as 50 to 100 houses each . (6) The situation had changed very little 8. Oscar Newman, Defensible Space (1973), New York . since 1834 , when several Manchester manufacturers told the Factory Commissioners how 9. Bill Hillier, ' In Defence of Space ' , RIBA Journal (1973), November. it was not the custom for mill owners to undertake in any way the accommodation of their workforce. (7) •••••••••••••••••••• J 1 30

This seems to have been the typical pattern for the large manufacturing towns of the o f its own worke rs. (17) Community building o n a more gradual scale was undcrtak~n North, where the nature and extent of managerial involvement in housing can be most in the hamlet of Heap, two miles to the east of Bury. (1d) There , by 1825 , J.Wriglcy clearly traced. The picture is less clear for the small towns and rural areas of the had leased land from the Earl of Derby for the p urpose of building a small paper mill region. Ho wever, a very general guide to the overall degree of involvement of factory with 15 adjoining cottages. Wh e n the e nterprise was taken over by J. & E. Crundy in owners with housing can be elicited from the returns to the Factory Commissioners in the middle of the following decade , they gradually extended both the factory and the 183 4. These indicate that out of 881 firms, 168 provided some houses. (8) These associated housing until by 1850 the firm owned over 80 cottages in the village. In figures do not, however, indicate the scale of property ownership. Of the 168 firms the town of Bury itse lf, there we re three mills, Pimhole , Limefield and Daisyfield, owning houses, only 14 state clearly how many houses are actually owned. Of these, owning between 60 and 100 cottages eac h . ( 19) two had between 50 and 100, and the remainder less than 15 each. Roughly a quarter It was the study of this area of Lancash ire that gave particular weight to Marshall ' s of the firms claimed that they housed the majority of their workers, while nearly a conclusions on the importance o f the mill owner i n foundin g and developing industrial half stated that they provided accommodation for only a few of their workpeople. communities . If the are a immediately to the east, aroun d Rochdale, is investigated A further general estimate of the extent of industrial housing can be gained from the the picture is , however, v e ry differen t . A lthough the sour ce material is less answers to a questionnaire circulated to 251 mills within an area stretching from prolific , it is clear that by 1858 , 9 of 15 mill owners in the Borough of Rochdale Rochdale in the north to Macclesfield in the south, from Leigh in the west to Glossop owned houses. Of these, s ix owned l ess than 10 each , two owned between 10 and 20, on the east. (9) Out of 105 firms established in the course of the nineteenth cen­ and one , Joseph Butte rworth of Hanging Lan e Mil l , possessed 18 back-to-back houses, tury, approximately 15 per cent claimed to have owned houses at some point in the 6 ' u pstep houses ' , and 12 cellar d we l lings. (20) The pattern was similar in the course of their development. In general, therefore, this survey would suggest that ou tlying township o f Spotland where , by 1875 , several large mills had been built on only a small minority of industrialists participated in the provision of houses. separate and independent sites. (21) The average number of houses owned by ~ach was six . The mass of terraced streets that had grown up between these sites was the Closer examination of these sources, alon9 with a study of the Land Tax Returns for product of the a c tivities of the building societies and the speculative builders. south east Lancashire, (10) confirms that, apart from in the large cities where ver y few industrialists indeed undertook building, there is no clearly defined contrast Thus the pattern changes f r om town to town, with each influencing the industrial in the degree of involvement between fac tory owners in urban and rural areas. More settlements around them. Bolton accepted an intermediate position. A study of an detailed local studies indicate, however, that there were marked local variations in e xtensive collection of property surveys made between 1850 and 1885 revealed that it this general pattern. These are significant, for they illustrate the dangers of was just as likely for a town centre mill to own a handful of cottages in the street generalisation. (11) Industrial housing was not only limited numerically, but its adjoining the mill yard as it was for the rural mill to stand isolated and lacking distribution was not uniform, and its development did not depend on either straight­ even the meanest accommodatio n for its wo rkforce . (22) While the neighbourhood of forward economic or social motivation. Local tradition largely predetermined whether Bolton could boast the model villages of Egerton , Eagley and Barrow Bridge, (23) or not an industrialist undertoe~ housing, a nd more importantly whether he directed the well established Fi rwood Hall b l ~aching and dye-works stood isolated any philanthropic impetus in the direction of improved housing schemes . This alone in the next val l ey , nearly two miles from the nearest namlet . (24) can account for the very marked variations in practice which do not result from The fac t that a mill was isolated did not mean the o wner had to house his workers , differences in either the pattern of land-ownership or in the industrial character despite the considerable practic al advantages which could be expected to follow of different districts. such action.

This variety is apparent, for example, in four east Lancashire cotton towns and The pattern of local variation in these east Lancashire towns is reflected through­ their surrounding districts. In the Oldham area there was a conspicuous absence of out the region. The custom of industrialists providing housing basically depended houses connected with the mills, both in the town and at the industrial settlement f o r its establishme nt on local practice in a particular area, and for its continuance of Greenacre Moor outside the town. (12) This was true in the 1820s, when the on the strength of local traditio n. The out come of this variation was a varied industrial character of the area was being determined, and in the 1850s when Edwin response on the part of industrialists t o the housing problem. Beyond thts local Butterworth penned his 'Historical Sketches of Oldham'. At the election of 1832, d iversity there were, however, common motives which led industrialtsts to build the Earl of Ellesmere congratulated the citizens of Oldham on the fact that the town ' s houses. They had little to do with the philanthropic ideal, o r the desire to physical gro wth was so largely the result of their own labours. (13) On the other ameliorate the living conditions of the working people and create a more satisfying hand, Bury contained, by the third quarter of the century, a large number of mills environment. In most cases, those industrialists who built houses did so for reasons with associated housing, and it was surrounded by numerous industrial settlements. either of managerial necessity or as a means o f capital investment. The Peels possessed 20 cottages at their Burrs Mil l in 1800. (14) By 1830 there was In the first stages of industrialisation, the practicalities o f managerial necessity a compact community about a mile from the centre of the town at Freetown, dependent compelled industrialists to provide ho uses for their wo rkforce. (25) Such housing on the mills of Thomas Greenalgh and William Rathbone Gregg. (15) Moreover, it was schemes were part of a whole pattern of settlement which Marshal! describ ed as an area in which new communities continued to be planted. In 1862 a co-operative ' coming int o being through one major decision o r a comparatively limited successi on mill colony was begun at Hooley Bridge, (16) and between 1863 and 1872 the firm of of major decisions . (26) As a result o f this process, settlement occurred on sites J. & J. Mellor developed its work at Warthfold along wi th accommodation for 237 of 33 32

F. Collier, The Famil.y Economy of the Working CLasses in the Cotton Industry, 1784-1833 because o f a combination of economic factors. If there was no labour force near at 14. (1965), Cheetham Society, p.35 . hand, the management was perforce obliged to house the necessary immigrant popu­ J.D. Marshall, ' Colonisation as a Factor in the ?lanting of Towns in North-West no public organisation to provide the basic 15 . lation, m many cases, where there was England', in H .J. Dyos (ed) The Study of Urban History (1968) , London , p. 224. services. 16. The Co- operator and HeraLd of Hea Zth (1 8 69 ) , X , p . 3 61. By 1840, however, housing provision was no longer a primary concern of industrialists 17. Minutes of Evidence, House of Commons Committee on the Bury Improvement Bill, catering f o r a largely immigrant workforce. By then the textile region of Lancashire 1885, Q.Q. 2011-53. was an area of closely-knit towns and villages where it was rare for a mill to be 18. Township of Heap Poor Rate Books , 1 825-50 , Lancashire County Record Office, situated beyond walking distance of an e stablished 'community. This tendency was M. B. He 4/1 0-1 8. Deed of Covenant f o r the grant of a new lease of a plot of and hereditaments situate in Heap for 999 years (26 March 1863), extended over the middle years of the century as changing power requirements occasion­ land, paper mill Muniments of the Earl of Derby, Lancashire County Record Office, D.D.K.B. ed the increasing conglomeration of mills, and advanced the process of urbanisation. Township of Bury Poor Rate Book, 1855, Bury Town Hall , Director of Financial In south-east Lancashire, the mill and its cottages were no longer a separate entity. 19. Services and Borough Treasurer' s De partme nt. They were additions to an existing settlement pattern, and there is considerable Borough of Rochdale Poor Rate Book, 1858 , Lancashire County Record Office, C.B.R. evidence of workers walking daily from their community to mills in the neighbouring 20. 5/56. villa ge o r town. Whilst the involvement of industrialists with housing varied from of Spotland within the Borough Poor Rate Book , 1875, Lancashire County area to area, it is clear that by the middle of the nineteenth century factory owners 21. Township Record Office, C.B.R. 5/151. w. Robertson, RochdaLe and the History of ita Progress no longer felt compelled to provide accommodation. Whilst some might choose to (1913), Rochdale, p . 63. direct their capital in that direction, housing was no longer needed to secure or 22. The Bolton Thompson Collection, Bolton Central Librar y. control their workforces. By the second and third generation of industrialisation 23. C. Aspin, Lancashire, the First IndustriaL Society (1969) , Helmshore, p.137. the supervision of labour was much more so~histicated. Housing was only one incen­ tive in the institutionalisation and internalisation of discipline. (27) Much more 24. A Measurement of Buildings in the Township of Tonge with Haulgh for the purpose , Bolton Central Library. detailed study is needed before a full assessment c an be made of the place of hous­ of the assessment, May 1844, Bolton Thompson Collection ing as an external pressure used by industrialists invoked to enforce work-discipline. 25. s. Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management, etc., p.232. 26. J.D. Marshal!, 'Colonisation as a Fact or in the Planting of Towns in North-West S . M. GASKELL England ' , in H.J. Dyos (ed) (1968), London, p.220. City of Liverpool 27. E.P. Thompson, ' Time, Work Discipline and Industrial Capitalism', Past and Present, College of Higher Education xxxviii, pp.56-97.

1. W. As hworth, 'f.he Genesis of Modern British Town PZanning (1954), London, p.ll9. • ••••••••••••••••• •• 2. G. Darley , Vil.Lages of Vision (1975), London.

3. J. Burnett, ASociaLHistoryofHousi ng (1978), London, pp.81-2. BE LGIAN URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SPA, OSTEND AND ANTWERP IN THE 19th CENTURY 4. Factories Commission Inquiry, SuppLementary Report of the CentraL Board, ( 183 4) , Pt. 11, c. I. In contrast to the 18th century, public authorities no longer intervened so directly 5 . s. Pollard, A History of Labour in SheffieLd (1959), Liverpool, p . lOl. in urban development during the first half of the nineteenth century. Instead of controls, subsidies and guidelines, they resorted to town planning measures. (1) 6 . Manchester Township Rate Books, 1870 , vol.l dist. 1, vol.3 dist. 1, vol.5, dist. 2, Manchester Central Library Archives M/9/40/2/290-4. Although this trend can be observed in o ther European countries, (2) it was coupled in Belgium with a public policy of favouring certain urban centres more than others. 7 . Factories Commission Inquiry, SuppLementary Report of the CentraL Board ( 1834) , Pt. 11, D.1.; Approximately 85 per cent of the Manchester firms making returns definitely The development of Spa, Ostend and Antwerp during the second half of the 19th century did not provide any accommodation for their work people. illustrates how public-authority policy was implemented at an u r ban level. 8 . Quoted in: s. Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management (1968), Harmondsworth, new ed., Simultaneously with such a policy of subsidies the authorities embarked on a pro­ p. 235. gramme of large, new public works, including the widening of r o ads, building and 9. I am indebted to Or B. Atkinson of the Department of Architecture, Queen ' s University Belfast, for his assitance in this matter and for allowing me to con- enlarging dock areas, shoring up the banks o f rivers and streams, and the construc­ sult his unpublished research material. · tion of an extensive railway network. (3) ·A forerunner of large-scale intervention 10. Land Tax Returns, 1831-32, Lancashire County Record Office. in the second half of the 19th century, the War Ministry constructed three large fortification rings around the city of Antwerp. (4) The public authorities made 11 . w. L. Creese , The Search for Environment ( 19 6 6) , New Ha ven, pp. 13-6 0. increasing use of the capital provided by private individuals and institutions. (5) 12. Land Tax Returns for Oldham, 1832, Lancashire County Record Office, Q.D . L. 53/8. A particular expression of this phenomenum in Belgium was the use made by Leopold II 13. E. But terworth, Historical. Sketches of Ol.dham with an appendix containing a history of the of nominees for the execution of a number of large developments . tOlJn to the present time (1856), Oldham, p.201. 35 34

Table 1, continued At Spa, Ostend and Antwerp, public-authority policy had two clear objectives. The first was to stimulate the tourist attractions of seaside resorts and thermal spas. The seaside resort gradually became more important than the spas, which were mainly 1868 1869. 1. Digging of an artesian well and dis- 25 , 000 l ocated inland. The second objective was to review thoroughly Belgium's military tribution of water t o t he streets and footpaths defence system. The barrier system, which involved defending a large number of 2. 1st credit f o r new sewerage 13,920 places, became impossible to maintain after 1830. In 1847, it was decided to develop 17 , 000 one great central stronghold around Antwerp, which would serve to defend the whole 1869 1870: 1. 2nd credit for new sewerage of Belgium. (6) A large number of towns, including Ostend, thereby lost their trad­ 2. Construction of a shooting range 3 , 6 48 itional defence role. 3. 1st credit for the re- paving of 13 , 000 St. Jozefstraat A systematic examination of the reports of the Ostend Town Council indicates that 4. 2nd credit for the re-paving of side - 5 , 272 streets fu nds originating from the thermal resort of Spa were used to carry out a number of improvement works in Ostend. The funds came from the games of chance in the casinos 1870 1871: 1. 2nd credit for the enlargement of the 29 , 920 Leopold Park of the Redoute, Salons Levoz and the waux-Hall, (7) where profits amounted to 2. 2nd credit for digging of an artesian 9 , 000 1,780,000 gold francs between 1822 and 1846. The government did not allow such gam­ well and water distribution bling at Ostend. From 1859, an annual 5% of the taxes on gambling at Spa was 1871 187 2 * 1. 3rd credit f o r the enlar gement of t he 21 ,488 allocated for improvements to the town of Spa and for the towns of Chaudfontaine, 1873 Leopold Park Blankenberge and Ostend. (8) Both of these last two towns are situated on the North 2. 3rd credit for increasing the efficiency 13 , 000 Sea coast, and were increasingly well-known as seaside resorts. It is clear that the of the artesian well Belgian government wished to promote the growth of coastal tourism, as well as the 3. 3rd credit for the casino 6 , 000 spas at Chaudfontaine and Spa. The preference of the public authorities for coastal 4. 3rd credit for the re-paving of side- 6,000 streets r esorts dates from 1865 and the accession to the throne of Leopold II. In an agree­ 5 . Works o n levelling the old glacis and 8,000 ment between the State and the concessionaires of Spa, a total of 70,000 francs was construction of a bridge over the weir to be allocated from the profits made at Spa. Ostend was to receive 55.6%, Blanken­ Period from 288 , 008 berge 21.5%, and Chaudfontaine 8%. Two other coastal municipalities also benefited: 1866- 1872 gold francs 10 % was apportioned to Nieuwpoort, and 4.3% to Heist. *Unlike the preceding years, the total sum is 54,488. In 1871, the casinos at Spa Between 1865 and 1872, Ostend received 38,920 gold francs annually, derived from the were closed by government decree and a new distributio n of the funds was accor ded profits of Spa. In spending these funds on works of urban improvement and public to the ' villes d ' eaux'. The two different subsidies overlapped . hygiene, as much emphasis was placed on the reconstruction of the old central area The next phase in the syphoning off of funds from Spa to the coastal area followed of the town as upon the development of seaside resort facilities and accommodation the closing of the Spa casinos by the law of 27 March 1871 . A sum of 3.3 million (table 1) . gold francs was shared between Spa a nd the coastal t o wns of Ostend, Blankenberge Table 1: Spending of a part of the funds from Spa on improvement and reconstruction and Heist. Fixed amounts for improvement works were allocated to these towns works in Ostend, 1866-1872 annually between 1871 and 1880 (table 2).

Table 2: Distribution of the funds from Spa casinos after the closure of three Profits from Use made by Ostend of the annual income (38,920 fr) Amounts Spa casinos in 1871. for the fitting out of new rooms, 38,920 1865 1866: 4th credit Ostend, Blankenberge in the Town Hall Spa including some and Heist 1866 1867: l. 5th credit for the casino in the Town Hall 14,500 1871 200,000 70,000 2nd credit for building the stand and race- 5,000 1872 200,000 63,000 2. 1873 course 200,000 56 , 000 1874 200,000 49,000 3. Construction of the stands and racecourse 4,000 1875 200,000 42, 000 1876 200,000 4 . New pavements in the side-streets of the 15 , 420 35,000 1877 old town 200,000 28,000 1878 200,000 21, 000 1879 200,000 14, 000 1867 1868: 1. 6th credit for the casino 5,000 1880 200,000 7 , 000 2. Purchase of lifeboats for the beach 1 , 500 3. Ga s ligh ting for the sea wall 2 ,400 were 4. Ne w pavements in the side-streets of the 5,000 Detailed records were not kept of how these amounts were spent. The funds old town spent partly on the improvement of footpaths in the old town and partly on the con­ 5. Enlargement of the Leopold Park 25,000 struction of a sewerage system. In the new distric ts, built on the former site of 37 36

matiere d ' urbanisme en Belgique au the f ortifications after 1874. The e ntire water-supply and sewerage systems of 1. P. Godding, 'L'evolution de la legislation en XIXieme siecle', in Cities in development 19th-20th centuries, Records o f the lOth Inte r- _ Ostend were subsidised between 1865 and 1880 from the proceeds from gambling at Spa. national. Coll.oquiwn of the Credit Colm1UnaZ de Bel.gique at Spa (1932) , Brussels , pp.l1-3:>. Another source of income were the municipal taxes for bathing o n the beach at Ostend. 2 . In Germany especially large-scale attempts we r e made to coordinate urban planning regulations. See especially a histo ric al summary of this in J. Stubben, Di e Bedeut­ A final allocation was given to Spa and Ostend in 1902. Games of chance had in­ ung der Bauordnungen und Bebauungspl.ane fur das Wohnungswesen ( 1902) , Got tingen. A second its influence over urban creased considerably in both ' villes d ' eaux', and was condoned by the autho rities indirect attempt by the public autho rity to extend development was the provision of an increasing number of common facilities. The until the law of 24 October 1902. As compensation for this measur e an amount of importance of this is pointed out in A. Sut cliffe , Towards the nanned City (1981) , 5 million francs was awarded to Oste nd a nd 2 million francs to Spa. The contrasts Oxford. in the amounts granted highlighted the importance of Ostend a s a seaside resort com­ 3 . The construction of railways by the S tate was already provided for in Belgium by pared with t hat of Spa as a thermal spa resort. In Ostend , part of t hese funds was the law of 1834. The Brussels-Malines line was opened in 1836. used to construct the Royal Pedestrian Arcade along the ne w sea wall. (9) 4 . See Q. Hughes, MiUtary architecture (1974) , London, p.211.

During the second half of the 19th century, the public authorities sought not only to 5. The formation of the so-called 'naamloze ve nnootschappen ' (a form of limited lia­ bility company) was allowed from 1874 o nw ards. These partnerships of private increase the s u ccess of the seaside resorts by transferring fun~ from Spa to various individuals often included import ant munic ipal and urban representatives. They coastal municipaliti es , but to use the success of the seaside resorts of Ostend as an were to take part in the maj o rity of spec ulative construction developments during the second half of the 19th century. The first ' naamloze vennootschappen ' were indirect means of financing the new fortification ring around Antwerp. A War Ministry formed during the Dutch administration . decree p r ovided the means to finance the so-called ' g reat fortress ring' around 6 . In 1848 the Defence Council took the decision to expand Antwerp as a national Antwerp (10) by demolishing the military forts and strongholds at Ghent, Tournai, stronghold. Consequently most of the fortified towns in Belgium were only dis­ Charleroi, Namur , M ons , Antwerp (the Spanish fortress and the c itadel) and Ostend. mantled in the second half of the 19th century. In an article by E.C. Vollans it was incorrectly stated that Ostend' s defences were dismantled as early as the The government wanted to s ell the land, o nce demolition had taken place, to the t owns beginning of the 19th centur y. See E. Vollans, ' Urban development in Belgium or to private individuals at the highest possible price , thereby reducing its share since 1830 ' , in Ur banization and its problems (1970), Oxford, Beckinsale and Housto n, pp. l7l-193 . For other European countries such as France and Germany, see of the costs of the new fortifications around Antwerp, estimated at 50 million gold A. Sutcliffe, op cit, p. 3 as well as p .l94. francs. In this way, 22 hectares of l and at Ostend were sold i n 1874 to the Liege 7. William I, King of the United Netherlands, authorised games of chance at Spa by notary public, The Ostender M ourlon, who offered 780 ,000 francs. (11) The sale to a the law of 22 May 1 822. The first Belgian law regulating games of chance at Spa private individual meant that the land was developed as a speculative venture, rather dates from 1846. than for the benefit of the old town. This was underlined by the fact that the town 8 . E. de Brouwer, La question des jeux (186 5) , Os tend. plan drawn up by the e ng ineer, L. Crepin, was adopted , rather than the improvement 9. The cost of this majestic 350 m long arcade amounted to 1,500,000 francs. Half plan of the French architect , Hector Horeau. The latter plan provided for a green of this sum was paid by King Leopold II, the other half coming from the funds belt around t he old town to replace the strongholds . Unde r Crepin ' s plan the land accorded as compensation for the prohibition of games of chance. was divided into building plots. It was only in t his way that s uch a high selling 10. See de Rychel , Histoire de 1- 'etabissement miLitaire de La BeZgique (1907), Ghent, Vol.l, price could be obtained. Crepin justified such an approach to urban expansion in a p.322. letter to the Finance Minister, Frere-Orban. (12) From this example and from the 11. See P. Lombaerde and R. Lombaerde-Fabri, ' Le Developpement urbanistique, archi­ redemption of tolls on the Scheldt in 1863, it is clear that the authorities no tectural et artistique de deux villes d ' eaux en Belgique: Spa et Ostende ', in Records of the International CoZZoquiwn at San PeZZegrino Te rme 16- 18 June 1981 : Stile e longer wished to expand Ostend as an important s e aport. They wanted it to become struttu.ra de'll.e citta termal.e d 'Europa (in press). an elitist residential seaside reso rt. Henceforth Antwe rp was to be the p r e - eminent 12. See a lso Koninklijke Legermuseum (Royal Army Muse um, Brussels) Archives du Fond des Belgian port and a centre for international commerce - a role which was diffic ult to Fortifications, Ostende, C. Derron telement 1.1. Notice Ing. Crepin: amenagement (21.10 .1867) , combine with its new militar y function . As early as 1909 , it was decided to demolish quartiers Anc. fort., p.3: ' ... j'ai pense qu ' il s'agissait de donner une rigour­ euse extension a la ville en tenant compte de tous les progres apportes a l'assain­ the great fortification ring. issement et a la voirie , t out en permettant au Gouver nement de tirer la partie le plus avantageux des terrains militaires, au point de vue financier'. This short paper is i ntended to provide merely an illustration of how public author­ 13 . L. Ranieri, Leopol.d II, u.rbaniste (1973) , Brussels, as well as L. Verniers, 81'l.l:rel.Zes ities were trying to define the function of various towns in the national context of .et son aggl.omero.tion de 1830 a nos jou.rs ( 1958) , Brussells, and Y. Leblicq, 'L' urban­ the second hal f of the 19th century. Ind ustrial development was promoted in a number lsation de Bruxelles aux XIXe et XXe siecles ( 1830- 1952) ', in Cities in deveLopment ( 1982), Br~ssels, pp.335 -394. of towns ( Leige, Charleroi, Ghent) . The centres of Spa and Ostend became elitist amuseme nt resort towns, each with a distinctive character. The metropolis of Antwerp was assigned a double role, namely as a stronghold for · the defence of Belgium and as ••• •••••••••• ••••••• an international port. Under the impetus of Leopold II, Brussels was further enlarged to become the capital city of Belgium. (13) P. LOMBAERDE Interfakultair Instituut voor Stedebouw en Ruimtelijke Ordening Katholieke Universiteit Leuven 38 39

In both cit ies , o ne of the main objectives was to preserve the traditional attraction A HUNDRED YEARS BEHIND? of the centre , as measured largely in terms of access. Maj or thoroughfares were planned to and from the centre - the Klarabergsgatan-Hamngatan, Sveavagen-Klaratun­ neln , Tunnelgatsleden , and Blasieholmsleden in Stockholm, and the Rue de Rivoli and Boulevard Sebastapol-Boulevard St. Michel in Paris, to mention only the main east­ During the last t hree d e c a des the cit y cent re o f S t ockho lm has be en transformed. west and north- south arteries respectively. In Stockholm various ring roads round Over large areas, e arlier develo pme nt has made way for offices a nd business premises. the centre we r e discussed: Haussman actually planned such a road by extending 'les Many streets have been w i dened and multi-store y car-parks have be en built. Altogeth­ grands boulevards ' (which surrounded the northern part of the city centre) , south of er, over 400 buildings h ave be e n d emo lishe d and r e placed by just over 100. Large­ t he Seine a l ong the Boulevard St. Germain. When the tariff wall was moved in 1860 , scale urban deve l opment is not, however, unique to Stockholm, nor indeed to the i t was possible to start planning a ne w outer ring (les boulevards exterieurs) in its twentieth century. Exac tly 100 yea rs ago, there was a radical transformation of the place . The politicians and technologists of the 1950s and 1960s in Stockholm had a city centre of Paris. Initiated and supported by Napoleon III, the enterprise was ' hier achic ' view of t he city. Head offices and selective trade -speciality shops directed b y B aro n G e orge s Eugene Haussman. Do the two projects represent entirely we r e t o b e i n t he city centre , w hile other activities should be located towards the differen t planning systems? Or are there - notwithstanding the differences in time periphery . H a u ssman' s ideas were moulded by the same attitude, albeit less explic­ and the size a nd po litical cul ture of the two c ities - parallels in the aims of the i tly. As a result of the new thoroughfares, the outlyjng areas were to be developed planning a nd t he implementation process? a s r esi dent i al and i ndustrial regions, while the inner city should remain the centre of retailing and administration. Let u s star t with s o me of the diffe rences. The rebuilding of the Stockholm city centre was a mini -proje c t compared with Haussman ' s grand p lan; about 20 ,000 buildings It could be interjected that Haussman was concerned mainly with the street layout, were demolished i n Paris. Admittedly, many of them very small, but s o were quite a whilst large tracts of the centre of Stockholm were subjected to total clearance. number of those demolishe d in Stockho l m. Anot he r important difference was that Haussman did, however, entirely c lear that part of Paris which he regarded as the Stockholm did not have a Haussman. As p refect, Ha ussman was no t o nly go ve rno r, b ut true centre of the city, namely Ile de la Cite and the area round les Halles. As in town planning officer a nd head of t he mu nic ipa l administratio n. He combined the the case of Klarakyrka and Jakobskyrka in Stockholm, Notre Dame was allowed to sur­ functions wh i ch were d ivi ded in Stock holm a mong seve r a l people. One is tempted t o vive. If Haussman had enjoyed unlimited economic resources in Paris, a large part of add that he also combined wi thin himse lf many o f the c harac teristics often ascribed the inner city would probably have been completely cleared . to the leading actors in the redesig ni ng of the Stockho lm c ity centre; an e normo us The methods of implementation exhibit obvious parallels. In Stockholm, there was capacity for wo rk, t o ughness, inse nsitiv ity to c ritic i s m, inc orruptibility, keenness muc h tal k of ' rolling city planning ' , whereby the c ity would continually acquire of mind , and a n ability t o think big. Added to this, he had an unusual capacity to pl o t s wh ich would then be made available for redevelopment once streets had been laid rouse ent husi a sm i n o thers; he could o ften convinc e p e ople who were initially criti- o u t a nd t echnical work completed. The added land value would go towards financing cal of his projects. t he u rban p l a nning scheme. The principle was much the same in Paris, except that the Polit ically , i t s ho uld not be forgotten that the Paris s c heme was actively supported ne w plots w ere sold whereas they were leased in Stockholm. by the governme nt, that is to say by the empe ror. In Stockholm there was no equiva­ At first everything happened as Haussman had envisaged; the city was able to acquire lent gover nmen t support. The National Board of Building and Pla nning seems to ha ve land at reason able prices and also found buyers for its plots. Gradually, however , often obstr ucted t he wo r k o f urban d e ve lopment during the 195 0s. Perhaps it should the problems began. Compensation for expropriation tended to be unreasonably high, also be me ntioned that in Paris the c ity counc il was no t ele c ted; it was appo inted by which meant that finance became difficult. Furthermore there was growing criticism the emperor on the recommendatio n of the prefect. This d iffe rence did not, however, of Haussman himself for vandalism, willfulness, economic irresponsibility and for have any practica l sig nificance. Despite the obj e c tio ns raised by many of its members, creating a r oad network on an altogether too g rand a scale. A judgement in the High the Stockholm City Co unc il made no serious attempt to c hec k o r control the town plan­ Court limited s everely the opportunities for expropriating land for building plots ning project. As in Pa r i s, the real decisions were t a ke n outside t he Council . along the new streets. In Stockholm, by contrast, the right of expr opriation was ex­ And now for t he s i mil a rities. In both t o wns the t o wn-pla nning s c he mes had b e en the tended as a result of the 'Lex Norralm'. subject of discussion for decade s before wo rk start e d; in bo th c ases planners were However, Haussman would not be stopped. Large-scale projects for road-building were keen to clear a good deal of low-standard and outmo de d building. Bo th projects stem­ launched, a nd a number of private companies.was involved. Very often, Haussman was med from a n opt i mistic belief in develo pme nt and p rog r~ss , and f rom a n unshakeable a lmost the o nly o ne to know the terms of the agreements reached. After a d ramatic convict ion o n the part of the leading actors that the ir solutio ns were the only right peak i n d e molitio n s towards t he e nd of the 1860s (848 houses were pulled down in 1866), ones . N or was it considered necessary or even desirable in either city to draw up a the bo ttom droppe d o u t of the scheme a nd , by the time Haussman resigned from his post de t ailed p r ogramme; in both cases the lodestar was action rathe r than investigation in Janua ry 1870, work had mo r e or l ess come to a standstill. A similar course of a nd d iscussion. In both cases, too, there was a good deal of secretiveness. The e ve nts c a n be observe d i n St ockholm. During the 1950s, both ambition and a c tion pol i t ica l authorities were either presented with a fait accompli or were manipulated r e mained on a relativel y limited scale, and were largely realised. sergelgatan, with with half-t ruths or part-truths into making apparently provisional decisions which its five towe r b locks , w as built dur ing this period. ~~~~t1ons~-~· · grew in the 1960s, proved , in t he event, to be binding. 40 and c ritic ism became mo r e vicife rous. The c ity f o und it inc reasingly diffic ult to sec ure builder s fo r the ne w plo ts. In 1967 the mo st extensive plan - City 67 - was presented; demo l i tio n reac hed its pea k. There were secret d ocume nts on different pro )ec ts in the Clearanc e Sectio n o f the Stockho lm City Rea Estate Department. But the many desert ed demo lition-sites bore witness t o the fact urban renewal had r e a c he d a deadlo c k by about 1970 . A year o r s o l a ter the political reappraisal com­ menced.

Th us in both S t ockholm and Paris the period of urban development lasted for about 20 years, fro m the beginning of the fifties to the e nd of the sixties . In both cases serious p r o blems arose in the sixties, as the rate of demolition accelerated and p l a ns and ambitions grew. In both cases criticism developed during the first half of the sixtie s, becoming severe towards the end of the decade. The Stockholm plan­ ne rs were largely spared the kind of personal and defamatory accusations directed a gainst Haussman. Haussman did not have to wait long for redress; several of his half-finished projects were completed over the following decades. Likewise, the replann i ng o f the city centre of Stockholm is already being judged with greater dis­ criminati o n and in a much more positive light than only t e n years previo usly.

This is not the place to start discussing development-cycles, to launch any theories abo ut the ma ximum length of urban-renewal processes, but it may be relevant to ask whether Haussman was a hundred years before his time - o r whether the planners and d e cision-makers o f Stockholm were a hundred years behind.

THOMAS HALL I nsitutionen for Konstvetenskap, Stockholms Universitet.

1 . J .M. and Brian Chapman, The Life a nd Time o f Baron Haussrran, Pal'is in the Second Empire (1957 ), London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

2 . Thomas Hall, Pl.anung europai sc her Haupts tadte 1800- 1880, Zur Entstehung des modernen S tadte­ baues ( f o rthcoming, spring 1983), Stockholm, Vitterhetsakademien.

3. I dem, 'The Central Business District: Planning in Stockholm, 1928-1978', in Ing r i d Hanunarstrom and Thomas Hall (eds.) Growth and Transforma tion of t he Modern Ci ty ( 1979) , Stockholm, Swedish Council for Building Research.

4. D. H. Pi nkney, Napo ~eon III and the RebuiLding of Par is (1958), Princeton, University Pre s s .

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