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Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution Colin D Coasts: form, process and evolution Colin D. Woodroffe School of Geosciences, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011–4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © C.D. Woodroffe 2002 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeface Monotype Times 9.5/13 pt System QuarkXPress™ [] A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Woodroffe, C.D. Coasts: form, process, and evolution / Colin D. Woodroffe. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0 521 81254 2 (hb) – ISBN 0 521 01183 3 (pb) 1. Coasts. 2. Coast changes. I. Title. GB451.2 W65 2002 551.45Ј7–dc21 2002017418 ISBN 0 521 81254 2 hardback ISBN 0 521 01183 3 paperback Contents Preface page xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The coastal zone 2 1.2 Coastal geomorphology 3 1.2.1 Coastal landforms 5 1.2.2 Coastal morphodynamics 7 1.3 Historical perspective 9 1.3.1 Pre-20th-century foundations 9 1.3.2 Early-20th-century geographical context 11 1.3.3 Mid-20th-century coastal studies 15 1.3.4 Late-20th-century process and historical geomorphology 17 1.4 Temporal and spatial scales 19 1.4.1 Hierarchy of time scales 22 1.5 Coastal systems 25 1.5.1 Landform morphology 25 1.5.2 System interrelationships, feedback and equilibrium 28 1.6 Human impact on the coast 33 1.7 Summary and outline of following chapters 34 2 Geological setting and materials 36 2.1 Historical perspective 37 2.1.1 Global tectonics 37 2.1.2 Quaternary variations 39 2.2 Plate-tectonic setting 41 2.2.1 Continental coasts 43 2.2.2 Island coasts 47 vii viii Contents 2.3 Sea-level variations 48 2.3.1 Pre-Quaternary ocean volume variations 49 2.3.2 Quaternary sea-level variations 51 2.3.3 Isostatic adjustments 60 2.3.4 Present and future sea-level trends 66 2.4 Materials 67 2.4.1 Lithology 68 2.4.2 Clastic sediments 70 2.4.3 Carbonate sediments 74 2.5 Paleoenvironmental analysis and sedimentary history 82 2.5.1 Paleoenvironmental analysis 82 2.5.2 Dating coastal landforms 84 2.6 Summary 88 3 Coastal processes 90 3.1 Historical perspective 91 3.2 Sedimentary processes 93 3.2.1 Sediment entrainment 94 3.2.2 Sediment transport 98 3.2.3 Sediment deposition 99 3.3 Wave processes 100 3.3.1 Types of waves 100 3.3.2 Wave generation and movement 103 3.3.3 Wave transformations 109 3.3.4 Breaking waves, reflection and dissipation 111 3.3.5 Infragravity waves 113 3.3.6 Wave measurement 117 3.3.7 Wave climate 118 3.4 Tides and tidal influence 119 3.4.1 Tidal oscillations 120 3.4.2 Tidal processes in embayments, estuaries and creeks 125 3.5 Other oceanographic processes 128 3.5.1 Ocean currents 128 3.5.2 Sea ice 130 3.5.3 El Niño–Southern Oscillation 131 3.5.4 Storms and extreme events 134 3.6 Terrestrial and subaerial processes 136 3.6.1 Wind action 137 3.6.2 Frost action 139 Contents ix 3.6.3 Fluvial processes 140 3.6.4 Weathering and hillslope processes 140 3.7 Biological processes 140 3.8 Summary 141 4 Rocky coasts 143 4.1 Historical perspective 146 4.1.1 Darwin, Dana and Davis 146 4.1.2 Lithology and weathering 147 4.2 Plate-tectonic setting and wave planation 149 4.2.1 Plate-tectonic setting 149 4.2.2 Shelf abrasion and island planation 151 4.3 Cliff and shore platform morphology 153 4.3.1 Planform of rocky coasts 153 4.3.2 Cliffs in profile 157 4.3.3 Shore platforms 165 4.3.4 Polygenetic rocky coasts and the role of inheritance 169 4.4 Processes and rates of erosion 170 4.4.1 Operative processes 170 4.4.2 Relation of processes to morphology 174 4.4.3 Cliff and shore platform erosion rates 176 4.5 Cliff morphodynamics 178 4.5.1 Wave energy and rock resistance 178 4.5.2 Models of soft-rock retreat 183 4.6 Summary 187 5 Reef coasts 189 5.1 Historical perspective 191 5.2 Reef morphology and zonation 194 5.2.1 Reef morphology 195 5.2.2 Reef zonation 199 5.3 Reefs in time and space 201 5.3.1 Reef distribution and structure 204 5.3.2 Quaternary sea-level variation 207 5.3.3 Holocene reef growth and response to sea level 210 5.3.4 Reef growth and sedimentation 213 5.4 Processes on reefs 216 5.4.1 Sediment production on reefs 217 5.4.2 Wave and tide processes 219 5.4.3 Extreme events and disturbances 224 xContents 5.5 Morphodynamic models of reefs 227 5.5.1 Fringing reef development 228 5.5.2 Barrier reefs and shelf reefs 234 5.5.3 Atolls and atoll reef islands 241 5.6 Summary 246 6 Beach and barrier coasts 248 6.1 Historical perspective 250 6.1.1 Beach studies 251 6.1.2 Barrier studies 253 6.2 Beach morphology 255 6.2.1 Beach planform 256 6.2.2 Beach profile 265 6.3 Beach morphodynamics 273 6.3.1 Beach types 273 6.3.2 Three-dimensional beach morphology 279 6.3.3 Beach variation over time 284 6.3.4 Beaches in other settings 287 6.4 Beach and backshore change over decadal–century time scales 289 6.4.1 Recession, accretion and stable shorelines 290 6.4.2 Beach ridges 292 6.4.3 Beach–dune interactions 294 6.5 Barriers and barrier islands 298 6.5.1 Barrier morphology 301 6.5.2 Stillstand barriers 303 6.5.3 Barrier islands 306 6.5.4 Gravel barriers 312 6.5.5 Dune-building phases 315 6.6 Summary 320 7 Deltas and estuaries 321 7.1 Historical perspective 323 7.1.1 Deltas 323 7.1.2 Estuaries 325 7.2 Deltaic and estuarine processes 327 7.2.1 Delta-mouth processes 327 7.2.2 Estuarine hydrodynamics 330 7.2.3 Deltaic–estuarine sedimentation 334 7.3 Deltaic–estuarine morphology 336 7.3.1 The influence of tide and wave processes 336 7.3.2 Delta and estuary components 338 Contents xi 7.4 Morphodynamic development of deltas 340 7.4.1 River-dominated deltas 340 7.4.2 Wave influence on deltas 345 7.4.3 Tide influence on deltas 349 7.4.4 Patterns of delta distributary change 353 7.5 Morphodynamic development of estuaries 356 7.5.1 Drowned valleys 357 7.5.2 Tide-dominated estuaries 360 7.5.3 Wave-influenced estuaries 366 7.5.4 Coastal lagoons 371 7.6 Summary 374 8 Muddy coasts 378 8.1 Historical perspective 381 8.1.1 Stratigraphy 381 8.1.2 Process studies 383 8.2 Tidal flats 386 8.2.1 Sedimentary characteristics 388 8.2.2 Tidal flat morphology 391 8.2.3 Longer-term coastal plain development 396 8.2.4 Cheniers and chenier plains 397 8.3 Tidal inlets and tidal creeks 400 8.3.1 Tidal inlets 400 8.3.2 Tidal creeks and creek dynamics 403 8.4 Salt-marsh and mangrove shorelines 407 8.4.1 Salt-marsh and mangrove vegetation 408 8.4.2 Species distribution 411 8.4.3 Geomorphological settings 413 8.4.4 Geomorphologically defined habitats 416 8.5 Salt-marsh and mangrove morphodynamics 418 8.5.1 Landforms and sedimentation 420 8.5.2 Modelling marsh accretion 424 8.5.3 Muddy coast morphodynamics and sea- level change 430 8.6 Summary 432 9 Morphodynamics of coastal systems 435 9.1 Models in coastal geomorphology 436 9.1.1 Models and hypothesis generation 436 9.1.2 Types of models 439 9.2 Coastal systems 442 9.2.1 Feedback and thresholds 443 9.2.2 Equilibrium 445 xii Contents 9.3 Geomorphological change over time 450 9.3.1 Inheritance, convergence and polygenetic landforms 452 9.3.2 Response to changes over time 455 9.3.3 The role of extreme events 461 9.4 Modelling coastal morphodynamics 464 9.4.1 Equilibrium shore profiles 466 9.4.2 Multidimensional modelling 469 9.5 Summary 474 10 Human activities and future coasts 476 10.1 Human interaction with the coast 477 10.2 Human activities within the coastal system 479 10.2.1 Perturbations 480 10.2.2 Boundary conditions 481 10.2.3 Intrinsic adjustments 483 10.3 Tourism and the resort cycle 484 10.4 Global environmental change 486 10.4.1 Sea-level rise 487 10.4.2 Response of coasts 488 10.4.3 Human adaptation to change on the coast 489 10.5 Prospects 495 References 498 Index 617 Chapter 1 Introduction The scenic features of the coast – its ragged scarps, its ever-changing beaches and bars, its silent marshes with their mysterious past – all excite the imagination, and tempt the wanderer by the shore to seek an explanation for these manifestations of Nature’s handiwork.
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