Some Baltic Problems. Author(s): C. A. Nordman Source: The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 52 (Jan. - Jun., 1922), pp. 26-43 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2843768 Accessed: 31-01-2016 18:21 UTC

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This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 26

SOME BALTIC PROBLEMS.

By C. A. NORDMAN.

THE July-December,1919, numberof this Joturnalcontains an interestingarticle by Mr. Harold Peake on " The Finnic Question and some Baltic Problems.'-' Mr. Peake, startingfrom an anthropologicalpoint of view, thoughemploying also an argumentthat is, in manyrespects, based on archaologicalmaterial, brings forward a theoryconcerning the originof the Scandinavian and Finlandishlpeoples, which in ratherfundamental points differsfrom earlier hypotheses. Perhaps undersuch circumstancesan attemptmay be justifiedto explain some of the problemstouched upon by Mr. Peake in his suggestivearticle, as they are understoodby a northern archlaologist. I am greatlyindebted to the Council of the Royal Anthropological Institute,which has, in the followingpages, given me the opportunityto make such an attempt. I intentionally,however, confine myself to the archaeologicalmaterial ; this restriction,also necessitatedby the brevityof the article,is undoubtedlya drawback, in that it prevents an exhaustive treatmentof the problems under consideration,but the loss is perhapsoutweighed by the factthat one always writes with greateraccuracy on subjects included withinone's own fieldof study. The anthropologicalmaterial, moreover, concerning some ofthe culture-groupsmentioned below, is so scarce that it fails to furnisha sufficientlystrong basis for broad conclusions. Several ofthe centralquestions suggested by the investigationinto the northern still await solution. These are especiallythe questionsthat referto the peoples themselves,the peoples who formedthat materialculture with which we have become acquainted througha centuryof study. In many cases we fail to progressbeyond a mere statementof the problemor a formulationof a working hypothesis. Our opinionsare oftencontradictory, the finalsynthesis has not yet been reached. I am anxious, in such cases, to make possible a verificationof nmy own statementsand conclusions through referencesto the literatureat hand. Furthermore,I have endeavouredso to arrangethis paper that the readermay decide instantlywhether the discussionis concernedwith facts and conditionsthat are undeniablytrue, or merelywith debatable assumptionsor moreor less grounded hypotheses. During these last years Oscar Monteliushas resumedthe study of a subject that has long been of interestto him. He sees in the so-calledalmond-shaped flint

1 In this paper the adjectiveFinlandish refers to the entirepopulation of -both the Swedishand the Finnishelements. The adjectiveFinnish, on the otherhand, has reference to the part of the populationthat belongsto the Finnishrace.

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions C. A. NORDMAN.-SomeBaltic Problems. 27 implements-pointedoval flints,often having finelychipped edges and somewhat resemblingin formcertain ffint blades of the Solutreanperiod-the earliestevidence of a settlementin the Noith,a settlementwhich, broadly speaking, was contemporary with the Solutreanperiod.' Apartfrom the factthat the parallelwith the must, in everycase, be chronologicallymisleading, it is doubtfulif one can ascribe to the almond-shapedimplements a very great age. It is possible that some of themreally belong to the earliestNorthern Stone Age, althoughproof of this has not, as yet, been found; on the other hand one can, however,unhesitatingly assign a part of these almond-shapedtools to the end of the Stone Age.2 Accordingly,the chronologicalposition of these implementsis uncertain,and we must seek in anotherdirection if we wishto securea conceptionof-the beginning of the Stone Age in . The material is not plentiful: three picks of reindeer-antler,one piece cut offfrom a reindeer-antler,and an -headof flint, all fromDenmark, both fromthe islands and Jutland.3 The formof the reindeer- antlerpicks points to Germanyas the source of the little-knownculture which the Danish examples illustrate; similarpicks are known in Posen,4 Brandenburg,5in the Rhine region6and in the neighbourhoodof Hamburg.7 The relationwith the French Magdalenianperiod, on the otherhand, is not as yet clear, thoughthere is a possibilitythat both the Germanand the Danish objects were influencedby the West. The connectionwith subsequent periods proves to be equally uncertain,not because the followingages failed to leave remains,but because there are no inter- mediaryforms between the reindeer-antlertools which should be attributedto the commencementof the forestperiod, if not to a still earlier time, and the rich civilizationof the later Ancylus period which is chieflyrepresented by the large findsfrom the of Mullerupand Svaerdborg,both located on Zealand.8 The

1 Oscar Montelius,"De mandelformigaflintverktygens alder," in Antikvarisktidskrift fdr Sverige,vol. xx, 1919; Nils Niklasson,in Korrespondenz-Blattder deutschenGesellschaft fiir Anthropologie,Ethnologie und Urgeschichte,vol. Ii, 1920, pp. 19 sqq.; cf. also The Antiquaries' Journal,vol. i, 1921,pp. 98-104. 2 C. A. Nordman,in FinssktMuseum, 1920-21, pp. 65 sqq. 3 K. Friis Johansen," En Boplads i SvaerdborgMose," in Aarbegerfor nordisk Oldkyndighe4 (cited Aarb0ger),1919, pp. 224, sqq.; id., " Une stationdu plus ancienAge de la pierredans la tourbiWrede Svaerdborg,"in Memoiresde la Socijte des Antiquairesdu Nord (cited Memoires), 1918-19,pp. 347 sqq. 4 L. Koslowski,in Przegladarcheologiczny, vol. i, 1919,p. 90, pL.i, fig.1. 5 R. Stimming," Die Renntierzeitin dermairkischen Havelgegend," in Mannus,vol. viii,1917. 6 C. and E. Rademacher,Neufunde des prdhistorischen Museumrs der Stadt CoIn, 1916, plate iii, fig.36; this specimenseems, however, to be somewhatdubious. 7 G. Schwantes,Aus DeutschlandsUrzeit, 3rd ed., fig.28. 8 G. Sarauw, "En StenaldersBoplads i Maglemoseved Mullerup,"in Aarbeyer,1903; id., "Maglemose,ein steinzeitlicherMorfund im Moor bei Mullerupauf Seeland," in Prdhistorische Zeitschrift,vol. iii, 1911,and vol. vi, 1914; L. Koch, " Nye Bidragtill Mullerupkulturens geologiske Alder,"in Meddelelserfra Dansk GeologiskForening, vol. v, 1916; K. Friis Johansen,op. cit.

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 28 C. A. NORDMAN.-SomeBaltic Problems. formerplace has given the Mullerupcivilization the name by which it is known among the Danish archoeologists. The Mullerupcivilization is a lake civilization: the settlementsare situated on low peninsulasor on islands of ancient lakes whichhave since become bogs; peat layers,varying in thickness,cover the prehistoricsites. By hunting and fishing alone could the Mulleruppeople gain a livelihood. Numerousanimal bones and antiquitiesof bone and horngive evidenceof the kindof game Aought. The animals of the woods and the lakes, but not those of the sea, have lefttheir tribute. The elk and the aurochs,that later disappeared,played a big role in the chase; the dog had, even at that early time, become man's comrade. Amongthe antiquities,objects of bone and hornprevail to an extentunequalled in any later age. Barbed of bone, probablyfish-, were foundin large quantities,and besides bone points with flintbarbs aid plain, smoothbone points were used. A , sometimescalled a seam-smoother,sometimes a netpin, etc., belongs to the most importanttypes. Big socketedbone celts and bone clubs have been found in limited numbers,as well as fish-hooksand - handles. The perforatedaxes were fashioned of stag- or sometimeselk-antler, and were made in differentways, one type being providedwith an edge of flint or horn. Many examplesof these chisel-likehorn edges are known,and comparable to themare a fewhorn celts. Finally,some pick-likeweapons, and also otherforms of implements,were produced, but they may be passed over in this briefsummary. Sometimesthe weapons were ornamented,usually with regulargeometric designs of dots and lines, but in exceptionalcases with animal pictures,etc. Amongthe flintantiquities, the triangular,pygmy flint points, that werefound in greatquantities in the Svaerdborgsettlement, are the most worthyof note. With them belongsa small numberof lancets, and segment-shapedflint points. Flintcores, belonging to a type which later on disappears, are very common,and small flintflakes occur in large numbers. Scrapers made of flakes,and small round scrapersare common, and chipped celts too, are not quite unusual, but triangularhatchets, the French tranchet,are, on the contrary,very rare. This civilization,whose characteristicshave been brieflymentioned above, has, in Scandinavia, its centreon the Danish islands, especiallyin Zealand, where the big settlementshave been discoveredand most of the chance findsalso; only the most recent of the denticulatedbone-point types appears, in relativelylarge numbers,in Jutland. The civilizationspread to the northand east over a large part of Southernand CentralSweden, but kept itselfprincipally to the coast region of the Ancyluslake. Many of the ancient implementscontinued to be used in Sweden long afterthey had disappearedin Denmark.-

1 Concerningthe Mullerupcivilization in Sweden, see especially: K. Stjerna, "Fore hallkisttiden,"in Antikvarisktidakrift, vol. xix, 1911; S. Lindqvist." Nordensbenalder och en teoriom dess stenaldersraser,"in Rig, 1918.

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The Mullerup civilization appears to descend fromthe bone civilization of the period-compare the barbed harpoons,the socketed bone celts, and the ornamentationof both cultures--butit does not, however,have its closest analogies in Western . We find them in Germany; for instance in Mecklenburg,Pomerania, Brandenburg, and East Prussia many antiquities have been foundthat coincidein detail withthe Danish. One can best considerthe South Baltic Mullerup civilization as an eastern, much delayed, development of the Magdalenian,comparable, from a chronologicalpoint of view,to the Azilianperiod.' If we turnour attentionto the East Baltic territorywe find,in the well-known settlementnear Kunda in Esthonia, on the coast of the , a series of antiquities that bear a general resemblance in form to the Mulleruptypes.2 In both places are bone implementsin large quantities,as, for instance,numerous examples of barbed bone points. But a closer scruitinybrings to light fundamentaldifferences between the antiquities. In the Kunda find, manyof the most essentialMullerup types are missing,even amnongthe bone points, as, forexample, the fish-spearswith few barbs, oftenfashioned of rib bone, which are amongthe mostcommnon types from the Danish settlements. On the otherhand, new formshave been added whichare exceedinglyimportant, because they give an indicationof the cultureconnections of the Kunda people. One of these types-a peculiar arrow-headwith a circular cross-section-isscarce, the others-an arrow- head witha triangularcross-section, and an oblique-edged,pointed implement with a groovefor the shaft-are frequentlymet with. Thesethree types occur in the south, in East Prussia3for example, where also the pureMullerup civilization is to be found. Since Do findsprior to those of the Kunda civilizationhave appeared in the ancient Baltic Provincesit is allowableto assumethat the Kunda cultureof Esthonia originated in the south. It seems now that the Kunda culturewas a somewhatlater, eastern developmentof the old Mullerupculture, anJT that its originis to be soughtin East Prussiaand theadjoiningregions-perhaps in easternGermany, , and Poland. A continuationof the Kunda civilizationis representedby the large findfrom Pernau in northernLivonia, the richmaterial of which,including also Kunda types, containsa seriesof antiquitiesfrQm a later period.4 Even in the well-knownfind

I On the authorityof H. FairfieldOsborne, Men of theOld StoneAge, pp. 486 sqq., and of H. Breuil,in L'Anthropologie,1912, pp. 529 sqq., Mr. Peake assumes that the origin of the Mullerupcivilization should be soughtin Siberia. There are, however,no archeologicalfacts that tendto supportsuch an assumption. 2 C. Grewingk," Geologieund Archaeologiedes Mergellagersvon Kunda in Estland," 1882; id., " Die neolitischenBewohner von Kunda in Estland,"in Verhandlungender Gelehrten Estnischen Gesellsehaftzu Dorpat,vol. xii, 1884; Max Ebert, " Die baltischenProvinzen Kurland, Livland, Estland,"in PrahistorischeZeitschrift, vol. v, 1914,p. 507. 3 In the Museumof Konigsberg. In Posen, also, may be foundarrow-heads with triangular cross-section;see Koslowski,op. cit.,plate i, fig.10. 4 E. Gluck," Ueberneolitische Funde in derPernau," in Sitzungsberichteder altertumnsforschen- den Gesellschaftzu Pernau,vol. iv, 1906,pp. 259 sqq.,and pp. i sqq.; Ebert,op. cit.,pp. 510 sqq.

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fromRinnekalns in Livonia, are objects that betraytheir relationship to antiquities fromKunda.1 In conclusion,we must mentionthe relics fromthe Ladoga Canal for they,too, belong to the same culture.2 It is worthmentioning that the Kunda civilizationis represented,though to an inconsiderabledegree only, in southern Finland. A bone implementwith an oblique edge and with a groove for the shaft,that was found in the parish of Kyrkslatt,west of Helsingfors,bears witnessto this fact,3and gives us reason to believethat the firstpeople came to southernFinland fromEsthonia. An interesting findfrom the parish of St. Andrea in easternFinland4 can, apparently,be referred to the same or a somewhatlater periodthan the tool fromKyrkslitt. In addition to bone implementsthis find contains, among other things, primitive,slightly groundaxes. Similaraxes exist in the Baltic Provincesin a group of finds5which seemspartly to succeedand partlyto runparallel with the Kunda-Pernau civilization. They occuralso in Finland,both in Careliaand in the oldestsettlements in the south- westernpart of the country. The civilizationto which these belong has in Finland receivedits name fromthe regionin whichthey have been mostnumerously found,the parish of Suomusjairvi. The Suomusjairviculture, which as we have seen appears on both sides of the Gulfof Finland, can be consideredthe successorof the Kunda-Pernaubone civilization.It is also probablethat the connectionsbetween the Baltic provincesand Finland,of whichthe Kyrksliittimplement is proof,continued duringthe Suomusjirviperiod, and that the developmentin southernFinland was partlycaused by directinfluences from the south. The assumptionthat the culture came to Finland by a circuitousroute over Carelia, cannot, however,be entirely denied.6 The Suomusjarvi civilization,is, on the other hand, the firststage in a long developmentthat can be followedup on the soil of Finland. It is the predecessor of that civilizationwhich is charactefizedby earthenwarevessels ornamentedwith

I Ebert,op. cit.,pp. 507 sq5 2 A. Jnostranzeff,L'homme s. . iquede l'dgede la pierresur les cotesdu Lac Ladoga, 1882; J. Ailio," Die geographischeEntwickelung des Ladogaseesin postglazialerZeit," in Fennia,vol. xxxviii,1915. The Ladoga findsmust be consideredin connectionwith the Kunda-Pernau fihds, to whichthey belong; nothingin thearchxological material furnishes support for the separation betweenthese finds which Mr. Peake makeson anthropologicalgrounds. 3 A. Europaeus,in FinsktMuseum, 1917, pp. 5 sq. 4 S. Palsi, " Ein steinzeitlicherMoorfund," in Finska Fornminnesf'reningensTidskrift, vol. xxviii,1920. 5 M. Bolz, "Neolitische Steingerateaus dem Pernau-FellinschenKreise und dessen Umgebung,"plates 3-4, in Sitzungsberichteder altertumsforschenden(GeselIschaft zu Pernau, vol. vii, 1914; id., " Das neolitischeGraberfeld von Kiwisaare in Livland," in BaltischeStudien zurArchedologie und Geschichte,1914. 6 Concerningthese questions,see A. Europaeus, " Fornfyndfran Esbo och Kyrkslatt,"in Finska FornminnesfdreningensTid8krift, vol. xxxii,1922.

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions C. A. NORDMAN.-Some BalticProblems. 31 comb impressions.' This fact may be substantiated by details concerningthe antiquitiesand the circumstancesof theirdiscovery which cannot be here repeated. *Thiscivilization, best knownin the formpeculiar to southernCarelia, commences -withthe middleof the NeolithicAge, or somewhatearlier, and continuesto the end of the Stone Age. The rich ceramicfinds, a seriesof axes, , chiselsand other types give to this civilizationa charactereasily identified. In the latterpart of the NeolithicAge this culturecovers the greaterpart of Finland and, varyingaccording to locality,spreads far beyondthe easternboundary of the country. Accordingto the opinionnowadays entertained by the majorityof the Finlandish archaeologists, the originatorsof thiscivilization were the forerunnersof the Finno-Ugrianpeoples. For the East Baltic civilizationwe should, accordingly,have the following sequence:- Bone culturein East Prussia,Kunda, and Kyrksliitt;a partlylater development in Ladoga, Pernau, and Rinnekalns. This bone civilizationhas emergedfrom the South Baltic Mullerupculture. Primitivestone culturein Livonia, Esthonia,and southernFinland, probably runningparallel and partlybeing anterior to the later bone culture; this is the so- called Suomusjiirviculture. Stone culture,characterized by earthenwarevessels ornamentedwith comb- impressions,in the Baltic Provincesand Finland, with subdivisionsdepending on chronologicaland local differences,developed by the forerunnersof the Finno- Ugrian peoples that, comingfrom the south,spread around the Gulfof Finland.2 The Mullerupculture is succeeded,in southernScandinavia, by the flintciviliza- tionwhich is representedby the famouskitchen--the best known is Erteb0lle near the Limfjord-and which,in manyrespects, presents a strongcontrast to the Mullerupperiod.3 Most of the settlementsare now located on the sea-coast. The thickrefuse layers, consisting mainly of oystershells, bear witnessto the changein the kindof food sought. Huntingand fishingare still,to be sure,the mostimportant methods of securinga living, but the kind of game is somewhat different.Elk

1 Concerningthis civilization,see J. Ailio, Die steinzeitlichenWohnpkatzfunde in Finland, 1909; S. Palsi, " Riukjairvenja Piiskunsalmenkivikautiset asuinpaikat Kaukolassa," pp. I I1 sqq., in Finska Fornminnesf6reningensTidskrifjt, xxviii. 2 Irrespectiveof the skeletonsfrom Ladoga whichhave been reviewedby inostrantzeff, op. cit., and some fragmentsfrom Pernau, thereare no skeletonsthat can with certaintybe ascribedto any ofthe above-mentioned cultures. However,two skullsfrom Osel, at least one of thembrachycephalic, and some defectiveskeletons from Kivisaare in Livonia, may perhapsbe noticedin connectionwith the East Baltic stone cultures,named above, see: Carl. M. Fiirst and MartinBolz, in BaltischeStudien zur Archiologie und Geschichte, 1914. The samemight possibly be said of a dolichocephalicskull fromVoisek in Livonia, near Kivisaare, see Weinberg,in Sitzunqsberichteden GelehrtenEsiniachen Gesellschaft, 1903. The time of the skeletonsfound in Rinnekalnsis not absolutelyfixed; the skullswere partlybrachycephalic and partlydolicho- cephalic,see VerhandlusngenderBerliner Geselischaft fir Anthropologie,1877, pp. 415 sqq. 3 Concerningthe kitchen-middens see especiallyAffaldsdyngerfra Stenalderen i Danmarlk, 1900.

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and aurochs have disappeared,and the sea has begun to pay its tributein seal. in fowland fish,and finallyeven in oysters. The antiquitiesfrom this period consist largelyof new forms. Bone and horn,though still used, have lost theirdominant position, and many types, such as harpoons, socketed celts, net-pins,etc., have vanished. Now, flintis the most importantmaterial. Triangularhatchets are exceedinglycommon, and with them may be mentionedthe chipped celts. The pygmyflints have almostentirely disappeared, but, on the other hand, the characteristic transverse-edgedarrow-head exists in untold numbers. Rough earthenwarevessels show that the art of making objects fromburnt clay has been mastered,and for the firsttime a fewpolished stone axes have come to light.' It is of primeimportance for the comprehensionof the Stone Age in southern Scandinavia to know how this civilizationbegan. The question is, however,a most complicatedone, and the interpretationof facts,herein given, cannot clain to be more than a workinghypothesis. Because of the dissimilarities,immediately obvious, between the Mullerup and the kitchen-middencultures, it has been assumed that the latter representsa race whichhas superimposeditself on the older people.2 If we wish to accept this suggestion,we must show fromwhere the new people have pushed forwardto Denmark and north-westernGermany. One could mentionthe flintcivilization of the FrenchCampignian, which is almost identicalwith the Danish kitchen-middens.3 The lack of findsin the interveningregions could be explainedby referenceto the factthat coast-settlements, like those of the kitchen-middens,were, perhaps, destroyed and wipedout by the NorthSea whenits coasts became submergedunder the water. In conclusion,one could perhaps associate this wholedevelopment with the kitchen- middencivilization on the Iberian peninsula. The excavationsin WesternEurope have, however,yielded but little material on this subject, and the circumstances underconsideration have not, as yet, been thoroughlystudied. However, another solution of the question seems more justifiablethan that suggested above. The contrast between the Mullerup and the kitchen- periods is not so pronouncedas it seems at firstglance. The settlementshave,

I C. A. Nordman,in Aarboger,1918, pp. 137 sqq. 2 S. Lindqvist,op. cit. The anthropologicalmaterial does not tendto facilitatethe solution ofthe race question. Four orfive skulls have beenfound in Germany,which can withsome degree of certaintybe ascribed to the Mulleruppeople-see G. Kossinna, Die Indogermanen,1921, pp. 15 sqq.-some of them are dolichocephalicand some brachycephalic.We have also a couple of skulls fromthe Danish kitchen-middens;the anthropologicalmaterial from the Danish Stone Age is discussed by H. A. Nielsen in Aarb-ager,1906, 1911, and 1916. The dolichocephalicskulls from StMngeniis in Sweden,mentioned by Mr. Peake, do not belongto the kitchen-middenperiod. It seems,therefore, as thoughthe peopleof the Northin theStone Age, beginningfrom the Mullerupperiod, were, froma somatic-point of view,heterogeneous, but furtherconclusions cannot be drawnuntil the materialhas becomemore plentiful. 3 Salmon, d'Ault du Mesnil,and Capitan, " Le Campignien,"in Revulemensuel d'icole d'Anthropologie,1898

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indeed,been moved nearerthe sea, but many and importantlake sites continueto exist-Godsted and Vester Ulslev are amiongthe moss significant. The barbed bone points and the pygmyflints have, to a great degree,vanished, but occasional exampleshave been met with at the bottomof some kitchen-middens. The small round scrapersare, as a matter of fact,fewer in numbersthan before,but many examples are still known. On the otherhand, some of the principaltypes of the kitchen-middens,as, forinstance, the chippedcelts arnd a fewtriangular hatchets, were found in settlementsfrom the Mullerupperiod. Even a tralnsverse-edgedarrow- head has beenunearthed in theSvaerdborg , and hornaxes have continuedin uIse.1 It appear-smost probable from a considerationof all these data that the kitchen- middencivilization of Denmark and north-westernGermany is a laterdevelopment of the old Mullerupculture. In. the same directionpoint the findsfrom Calbe an der Milde in Altmark,where a layer of Mullerupobjects seems to have been covered witha layerof kitchen-middenantiquities. The settledregions have, however,been increased in area and the shore, where the rich oyster-bankstempted, has been taken possessionof. Accordingto this opinionthe Campignianand other similar types of civilizationin the west and south of Europe are parallel formsto, rather than forerunnersof, the kitchen-middensof Denmark. The kitchen-middens,like the Mullerup settlements,belong to a South Scandinavian formof civilization. In Denmark, especially on the islands and in eastern and northernJutland, are countless sites of this type. With territory belongingto the Danish civilizationshould be considered,on the one hand,the north Germanand, on the other,the Swedish-Norwegianzones. In Sweden the kitchen- midden types are limitedchiefly to the west coast, fromScania northward;they occur far less frequentlyin the eastern and interiorprovinces.2 Now, greenstone is oftenused in the place of flint. The so-called Lihult-type,which has its name froma settlementin Bohuslin, is merelya chippedcelt made ofgreenstone. Farther to the west,in Norway,where only some isolated specimensof real Mulleruptypes 1 The connectionbetween the Mullerupand the kitchen-middencultures is by no means, as FairfieldOsborne, op. cit.,p. 486, and withhim Mr. Peake, assumes,limited to so great an extentthat only " a fewof the flintimplements (of the former)suggest certain chipped styles observedin theKjokken-Moddings." 2 The SwedishStone Age is treatedin a seriesof monographson the differentprovinces: G. Ekholm,Studier i Upplandsbebyggelsehistoria, Stenaldern, 1915; S. Erixon, " Stenalderni Blekinge,"in Fornvdnnen1913; S. Lindqvist, "Fran Nerikessten och bronsalder,"in Iedde- landenfrain fdreningen Orebro lans miuseum,vol. v, 1912; N. Lithberg,Gotlands stenaUder, 1914; E. Nygren," Varmlandsstenalder," in MeddelandenfranVdrmlands naturhistoriskac ochfornminnes- forening,vol. xii, 1914; E. Olsson, " StenAlderni Vastmanland, Dalarne och Giistrikland,"in Ymer, 1917; B. Nerman, " Ostergotlandsstenalder," in Meddelandenfran Ostergdttands fornminnesfrrening,1911; K. S. SahlstromOm Vdstergdtlandssten4tldersbebyggelse, 1916; N. OAberg,"Kalmar Iins stenalder,"in Mleddelandenfracn Kalmar lans fornminnesfdrening, vol. vii, 1913. Summariesin K. Stjerna,op. cit.; id., " Les groupesde civilisationen Scandinavie a 1'epoquedes sepulturesa galerie,"in L'Anthropologie,1910; 0. Almgren,"iDe phga'ende undersokningarnaav Sverigesf6rsta bebyggelse," in Fornvdnnen,1914. VOL. LIT. D

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 34 C. A. NORDMAN.-SomeBaltic Problems. have been found,the kitchen-middenculture has also spread itself-partlyin flint and partlyin greenstone-along the southernand westerncoasts, and far to the north. Here, the equivalent of the Lihult tool is the N0stvet , so called after a largesettlement in the easternpart ofNorway.1 Severalcharacteristics of the later NorwegianStone Age can be traced back to the Mullerup civilization. An un- debatable contrast,founded on ethnologicalreasons, cannot, however,be made betweenthe pure N0stvetfinds and those also containingantiquities that mayhave been derivedfrom the Mullerup" Bone Age " types. Graduallythe flintand green- stone civilizationof the NorwegianN0stvet period became transformedand a new, local civilizationdeveloped that is characterized,in its latest form,by largenumbers of slate objects. This is the Norwegianbranch of the civilizationthat one is accus- tomedto call Arctic,but the assertionthat its sourceshould be soughtin the north and east, and that its carrierswere the Laplanders,seems unsupported.2 It has been pointedout above that the Mulleruptypes continuedin use on the Scandinavian peninsula long after they had disappeared in Denmark. This is true as well of the westernpart of the peninsula-there is a well-knownfind from Viste in westernNorway-as especially of the eastern pait of Sweden. Here is evolved a separate East Swedish settlementcivilization which, to a certaindegree, builds on a Mullerupfoundation but which,particularly in the south, is strongly influencedby the kitchen-middenforms and later by the megalithiccivilization.3 In this groupflint plays an unimportantr6le and even the Lihult axes,spread in a very slightdegree only to easternSweden. Their place is partiallyusurped by the Limhamnnaxes,4 which do not spread in large numbersto the west, but which are met with,occasionally, even in the Danish kitchen-middens.With both branches of the peninsularcivilization, the Lihult-Nostvetgroup withits successorsand the East Swedish culture,occur the greenstoneaxes with circularcross-section, which can be foundeven among the typical kitchen-middenmaterials.5 The East Swedish settlementcivilization appears in its most pronouncedform in Gothland,East Gothia,Sudermannia, Uppland, and finally,on Finlandishterritory, on the Aland islands.6 The dwellingplaces are located on the coast. Hunting

1 A. W. Br0gger,Oxer av Nostvettypen,1905. 2 For thispoint of view, see: Th. Petersen," Meddelelserfra Stenalderen i detNordenfjeldske Norge," in Aarbhger,1920, pp. 18 sqq.; H. Gjessing,Rogalands stenalder,1920; A. BjOrn, "Traek av S0ndm0rsstenalder," in BergensMuseums aarbok, 1919-20, 1921. The opposite opinionis expressed,for example, by A. W. Brogger,Den arktiskestenalder i Norge,1909. 3 Concerningthis, see the previouslymentioned Swedish works, and also: 0. Almgren, "Nagra svensk-finskastenaldersproblem," in Antiqvarisk Tidskrift, vol. xx. 4 K. Kjellmark," En stenaldersboplatsi Jaravallen vid Limhamn,"in AntiqvariskTidskrift, Vo]. xviii. 6 C. A. Nordman,in Aarboger,1918. 6 The findsfrom the Aland Islands are discussedby J. Ailio,op. cit.,vol. i, pp. 90 sqq.,vol. ii, pp. 38 sqq., 181 sqq.; B. Cederhvarf," Neolitiskalerfigurer fran OAland," in Finska Fornminnes. fdreningensTidskrift, vol. xxvi.

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions C. A. NORDMAN.-SomeBaltic Problems. 35 and fishingconstitute the chiefmeans of support,bone and horn implementsare still in existence,slate has in many cases become a substitutefor bone and flint, and axes are usuallymanufactured of greenstone. Especiallytypical is the , whichin its generalcharacter bears a certainresemblance to the Finlandishceramic, but is by no means identicalwith it. It may be that the originof the East Swedish ceramiccan be soughtin the earthenwarevessels whichbelong to the later kitchen- middens,but in its finalform it can be sharplydistinguished from the hypothetical prototype. The megalithicceramic, concerningwhich we will speak later, has exerciseda stronginfluence on the potteryof the East Swedish civilization,whose laterstyle with simpler types of vessels, ornamented with holes horizontally arranged and withimpressions made by denticulatedinstruments, differs in a markeddegree fromthe highlydeveloped earthenware of the stonegraves.' We have, thus far, for the Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark to consider the followingcivilizations:- Mullerup civilization: in Denmark, most widely spread 'on the islands; in parts of Sweden,and a few findsin Norway. Kitchen-middencivilization, probably developed from the above: in Denmark. south-westernSweden, and on the south and west coasts of Norway; often,on the peninsula,transformed into the Lihult-N0stvettype and having,perhaps, a more marked resemblanceto the old Mullerupculture. East Swedish settlementcivilization, perhaps developed from the Mullerup civilization,but possessingelements adopted fromthe kitchen-middenand, later, even fromthe megalithicculture. The Mulleruppeople, as indicated above, were presumablythe successorsof the West European Ice Age people. The kitchen-middenfolk and the inhabitants of the East Swedish settlementswere both, probably,descendants of the Mullerup people which separated and formedtwo distinctcultures. The author deems it admissibleto assume that thesepeoples, as well as the Lihult-N0stvetfolk, belonged to a pre-lndo-Germanicrace.2 Anotheropinion has been expressedby ProfessorG. Kossinna,3among others,who clairmsthat the kitchen-middenpeople were Indo- Germans,while he considersthat the Lihult-N0stvetfolk constituteda separate

1 Mr. Peake considersthe East Swedishcivilization as preciselyidentical with the so-called Arctic. It shouldbe mentioned,however, that the formerwas unknownwhen the termArctic was coined; it differsin manyrespects from the northScandinavian Arctic culture. Likewise theLivonian find from Rinnekalns, which Mr. Peake associateswith the East Swedishsettlements, differsfrom the latter, in spiteof commontraits. 2 The scantyanthropological material can be interpretedin variousways. So far as the kitchen-middensare concerned,see H. A. Nielsen,in Aarbeger,1911, p. 90, No. 91, and p. 100, No. 238. The fewskulls from the Swedishsettlements are partlydolichocephalic, partly brachy- cephalic; see C. M. Ftirst,Zur Kraniologieder schwedi.schen Steinzeit, p. 58, in K. Sven3kaVetens- kapsakademiensHandlingar, N.F., vol. lix, 1912; Hj. Gronroos,"StenMldersskelettfynden vid Jettbolepa Aland,"in Finska Ldalxrsallskapetshandlingar. vol. lv, 1913. 3 G. Kossinna.Die Indogermanen,1921. D 2

This content downloaded from 202.28.191.34 on Sun, 31 Jan 2016 18:21:55 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 36 C. A. NORDMAN.-SomeBaltic Problems. bra?fchof the Mullerupdescendants which differed, somatically, from the inhabitants of the kitchen-middens.Kossinna believes that the people of the East Swedish settlementswere a pre-Finnishrace. This supposition,the truthof which cannot be proven,stands and falls withthe solutionof the questionconcerning the relation of the kitchen-middensto the cultures on the Scandinavian peninsula.- In my opinion,it is not possible to draw a sharp distinctionbetween the kitchen-midden and the Lihult-NosWvetcivilizations, for tho most prominentcelt-type of the latter is merelya copy in greenstoneof the kitelen-middenform, and, in Norway,the N0stvet and the flintsettlements cannot be entirelyseparated. The position of the findsfrom the sites in easternSweden is moreuncertain, though, even in this case, it seems to me that the explanationgiven above can be more stronglysupported than that givenby Kossinna. The Limhamnaxes, whichappear amongthe kitchen- middenimplements, extend eastward over large partsof the East Swedishsettlement region;the axes withcircular cross-section are commonto bothgrolups, and the origin ofthe East Swedishceramic may possiblybe foundon South Scandinavianterritory. Finally, Kossinna's opinionthat the Finlandishceramic culture is derivedfrom the East Swedish one is, in any case, chronologicallyabsurd. In the extremenorth of the Scandinavianpeninsula there is a typeof civilization whichmakes use of slate in the same manneras did the East Swedish settlement culture,but to a stillgreater degree. Here, in the north,occur new types of anti- quities, included among which are large, round-edgedpicks. Similar formsoccur in northernFinland, and the Arctic cultureof North Scandinavia, which is to be derivedfrom the East Swedishculture, is also influencedby the Stone Age ofnorthern Finland. The Scandinavian formsof civilization,which have thus far been discussed, are, accordingto our conception,derivations one fromthe other. The problem presents another aspect when we commencethe considerationof the megalithic civilization.1 The large stone graves-, passage-graves, and stone , which, generallyspeaking, developed from one another in the order named-have no forerunnersin the older,northern cultures. With the stone graves appears a whole series of new antiquititesof flint,rock, and clay. The megalithiccivilization, at the same time,indicates a change in the mannerof living of the northernpeople. Now the people migrateless than formerly,stock-raising and primitiveagriculture seem to have become importantmeans of support, barley,wheat and flax were

1 Tnregard to the megalithiccivilization of Scandinavia,see both previouslycited Swedish worksand: SophusMuller, " Flintdolkenei den nordiskeStenalder," in NordiskeFortidsminder, vol. i; id., " S0nderjyllandsStenalder," in Aarboger,1913; id., " L'age de la pierreen Slesvig,"in M6moires,1914-15; id., StenalderensKunst, 1918; C. A. Nordman," Jaettestueri Danmark," in NordiskeFortidsminder, vol. ii,; id.," Studierofver ganggriftkultureni Danmark," in Aarb-ger, 1917.

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already known. Flint, whichwas never ground by the kitchen-middenpeople, is now made into big, finelypolished axes, having thin butts at firstbut later thick butts. The axes were polished even during the transitionperiod between the kitchen-middenage and the dolmenage, in whichaxes with oval cross-sectionand almost pointed butt were produced. Large quantitiesof perforatedaxe-hammers and otherkinds of implements,made fromvarious rocks,and oftenelaborate and beautiful,fine arrow-headsof flintand at a later time -bladesand daggers, werevery common; and amberornaments brightened up the garments. The richly decoratedceramic is new. A wlholeseries of styles can be distinguished,from the vessels of the dolmensto the many, varyingvessels belongingto the more recent stone graves. The ornamentationof the potteryconstitutes the greatestartistic achievementof the South Scandinavian farmingfolk of the Stone Age, but its possibilitiesare verylimited: it is a geometric,straight-lined design. The stone gravesare, in Scandinavia,most numerouson the Danish islands,in the easternand northernparts of Jutland,in Scania and on the westcoast of Sweden as faras Bohuslin, and even in a portionof West Gothia. On the west coast of Jut- land theyoccur sporadically, in Swedenthey spread to someextent beyond their usual boundariesand reach in the east to Oland; and in eastern Norway,even, a few graves have been found. Antiquitiesfrom the megalithiccivilization are spread over large areas, that borderon the territoryof the stone graves themselvesand stretchstill farther to the north. In Sweden they come into contact with the East Swedishcivilization, in Norwaywith the successorsof the N0stvetculture, and these show themselvesso stronglyinfluenced by the newer and more highlv developed one that one oftenspeaks of a sub-haegalithiccivilization. Concerningthe question of the derivationof the megalithiccivilization, one must take into considerationthe fact that the most ancientstone-grave axes, with thinbutts, can typologically,through the mediumof axes havingoval cross-section, be traced back to the ungroundaxes of the kitchen-middens,and that one might, for this reason, considerthe stone-graveculture autochthonous. The question, however,is not settledby this argument,for even thoughthe axes withthin butts are purelynorthern in theirfinal form, their forerunners, the axes with oval cross- section,appear also in the west and south,whence the stone-gravecivilization has, accordingto otherindices, come to the north. The stone graves, as known, exist chieflyin western Europe: the Iberian peninsula,parts of France-as Brittany,for example-Ireland, and certainsections of England are, in addition to southernScandinavia, centresin which they are common. It is probable that the northernstone graves, throughthe medium of the correspondingcivilization in the BritishIsles, can be tracedfrom the megalithic regionin south-westernEurope. It may also be mentionedthat thereseem to exist some ceramic parallels between Scandinavia and the western'Mediterranean. Judgingfrom accessible reproductions,there are found on the Iberian peninsulaa,

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Sardinia, etc., clay vessels that, in technique and design,have much in common withthe Scandinavianmegalithic pottery.' We assume,therefore, that the northernstone grave civilizationcontains strong elementsof a Western European culture which, largely by way of the northern channel,has spread its influenceeven to CentralEurope. Then the questionarises whetherthis westerninfluence also indicates the invasion of the northby a new people. On this point opinionsdiffer still more than in the case of the originof the stonegraves. As a rule,the stone-gravepeople are consideredthe successorsof the kitchen- middenfolk, and as Indo-Germansbelonging to the Northernrace. It seemsto the authorthat the hypothesisfirst formulated by Sophus Muller2can be more firmly supported. Mullerrefers to the factthat the stonegraves are foundchiefly in those regionswhere non-Indo-Germanic peoples lived in earlyhistoricalages, and he believes that the graveshave come to the northwith people of the same race. In reality,it is difficultto understand how the various cultureelements, principally the stone graves,could spreadnorthward unless a migrationof at least a smallnumber of people occurred. The new tribe did not have to be especiallynumerous, for the native people could also adopt the new customnsand learn to make use of the new types of implements. Accordingly,the people whose remainswe findin the stone graves were, provided the conception outlined above is correct,a mixed people with characteristicsof the native, probably pre-Indo-Germanickitchen-midden tribe, and of the new-comerswho presumablyrepresented a non-Indo-Germanicfolk. But it is difficultto decide how far these strangers,highly developed iD culture, though possibly few in numbers,spread themselves. In any case they probably did not migratebeyond the stone-graveregion. A fact,deserving notice, ought yet to be mentioned,that the many large findsfrom Northern Jutland 3 belong to the earlieststone grave-period,and perhaps,to some extent,to the age just preceding. Thus, amber seems to have been a strongfactor leading to the northwardmigration of the stone-gravepeople.4 A couple of decades ago one consideredthe later StoneAge of SouthScandinavia to be entirelyhomogeneous, for only the stone graves with their antiquitieswere known. Thanks to intensive investigations,a distinct civilization with unique burial customsand antiquitieshas come to light. One has firstbecome acquainted

1 Muiller,in Aarboger,1913, pp. 292 sqq.; id., in Me'noires,1914- 15, pp. 92 sqq.; Nordman, in Aarboger,1917, p. 312 sq. 2 SophusMlVller, in Aarbeger,1913, pp. 252 sqq.; id., in M6moires1914-15, pp. 53 sqq. 3 See, forinstance, Sophus MUller,in Aarbgger,1917, pp. 151 sqq. 4 The suppositionof Mr. Peake that the people of the stone graves came fromRussia is supportedby no archaeologicalfact whatever. The rich anthropologicalmaterial from the Scandinavianstone graves is treatedby G. Retzius,Crania suecica,and by Furst and H. A. Nielsenin the workscited.

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withthem in Denmark or, to be more precise,in Jutland.' The contrastis sharp and indisputable. On the one hand are great stone graves,in whichlarge numbers wereburied, generation after generation, and on the otherhand small earth graves, designedfor one man only. The gravesand burialcustoms, as wellas the antiquities, difler. The earth-graveceramic distinguishes itself from the richlydecorated pottery of-the stone graves both in form,ornament-technique, and systemof design. The oldest vessels are cord-ornamentedbeakers. Later, the tooth-impressiontechnique was used, and theshape of the vesselswas changed,but the styleremains far poorer and the range of subjectsmuch narrower than in the case of the megalithicceramic. On the otherhand, in eleganceand finishthe battle-axesof the singleor earthgraves can competewith the best-knownexamples fromthe megalithicterritory, but the formsare not identical. The oldest single graves in Denmark are located in the southernand interior regionsof Jutland. Graduallythey spread out over the peninsula,and came into contactwith the stonegraves on the coasts. The earth-gravecivilization laid itself, so to speak, as a new layer overthe stone-gravecivilization, whose developmentwas interruptedearlier on Jutlandthan on the islands. For example,it is not unusual to findpassage graves whose lowest strata contain antiquitiesthat are typical of the megalithiccivilization, while the later layers belongto the earth-graveculture. To some degree,antiquities from the earth-graveculture of Jutland spread over to the Danish islands; a fewexamples, moreover, have foundtheir way to Sweden and Norway. The so-called boat- culture in Sweden,2 however, constitutesa parallel formto the Jutlandishearth-grave civilization. Here, too, we find single graves with handsome battle-axes-the so-called boat-axes-and a ceramic which dis- tinguishesitself from the older Swedish clay vessels, both the stone-graveand the settlementtypes, but whichin techniqueand in style correspondsto a part of the morerecent pottery of Jutland. We have not yet,however, succeeded in discovering one stage whichis identicalwith the oldest Jutlandish,cord-ornamented beakers. The boat-axe civilizationexpands over nearly all Sweden and, as several finds have shown,comes into contactwith the East Swedishsettlement culture; the result in the Aland Islands, where this civilizationwas also represented,was a peculiar developmentof the ceramic. Stone graves whose old, megalithicantiquities are coveredup by types fromthe earthgraves, have been discoveredeven in Sweden- one amongmany proofsof the earthgraves' vigourin expanding. The boat-axe civilizationdoes not, however,limit itself to Sweden,but spread fromthere to Norway,although appearing in a less profusefashion. The pottery,

1 SophusMuller, " De jydskeEnkeltgrave," in Aarboger,1898. 2 On the Swedishboat-axe culture, see the Swedishworks cited above, especiallyK. Stjerna and 0. Almgren,and T. J. Arne. "Stenaldersunders6kningarIV," in Fornvdnnen,1909: 0. Ekholm," Niirkommo svenskarna. till Finland,"in Fornvdnne,n,1921.

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for example, is entirelymissing. This civilizationis more firmlyestablished in Finland.- In the part of Finland, south-westof a line drawnfrom Fredrikshamn via Tammerforsto Gamla Karleby,have been discovered,from the latterhalf of the Age, large numbersof chance finds,graves, and dwelling-places,with pottery and axes which differfrom the native culture. Broadly speaking, the axes coincidewith the Swedish boat-axes, the ceramicsresemble the older Danish earth-gravepottery, and the graves are similarto the westernsingle graves. It is a civilizationwhich has not sprungfrom native sources. We have, accordingly,in Denmark,Sweden and Finland threeanalogous forms of civilizationwith battle-axes and commonburial customs; and the potteryalso, in spiteof some mutual differences, has characteristicsthat indicatea certainaffinity. The resemblancebetween these threetypes is so strongthat it is necessaryto seek a commonexplanation for their approximately simultaneous appearance in the three countries. One is inclinedto considerthem separate branchesof one commonroot. It is firstnecessary to decide whetherthe appearance of this civilizationin the Northshould be consideredas the resultof migrations,or of cultureinfluences from otherlands. In Denmark,where the factsare clearest,the contrastbetween the stone-grave and earth-gravecivilizations is verymarked, for there is nothingin commonbetween the burial customs,the shape of the graves,and the types of antiquitiesof the two cultures. When to this we add the fact that the single-gravecivilization is undoubtedlyrelated to certaingroups of finds in CentralEurope, while the equivalent of the stonegraves should be soughtin WesternEurope, and furthermore,that the, latteris limitedto the coast,while the formerreached Denmark by inlandroutes, one can but assumethat the earthgraves and the stonegraves represent different peoples. This assumptionis so certainthat it is actually one of the most undebatablepoints in the whole question of the ethnological conditions of the northernStone Age. But one may assert, with an equal degreeof assurance, that the boat-axe civilizationin Finland representsanother people than that of the,dwelling-places ,wherethe comb-ornamentedceramics have been found. The formerhas no native forerunner,while the latter,as has been indicated above, -buildson a native and East Baltic tradition. The boat-axe civilizationhas ana]ogies in Sweden,Norway, and Denmark,and in the battle-axecivilization on the CentralEuropean mainland. Even the Finlandishboat-axe civilizationis originallycontinental, but it is difficult to decide by which routes it has come to Finland. It is possible that it was by way of East Sweden,from Blekinge northward, and over the kland Islands. Like- wisethe pointof departure on the Germancoast is as yetdoubtful; ceramicanalogies are,however, found in West Prussia,for example. The Swedishboat-axe civilization 1 The boat-axeculture of Finland is treatedby A. Europaeus, " Fornfyndfran Esbo och Iiyrkslitt,"in Finska FornminnesforeninqensTidd7crift, vol. xxxii.

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also seems to have its roots in Central Europe, and Blekingemay have been the provincein Swedenwhere it firstgained a foothold. We considerit, then, settled that the battle-axe or single-gravecivilization indicates the appearance of a new people in the North.' And it is not merelya questionof a militaryinvasion of shortduration, for the successionof varioustypes ofaxes, and the Jutlandishmounds with graves of many generations over one another, etc.,prove that we are dealingwith an actual migrationof people. But the battle-axe people amalgamated with the native population,and many facts show that they became an important,or perhaps the most important,part of the new people that developed fromthe combinationof the various elementsduring the last period of the Stone Age. Burial customsbecame uniform,and singlegraves prevailed now and always after. The relationswith the West, of whichthe stone graveswere an expression,drew largelyto an end, and in their place arose the relationtending southward,toward Central Europe, whence the earth-gravecivilization came; compare, for example, the distributionof a whole series of antiquities from the earliest Bronze Age. The splendid pottery of the stone graves has disappeared,the inferiorvessels from the latest Stone Age seem to bear witness to a continuationof the women's work, which was characteristicof the earth graves-both in form and quality they resemblelate vessels from the earth graves. The amalgamationof the various elementsoccurred principally at the end of the Stone Age; the civilizationof the daggerperiod, or latest Stone Age, was the same in Denmarkand in the flintregion of the Scandinavianpeninsula. The mixed civilizationin Finland, for example, bears a somewhatdifferent aspect. Here the earth-graveculture and the native Finlandishcivilization met; the resultis to be seen in the so-called Kiukais-culturein westernFinland, whichis distinctfromi the Scandinavianbut has still strongconnections, with it. When we advance a bit into the BronzeAge the cultureof south-westernFinland also becomesidentical with the Scandinavian. We have, in the earlier Bronze Age, in all Scandinavia a homogeneous civilization'which is generallyacknowledged as beingTeutonic. It descendsdirectly fromthe cultureof the so-cal]ed dagger period, or latest Stone Age, which,as we believe, was the firstTeutonic civilizationin the North. But the Teutonic people of the dagger period have traits of many tribes, possibly of various races: the people of Mullerup,the kitchen-middensand the East Swedish settlements,which we have called pre-Indo-Germanic,the megalithicpeople, which, perhaps, was non- I The anthropologyof the battle-axefolk is, as yet, totallyunknown, no skeletonsbeing foundin Scandinavia. A singlegrave from the neighbourhoodof Dorpat in Esthoniacontained a skeleton,the skull of whichwas mesocephalic;see Hausmann,in Sitzungsberichteder Gelehrten EstnischenGesellechaft, 1911, pp. 60 sqq. The dolichocephalicskull fromVoisek might possibly belongto thesame culture; cf.above. p. 31, note2. Thisgrave contained no antiquities, excepting a flintflake, and similargrave finds occur alsb in theregion of the Jutlandish single-grave culture.

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Indo-Germanic,and, finally,the battle-axepeople. We have triedto show that the battle-axepeople were a very importantfactor in the formationof the cultureand the people of the dagger period. It is not improbablethat the battle-axe people constitutethe Indo-Germanicelement in the people of the latest Stone Age, and, consequently,of the Bronze Age. In thismanner, as the resultof the wanderingsof the Indo-Germans,can be explained the widely separated battle-axe culturesin Europe: those of the Netherlands,Germany, Scandinavia, Finland, the East Baltic Provinces,Fatianovo in , etc. In conclusion,a few words concerningthe conditionsin Finland during the Bronze and Iron Ages:- In the poor Bronze Age of Finland two distinct currentscan be noticed, a westernand an eastern.1 The former,which is the moreimportant, is to be found in the southernand westernparts of the country. Nearlyall the objects foundhere coincidewith finds from Central Sweden, and also the graves are identical. There is no doubt that this similarityin cultureindicates similarityalso in the people: both in Sweden and south-westernFinland the settlementswere Teutonic. Occasional finds,principally in the east and the north,belong to anotherculture. Concerningthe people who were the originatorsof this civilizationonlv hypotheses can be formulated: they were most likely Fenno-Ugrian,or, maybe, Lapponian nomads. A conception,correct in the main, concerningthe expansionof both culturesin Finland, is given by the map of ProfessorA. M. Tallgren,republished as Fig. 6 by Mr. Peake. It is, however,worth mentioning that the conditionsto the south of the Gulf of Finland have a differentaspect than in Finland: the Bronze Age in Esthonia and Livonia, as well as in East Prussia, belongsto a south-easternBaltic formof civilization,which varies in some degreefrom the Scandinavian. Mr. Peake makes the not very convincingstatement that about 500 B.C. a Siberian formof culture,which originatedin the Minoussinskregion, had become dominant both in the Volga basin and in Finland, in the Baltic Provincesand East Prussia, and in a considerablearea of Sweden. A closerexamination shows that this opinionis based upon a misconceptionof one of Mr. Tallgren'smaps.2 Mr. Peake has assumedthat all theheterogeneous Bronze Age regionsindicated on the map in questionbelong to a singleSiberian culture. It is, however,scarcely necessary to state that neitherin Eastern and Central Sweden, nor in westernFinland, the Baltic Provinces and East Prussia, has there ever been a dominatingSiberian Bronze Age culture. From the earliestIron Age of Finland up to the firstcentury A.D. there are practicallyno finds; our oldestfinds belong to the secondcentury. Thev are foulId in the south-westernpart of the country,but graduallythe findregion widens, the

1 See A. Hackman,in Atlasde Finlande,1910, vol. ii. 2 Fig. 7 in Mr. Peake's article,after A. M .Tallgren,Collection Tovostine, Fig. 5.

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settlementsspread inland.' The majorityof the objects fromthe firstcenturies A.D. are types which are also foundin the Baltic Provinces; they are considered a proofof the immigrationof Finnishtribes. This culture,which during the earlier Iron Age prevailedin south-westernFinland and the Baltic Provinces,is, however, completelyimpregnated with East Teutonicelements; it is, in fact,almost entirely Teutonic. But duringthe course of centuriesit developed on both sides of the Gulf of Finland into an independentFinnish culture. The character,originally Teutonic,of this culturecan be explainedwith referenceto the fact that the more primitiveFinnish tribes somewhereto the south of the Gulf of Finland received, froma small Teutonic rulingclass, that culture which they later developed and modified. Wherethis occurred is, as yet,uncertain: perhapsin the Baltic Provinces, perhapsmore to the south. Recentlythe possibilityhas been mentioned,2that the older culture of the Finnish tribes may be represented by the so-called " gorodishtshes" of Centraland North-westernRussia, and that they,during the last centuriesB.C., had immigratedto Esthonia,whence a partof them later continued to Finland; the settlementof Muhukalnsin Livonia may possiblybe comparedto the Russian " gorodishtshes."3 Of so much we can be assured, that a Finnish imnmigrationtook place in the beginningof the Christianera to south-westernFinland, and thatthe Finns,spreading to the east, formeda national, though somewhatbarbarian culture. Antiquities that may be consideredas impoits fromSweden are, on the other hand, rather few, and, with the exception of East Bothnia duringthe migrationperiod, they cannot be thoughtof as definiteproofs of Swedish colonies on the mainland of Finland. It is, however,possible that small Swedish settlementsexisted also in otherparts of the country. The Teutonicelement in Finland's culture,which was so strongduring the Bronze Age, has, to a great degree,diminished. The Aland Islands are an exception: here almost all antiquities,as well as the burial customs, are the same as in Ce3ntralSweden. Here the populationwas Swedish. Toward the end of the Iron Age, we have dense, chieflyFinnish, settlements in the westernparts ofthe mainlandof Finland; a part of the inland countryis rather sparsely settled, and in the east a rich Finnish culture flourishes. With the crusadesto Finland, and the conversionof the Finnish people duringthe twelfth and thirteenthcenturies, the Swedishelements strongly increased in the south and west.

1 Concerningthe earlier Tron Age in Finland,see A. Hackman,op. cit.; id., Die dltere Eisenzeitin Finnland,1905; id., " Svenskbygdernasfdrhistoria," in Det svenskaFinland, vol. ii, 1920. 2 A. M. Tallgren,in Sitzungsberichteder gelehrten Estnischen Gesell8chaft, 1912-1920. 3 M. Ebert,in PrdhistorischeZeitschrift, 1913, pp. 520 sqq.

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