THE BALTIC POCKET LIBRARY

THE PREHISTORY OF POLISH POMERANIA

BY DR. JÓZEF KOSTRZEWSKI PROFESSOR OF PREHISTORY*^!' THE UNIVERSITY OF POZNAŃ

1 9 TORUŃ (POLAND)3_6

PUBLISHED BY THE BALTIC INSTITUTE J. S. BERGSON, 4, VERNON PLACE, LONDON W. C. 1

THE PREHISTORY OF POLISH POMERANIA

r Double face urn and bronze cauldron of provincial workmanship, found at Topolno, district of Świecie.

I

4 Ki THE BALTIC POCKET LIBRARY

THE PREHISTORY OF POLISH POMERANIA

BY DR. JÓZEF KOSTRZEWSKI PROFESSOR OF PREHISTORY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF POZNAŃ

19 TORUŃ (POLAND) 3 6

PUBLISHED BY THE BALTIC INSTITUTE J. S. BERGSON, 4, VERNON PLACE, LONDON W. C, 1 Printed in Poland by “Rolnicza Drukarnia i Księgarnia Nakładowa Poznań, Sew. Mielżyńskiego 24 CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 5 CHAPTER 1. THE STONE AGE...... 9 The Final Palaeolithic Period, p. 9. The Mesolithic Age, p. 10. The Neolithic Age, p. 13; Ribbon Ware, p. 14; Funnel Cup Culture, p. 16; Eastern Globular Amphora Culture, p. 19; The Corded Pottery Culture, p. 21; The Rzucewo Culture, p. 24; The Comb Pottery, p. 29; Finds of Copper, p. 30. CHAPTER 2. THE BRONZE AGE...... 32 The Early Bronze Age, p. 32; The Iwno Culture, p. 33; Hoards, p. 34. The Second Bronze Age Period, p. 36. The Third Bronze Age Period, p. 37; The Cassubian Local Group, p. 38; The Chełmno Local Group, p. 40; Affinities of the Lusatian Culture, p. 41. The Fourth Bronze Age Period, p. 43; The Cassubian Sub-Group, p. 43,; The Chełmno Sub-Groun, p. 46. The Fifth (Latest) Bronze Age Period, p. 49; The Cassubian Sub-Group, p. 49; The Chełmno Sub-Group, p. 53. CHAPTER 3. THE IRON AGE...... 55 Pomeranian Culture, p. 55; Face Urn Culture, p. 57; Hoards, p. 62; Sites, p. 64; The Lusatian Culture (The Chełmno Sub-Group), p. 65; Sites, p. 66. The La Tene Period, p. 66; The Early and Middle La Tene Period, p. 66; The Bell Grave Culture, p. 68; Origin of the Cist Grave Folk, p. 70; The Late La Tene Period, p. 71; Celtic Influences, p. 72; Origins of the Ash-Pit Grave Culture, p. 76. The Imperial Roman Period, p. 76; Roman and Roman-Provincial Imports, p. 76. The Early Imperial Period, p. 78; Goths and Gepids, p. 78. The Later Imperial Period, p. 85; Sites, p. 88. The Period of the Great Migrations, p. 88. The Early Historical Period, p. 92; The Chełmno District, p. 94; The Cassubian and Danzig Groups, p. 97; Hacked-Silver Finds, p. 99; Forts, p. 102; Stone Figures, p. 103; The Vikings, p. 104.

XXXVII Illustrations Page Fig. 1. Świderian flint implements from Podgórz...... 9 Fig. 2. Tardenoisian flint implements from Ostrowo ... 11 Fig. 3. Kunda culture implements...... 12 Fig. 4. Vessels and implements of the ribbon ware culture . 15 Fig. 5. Objects belonging to the funnel cup culture ... 19 Fig. 6. Amphorae and beads of the globular amphora culture 20 Fig. 7. Pottery and other objects — corded pottery culture 23 Fig. 8. Amphora from Rzucewo, coastal district...... 26 Fig. 9. Pottery and implements of the Rzucewo culture . . 27 Fig. 10. Objects belonging to the comb-ornamented pottery culture ...... 29 Fig. 11. Cups belonging to the Iwno culture...... 33 Fig. 12. Bronze objects of the early bronze age...... 35 Fig. 13. Bronze palstave and ornaments from Lusatian barrows 37 Fig. 14. Bronze objects of the third bronze age period ... 39 Fig. 15. Pottery and bronze objects — the Cassubian group of the Lusatian culture...... 45 Fig. 16. Pottery and bronze objects — the Chełmno group . . 47 Fig. 17. Bronze objects belonging to the Pomeranian culture . 51 Fig. 18. Pottery and bronze objects — Pomeranian culture . 57 Fig. 19. Pottery belonging to the face urn culture .... 59 Fig. 20. Implements and ornaments — face urn culture ... 63 Fig. 21. Pottery and ornaments —- the Lusatian culture . . 64 Fig. 22. Pottery and implements of the late La Tene period 74- Fig. 23. Pottery and implements of the Roman period ... 82 Fig. 24. Antiquities of the migration period...... 89 Fig. 25. Ornaments of the early historic period...... 95 Fig. 26, Weapons and tools of the early historic period . . 97 Fig. 27. Pottery of the early historic period ...... 101 Plates I. Double face urn and bronze cauldron .... frontispiece II. 1. Round barrow of the late bronze age ...(-. _ . 2. Unearthed stone barrow of the Roman period f 1 & P* 3. Stone cist grave of the early iron age . j - . -- 4. The same grave before opening...... \ *acmS P* Maps Neolithic cultures in Pomerania...... 17 Middle and late bronze age cultures in Pomerania .... 41 Early iron age cultures in Pomerania...... 69 Early historic earthworks in Pomerania ,,,,,,,, 93 INTRODUCTION The prehistoric development of Polish Pomerania was chiefly conditioned by its situation on the Vistula, which connects it with central and southern Poland. The earliest inhabitants known to us, the represent­ atives of the Swiderian culture, came into the district down the Vistula, as, probably, did the bringers of the Tardenoisian culture and, certainly, those of the Danubian ribbon ware, who found a second home on the upper Vistula and spread northwards from there down the river. On the other hand the Vistula valley offered a convenient route to Little-Poland for the representatives of the funnel cup culture, who had entered Pomerania from the north-west, and likewise for those of the globular amphora culture and probably of the corded pottery culture. At the same time the river was an important trade route, by which the excellent flints of south-west Poland found their way to Pomerania and the amber of the Baltic was transported to southern Poland. The ear­ liest copper utensils also certainly reached Pomerania from Moravia and Hungary by this route. During the third period of the Bronze Age the bronze eyed pins of Lusatian type found their way along the lower

5 Vistula from Great-Poland to the Baltic coast, and in the late Bronze Age (periods IV and V) bronze cups and other bronze vessels imported from Hungary reached Pomerania by this route. At the end of the Early Iron Age the cist grave culture with face urns which arose in Pomerania spread southwards along the Vistula, reaching the Sandomierz district in the early La Tene period. In the late La Tene period Celtic imported ware reached Cuyavia, the province which adjoins Polish Pomerania, probably through the intermediation of Celts settled in Little-Poland, and strong Celtic influences are noticeable in Pomerania also. At the same period ornamented spear-points made in Pomerania were introduced into south-east Poland by way of the Vistula and its tributary the Bug. In the first two centuries after Christ the skeleton grave culture ascribed to the Goths and Gepids spread along the Vistula to the border of Mazovia (the Płock district), and some ornaments typical of it found their way by this trade route even into Little-Poland. The Gepids emigrating from Pomerania in the first half of the third century after Christ likewise followed the Vistula route, afterwards branching off south-east along the Bug. At this period the lower course of the Vistula formed also a trade route for Roman provincial imported ware, made chiefly on the lower Rhine, as is clearly to be seen from the map showing the dis­ tribution of the obliquely fluted bronze cauldrons. But it was in the early historical period that the Vistula played its most important part. A large number of Arabian coins, brought by the Vikings, found their way up the river as far as Mazovia, and some weapons of Viking origin found in the northern part of Little- Poland must also have come by the same route. The river, too, was an important factor in the commerce of the different Polish tribes living on it, as may be seen from a map showing the distribution of the hollow temple-rings made in Pomerania, extending far into central Poland. A second article of export from Pomerania at this time was amber, which found its way as far as Sandomierz. In the other direction dif­ ferent imported articles came down the Bug and the Vistula from south-east Poland and the Ukraine to Pomerania; e. g., glass and enamel rings, finger rings twisted of two or three threads of bronze or silver, spinning whorls of rose-coloured Volhynian slate, and earthenware Easter eggs ornamented with enamel. The above-enumerated facts show that new groups of population, after settling in Little-Poland on the upper Vistula, strove to penetrate northwards down the river, whereas peoples which had occupied its mouth showed a tendency to advance up river south­ wards^ indeed has happened again in historical times. The Polish kingdom which arose in the tenth century, being in possession of the upper and middle course of the Vistula, naturally endeavoured to occupy its mouth.

7 On the other hand, foreign conquerors, such as the seventeenth century Swedes, or the eighteenth century Prussians after the first partition of Poland, as soon as they had succeeded in occupying Pomerania tried to gain possession also of the other Polish territories on the river. The great importance of the Vistula as a navigable route in historical times, especially for the Polish grain- export trade, is sufficiently known. All this clearly shows the intimate connexion between Pomerania and the other Polish territories, and the striking part played by this river, the backbone of Poland. CHAPTER 1 THE STONE AGE THE FINAL PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD The most ancient remains of human existence in Polish Pomerania date from the early post-glacial age. Evidence for this earliest settlement is found in open camping places among the dunes, with ancient

1 2 3 4 5 67 Fig. 1. Świderian flint implements from Podgórz near Toruń. 1-2 and 4 — 6 tanged arrow-heads; 5 single-shouldered point; 7 blade with oblique, trimmed point. flint implements, mostly white patinated, belonging to a culture first discovered in Central Poland and named Świderian, from Świdry Wielkie near Warsaw, where it was found. The characteristic form for this is the tanged flake arrow-head like a miniature Font-Robert point, but the accompanying industry in Polish Pomerania is not yet known, as only one pure

9 Ś widerian settlement has so far been found, at Podgórz near Toruń, and this has yielded but few objects: 4 tanged arrow-heads (fig. 1,1-2 and 4-6), 2 single­ shouldered points (fig. 1,3), a blade with oblique, trim­ med point (fig. 1,7)- and untrimmed blades and flakes. The remaining eight places where tanged arrow­ heads have been found are either isolated or part of middle or late stone age finds. The distribution of the Świderian finds suggests that the first inhabitants of Polish Pomerania came from the south-east and spread down the Vistula to the Baltic. The date of this culture was apparently that of the final Magdalenian, namely the latest part of the last period of the early stone age (palaeolithic age).To the same period belongs in all probability a fragment of reindeer-horn with traces of a groove cut in it, found in the Chełmno rhętri ft THE MESOLITHIC AGE With the middle stone age (the mesolithic age) richer material is found, and we can distinguish in Pomerania two cultures of distinct origin: the Tarde- noisian which arose in the Mediterranean area, and the Kunda which was probably introduced from the east Baltic. The former is represented by dune sites, especi­ ally frequent in the Chełmno district, on the Tuchola Heath and in the coastal area. It is a blade-culture, whose implements are of noticeably small dimensions (microlithic). The characteristic form for the earlier

10 Tardenoisian is the elongated triangle, with trimmed edges (fig. 2, 1—7 and 11), but we also find tiny dos rabattu blades (fig. 2, 8 —10 and 12—15), angle and median gravers (fig. 2,16), round scrapers, semicircular, pointed and irregularly shaped scrapers, more rarely end and double-end scrapers, blades truncated and trimmed obliquely (fig. 2,14—15), core-shaped discs, and so-called

Fig. 2. Tardenoisian flint implements from Ostrowo, coastal district. 1—7 and 11 triangles; 8—10 and 12—15 dos rabattu blades; 14—15 blades truncated and trim­ med obliquely; 16 angle graver; 17 knife.

micro-gravers, which are chips broken off in the making of triangular arrow-heads. With this early Tardenoisian are also found, in both Pomerania and other parts of Poland, tanged arrow-heads adopted from the Swiderian culture. In the later Tardenoisian period these tanged arrow-heads and also the gravers and the triangles disappear, these last being replaced by trapezoidal, arrow-heads with transverse edges. Where­

11 as the early Tardenoisian belongs entirely to the mesolithic age, the late Tardenoisian seems to fall for the most part within the limits of the neolithic, as is indicated by the discovery at Ostrowo, in the coastal district, of a transverse arrow-head of the above- mentioned type made out of a fragment of a polished flint axe 3 and by the appearance of similar forms

Fig. 5. Kun da culture implements. 1—4 from Góra Orle, coastal district: 1—2 bone harpoons; 5 chisel-like imple­ ment of stag-horn; 4 bone awl; 5 fish-hook from Nowy dwór, district of Chełmno; 6 fish-hook from Chełmno.

amid a find of older ribbon ware culture pottery (spiral-meander) at Chełmża, in the district of Toruń. Tupadły, in the coastal district, is a typical site for late Tardenoisian products. Unlike the Tardenoisian, the Kunda culture — so named from a site in Estonia — is pre-eminently a bone culture. It is found exclusively on the shores of inland waters, and its characteristic bone and horn implements lie in peat and marl, i. e., at the former

12 bottom of dried-up lakes. The shapes also of the im­ plements indicate a fishing or hunting people. The best- known Kunda site is Góra-Orle in the coastal district, where numerous bone harpoons (fig. 5, 1—2), and javelin heads, elk- and stag-horn axes, daggers, awls (fig. 5, 4) and chisel-like implements (fig. 5, 3) have been found. Probably, too, the fish-hooks found at Chełmno and at Nowy dwór in the district of Chełmno (fig. 5, 5—6) belong here. The flint tools with which the bone and horn implements must have been made have so far not been found.

THE NEOLITHIC AGE Whereas the peoples who developed the two meso­ lithic cultures were nomads, in the next epoch, the later stone age or neolithic age, we can trace the beginnings in Pomerania of a settled mode of life, connected with the transition to agriculture and cattle-rearing. Moreover, technical achievements characterize the period: e. g., great advances in the technique of stone - working (flint polishing, stone boring, stone sawing), the first traces of spinning and weaving, and the first clay pots. From it, tou, date the first graves. Further, the neolithic population of Po­ merania was not of homogeneous origin. Apart from the survival of the later Tardenoisian culture into the first half of the late stone age, and a few cylindrical stone celts and mace-heads which perhaps belong to the

13 first period of the neolithic age, six different popula­ tion groups can be distinguished: the ribbon ware culture, the nordic funnel-cup culture, the central German globular amphorae, the corded pottery, the Rzucewo and the East Baltic cultures.

Ribbon Ware The oldest purely neolithic culture appearing in Pomerania in the second period of the neolithic age is the Danubian ribbon ware, which spread from southern Poland northwards down the Vistula and took hold in the fruitful Chełmno district and the neigh­ bouring Cuyavia. The older ribbon ware known comes chiefly from the site at Chełmża in the district of Toruń, excavated in 1928, where were found not only almost spherical pots of well-washed clay with ornamentation of curved and meandering lines (fig. 4, l~2) but also coarser earthenware with fingernail ornamentation and knobs (fig. 4, 3)? and the sherds of a large store-vessel which probably had two handles. Further, the site yielded typical stone implements, mostly fragmentary: namely a shoe-last celt (fig.4,10)? two twibills (fig. 4, 9)? a perforated axe-hammer, twelve quern-stones, fragments of six grindstones and num­ erous small flint implements, chiefly end-scrapers (fig. 4,5). Among the remaining flint implements may be mentioned: a double end-scraper, a borer, five core-shaped discs, a knife with oblique, trimmed point

14 (fig. 4,6) and three transverse arrow-heads (fig. 4,7-8). The greater number of these implements are made from south-west Polish flint. On some of the potsherds impressions of grains of barley and oats could be re­ cognized. The animal bones found here are mostly those of oxen and goats. This fact together with the

Fig. 4. Vessels and stone imple­ ments of the ribbon ware cul­ ture from Chełmża, distr. of Toruń. 1 — 3 older ribbon ware; 4 vessel of stroke ornamented rib­ bon ware; 5 flint-end scraper; 6 blade with oblique, trimmed point; 7—8 transverse arrow-heads; 9 twibill; 10 shoe-last celt.

forms of the stone implements and the partiality for fertile soil indicates that the ribbon ware culture was that of a definitely agricultural folk. Another site at Chełmża yielded a vessel belonging to the later, stroke- ornamented ribbon ware (the so-called Stichreihen- keramik;) with finger-nail ornamentation on the neck and waist and a horizontal zig-zag band of fine strokes

15 on the upper part of the body (fig. 4, 4). Isolated finds of typical stone implements belonging to this culture, especially in the Chełmno district, point to a rather dense settlement of this area by its representatives. No graves belonging to it have been found in Pomerania, though several have been laid bare in the neighbouring Cuyavia. Most probably the stroke-ornamented ware dates from the third period of the neolithic age.

Funnel Cup Culture About the middle of the third period of the later stone age there appeared in Pomerania a nordic people who had advanced eastwards and southeastwards from Denmark along the south coast of the Baltic and have left especially many tracesof themselves in the Chełmno district. From the characteristic form of their cups they have been distinguished as the eastern funnel cup cult­ ure. So far they are known to us almost exclusively from sites, but perhaps one grave at Chełmża, of a similar type to the flat graves found in Cuyavia, belongs to them. They formed a local group in Polish Pomerania, also in German Pomerania, the northern part of the New Mark, the border district of Poznania and West Prussia, the Free City of Danzig, the western part of East Prussia, the northern part of the Polish Yoievodeship of Poznania, and Cuyavia, and are distin­ guished especially by certain ornamental patterns from the west-central Polish group who were their neigh-

16 MAP. 1. NEOLITHIC CULTURES IN POMERANIA

* Chojnu

irudżiądl

1. Banded pottery culture; 2. Globular amphora culture (▼ Middle German amphora A Eastern amphora); 5. Funnel cup culture; 4. Corded pottery culture; 5. Rzucewo culture; 6. Co mb-ornament­ ed pottery culture; 7. Frontiers of the Polish Republic; 8. Frontiers of the Free City of Danzig; 9. Frontiers of Polish voievodesnips (provinces); 10. Towns. bours on the south. The early period of this culture, dating from the third period of the late stone age, is characterized by the funnel cup with neck clearly distinguished and picked out with horizontal bands of strokes and zig-zags (fig. 5, l); and also by the collar- flasks (fig. 5, 2) with a projecting collar round the neck and the amphora with spherical, or rather double cone-

XXXVII/2 17 shaped body and from four to eight ears (fig. 5, 3). In the later, fourth period of the late stone age, the funnel cup appears with uncertain outline, passing into a deep bowl with ornamented inside edge: most commonly a horizontal triply-plaited cord or or­ dinary cord -pattern^ the amphorae come under the influence of the globular amphorae; and the collar- flasks disappear altogether. Common to both stages are bucket-shaped store - vessels with thickened rims, usually ornamented with finger-dabs; jugs, dishes, spoons etc. Of the stone implements, the polygonal battle-axes with stud knob on the back (fig. 5, 4) and the celts with octangular cross-section are especially typical; of smaller flint implements we may mention short scrapers, saws and leaf-shaped arrow-heads; and of larger objects of silex broad axes and irregular, only partly polished axes, of lenticular longitudinal and cross-section. The frequent appearance of whorls attests the importance of spinning. Although the representatives of this culture planted their settle­ ments almost exclusively in dune-country, they were not nomads. The rare occurrence of arrowheads alone suffices to show that hunting can have been but of minor importance among them, while on the other hand the mill- and grind-stones found on their sites and the very frequent impressions of grains of corn in their clay daub are eloquent witnesses to their knowledge of agriculture. The typical form of hut had

18 most probably walls of wattle-and-daub supported by posts. Eastern Globular Amphora Culture Agriculture is also the mark of a second cultural group who came in from the west, appearing in Polish Pomerania at the beginning of the fourth period of

Fig. 5. Objects belonging to the funnel cup culture. 1 funnel cup from Kałdus, district of Chełmno; 2 neck of a collar-flask from Osnowo, district of Chełmno; 5 amphora with four ears from Chełmża, district of Toruń; 4 battle-axe fromPlemięta,district of Grudziądz.

the late stone age, and are designated as either the megalithic grave culture, from the prevailing type of grave, or the globular amphora culture, from the typ­ ical shape of pot. Like that of the banded pottery, it has left its traces chiefly in the most fertile regions, and in Pomerania is concentrated mainly in the Chełmno district. Typical globular amphorae of Central German form are known in Poland only from Ciecholewy, in the district of Chojnice (fig. 6, l), and Rzucewo in the

2* 19 coastal district5 whereas both the globular amphorae found in the Brodnica district and in Cuyavia (fig. 6, 5) and the wide-mouthed pots and bowls (fig. 6,2) which accompany them exhibit local peculiarities in their ornamentation which justify us in speaking of an eastern sub-group of this culture. The most com­ mon form of ornament, here as in the funnel cup

Fig. 6. Amphorae and beads of the globular amphora culture. 1 amphora of central German form from Ciecholewy, district of Chojnice; 2 bowl from Żmijewo, district of Brodnica; 5 globular amphora from Gutowo, district of Brodnica; 4—5 amber beads from Lisnowo, distr. of Grudziądz and from Gutowo, distr. of Brodnica. culture, consists of stamped bands of strokes and zig­ zag lines, mostly incrusted with white 5 but here, in contrast to the funnel cup-makers’ practice, they are repeated twice or oftener. Whereas the pottery points to central Germany, the grave-form clearly arose under the influence of the fun­ nel cup culture. The graves are usually stone chambers built of huge erratic blocks, or else stone cists lined with slabs, and are generally covered with barrows, long or round, with stone edging. The trapezoidal graves found on the lower Oder and in Cuyavia, and regarded as transitional from the north-west German giant graves, have so far not been noted in Pomerania, but triangular, so called Cuyavian graves and round barrows are frequent — the latter being sometimes, as at Trzebcz in the district of Chełmno, surrounded with triple stone circles. Monolithic graves also occur (Gu- towo, in the district of Brodnica), and in neighbouring Cuyavia ordinary flat graves without any stone protec­ tion. The megalithic graves usually contain the remains of several dead, and may accordingly be regarded as family vaults. The dead were provided with pottery, carefully polished flint axes, amber beads (fig. 6, 4—5)? and pork: this last as a viaticum. The flint axes were often made of ribbed silex from South-West Poland, where it occurs on the Eastern slopes of the Łysa Góra. The only known site of the spherical amphora culture in Pomerania so far laid bare is at Chełmża in the district of Toruń.

The Corded Pottery Culture Contemporaneously with the globular amphora cul­ ture or only slightly later the corded pottery culture made its way into Pomerania. It clearly belonged to a nomad folk, and more and more arguments seem to prove that, contrary to what has been hitherto supposed, it did not arise in Thuringia but came

21 in from the East, finding a second home m central Germany and that its originators, who spread it throughout a large part of Europe, are to be regarded as the original Indo-Germanic race, who forced the Indo-Germanic language on the various peoples ol Europe. The corded ware of Pomerania is most nearly related to that of Great-Poland, and is distributed throughout the Voievodeship, with the exception of the coastal area. Most of the objects found come from sites, which, unlike those of the contemporary mega- lithic grave culture, were always planted on sandy ground. So far but few graves have been found. They are either flat graves in which the body is laid without any stone protection (Żurawki, in the district of Staro­ gard), or under a stone cover (No wydwór, in the district of Sępolno); or they are low mound graves with (as at Wąbrzeźno) or without stone protection (as atSmoląg, in the district of Starogard). The reddish colour of the skeletons observed at Żurawki and Smoląg points clearly to a connexion with the ochre grave culture of the Ukraine. The commonest form of vessel is the mortar cup (fig. 7, l), which is sometimes provided with a lug and is decorated with horizontal cord lines. (Nowydwór, in the district of Sępolno); but often also has a vertical handle and in this case usually incised ornament (Kaldus, in the district of Chełmno; Bierz- głowo, in the district of Toruń); or is without or­ nament (Pawłowo, in the district of Chojnice). Thu

22 form unknown among the corded pottery of the Oder, was obviously adopted from Great-Poland, the nor­ thern part of which has yielded similar finds (Biało­ śliwie and Grabionna, in the district of Wyrzysk). A short-necked, four-eared amphora comes from Nie-

Fig. 7. Pottery and other objects belonging to the corded pottery culture. 1 mortarcup from Nowydwór, district of Sępolno; 2 pierced animals’teeth from Zo­ ra wki, district of Starogard; 3 cord-ornamented sherd from Sępolno (Sampohl), district of Człuchów (Schlochau); 4 — 5 clay vessel and amber bead from Babięty Małe (Klein Ba- benz) district of Susz (Rosen­ berg); . , j . 6 polished flint axe.head from Grębocin, district of Toruń; 7 spear-point from Rządz, district of Grudziądz. szawka in the district of Toruń; but the two-eared amphora from Nawra, published by Kossinna as a cord­ ed pottery type and recently again by La Baume, belongs, not to the stone age at all, hut to the early iron age. Flint-working stood at a very high level among the makers of corded pottery. We now for the first time in Pomerania find flint implements with a finely chipped surface on both sides: leaf-shaped or

23 tanged spear-points (fig. 7,7) and cordate arrowheads. The carefully polished flint axes often show a lenti­ cular cross-section (Grębocin, in the district of Torun, fig. 7, 6). Of smaller flint implements we may men­ tion, besides the arrow-heads, short and long end-, scrapers, saws, knives, borers, and core-shaped discs. Of the stone axe-hammers, the rare faceted axe-hammers imported from Thuringia and apparently also the boat- axes belong to this culture group. The corded pottery makers carried on active intercourse with south-west Poland, as is indicated by the occurrence of implements made of the typical south-west Polish gray, white- dotted silex. The discovery of a blackish flint spear-point at Rządz in the district of Grudziądz attests commercia. intercourse with the district of the upper Bug in south­ east Poland. Among ornaments may be mentioned the pierced animals’ teeth found in the skeleton-graves of Smoląg and Żura wki (fig. 7,2). A grave at Nowydwór, in the district of Toruń, contained a copper ornament as well as a flint axe and spear-point.

The Rzucewo Culture A second culture in which corded pottery forms and ornaments occur, though always in combination' with other, foreign elements, is that named Rzucewo from the site in the coastal district which has been most thoroughly excavated. It is peculiar to the coasl of the Baltic, and apart from Polish Pomerania is

24 found only in the territory of the Free City of Danzig and in East Prussia. It arose from a combination of different influences and is to be ascribed to a fishing people, who nevertheless reared cattle, as is attested by the numerous bones of domestic animals found at Rzucewo. Among these, those of swine are found most frequently, and next those of the ox, those of goats and dogs being rarer. Traces of game are rare, but remains of fish are common, and the bones of three different kinds of seal have been found, above all of the Greenland Seal, which obviously must have maintained itself in the Baltic as a relic of the glacial epoch right into the later stone age. Large masses of charred hazel - nutshells indicate vegetable food, but neither remains of corn nor imprints of grains have yet been found. The six feet thick layer of remains at Rzucewo has yielded an enormous quantity of potsherds, out of which more than sixty earthenware vessels could be restored. The commonest pot-forms are large store- vessels with curved walls and a finger-dab moulding below the indented edge ; wide-mouthed vessels with two projections instead of a handle; and cups without handles, with horizontal bands of very varied or­ namentation, made up of the following motifs, either singly or in different combinations; horizontal cord lines; groups ox oblique strokes pointing all in the same direction, or alternately, to right and left; bands of

25 obliquely hatched triangles nested one into another (fig. 9, 1)5 lattice motifs3 horizontal lines; angles one inside another; vertical bands of zig-zags; wavy lines; herringbone decoration, etc. The bottoms of the cups are often ornamented with oblique strokes or angles one inside the other. Besides these there are large

Fig. 8. Amphora from Rzucewo, coastal district. amphorae with two or four tubular handles attached where the diam eter is greatest, and perpendicular bands of lines on the upper part of the body (fig. 8), deep bowls (fig. 9,2) with lugs or double ears below the edge; boat-shaped vessels with indented edge and one or two knobs below it (fig. 9, 4), large bell-shaped vessels with horse-shoe strips for lifting and horizontal bands of ornamentation, strokes and zig-zags, on the upper part: and finally vessels ornamented with comb-pricks, which unfortunately survive only in small fragments. Of quarried stone implements may be mentioned: numerous carefully polished broad - backed axes and perforated axe-hammers; a hollow chisel of Finnish type; a battle-axe of eastern European type; and a

Fig. 9. Pottery and implements of the Rzucewo culture from Rzucewo, coastal district. 1 cup; 2 bowl; 5 bone awl; 4 boat-shaped vessel; 5 — 6 flint scraper (5 with polished edge); 7 leaf-shaped arrow-head of eastern type, considerable number of grindstones, among them one with a circularly worn polishing surface. The most typical forms of flint implements are axes and chisels, often quite diminutive; scrapers (fig. 9,6) with straight, curved, or semicircular working edges, which are often carefully polished (fig. 9, 5)- and slender, leaf-

27 shaped arrow-heads of eastern type (fig. 9,7). Especially noteworthy are certain transverse arrow-heads, small circular scrapers and similar mesolithic types, which yet are apparently to be regarded as contemporary with the other silex implements. Almost all these flint imple­ ments are made of poor yellowish-brown or reddish material, from Baltic moraine deposits, unsuited for making flakes. Consequently the greater number of the Rzucewo silex implements are made from splinters, to most of which a piece of the limestone skin is still adhering, and actual cores are rare, whereas core­ shaped discs are extremely frequent. Of bone were made awls (fig. 9, 3), paper-knife-like implements, chisels, spearpoints and ornaments (ornamented plates, and necklaces of animals’ teeth), and one fragment of a barbed harpoon has been found. Other ornaments include cylindrical, oval and double-axe-shaped amber beads; lenticular amber buttons with V-shaped perfo­ rations, and earthenware pendants in the form of a double-axe. The Rzucewo culture is clearly composed of various elements. The clay vessels with comb-prick ornamen­ tation, the Finnish hollow chisel, the circularly worn grind-stones, and the leaf-shaped arrow-heads indicate relations with the comb pottery cultures; the amphorae, the boat-shaped earthenware vessels, and perhaps also the rounded cups are derived from central Germany, the bands of strokes, the zig-zag ornamentation anc

28 the horse-shoe strips are borrowed from the eastern globular amphora culture; and finally the axe-shaped amber beads correspond to nordic types. The re­ presentatives of the Rzucewo culture lived in wattle- and-daub huts supported by posts and buried their

!! s i

Fig. 10. Objects belonging to the comb-ornamented pottery culture. 1 sherds of comb-ornamented pottery from Nieszawka, district of Toruń* 2 leaf-shaped arrow-head from Kalęba, district of Starogard; 5 east Baltic hoe from Wiele, district of Chojnice.

dead without any ritual vessels in a crouching position near or even in their dwellings, as the excavations at Rzucewo have shown. The Comb Pottery Pomerania has yielded some few traces of a nomad culture of eastern origin, characterized in its latest phase by the so-called comb pottery, hence called

29 the comb pottery culture. The few finds of this pottery almost all come from sites among dunes on the banks of the Vistula, which are especially frequent in the district of Toruń. Hitherto only fragments have been found, and it has not been possible to restore whole vessels. The ornamentation consists for the most part of horizontal bands of upright or oblique patterns, pricked with a comb-likeimplement(fig.l 0, l).The stone imple­ ments of this culture include the leaf-shaped arrow­ heads (Kalęba, in the district of Starogard, fig. 10, 2); circularly worn grindstones; and apparently also the east Baltic hoes (fig. 10, 3). Certain amber objects also, more especially the boar or bear figure found in the vicinity of Danzig, are to be ascribed to this same culture, which originated in central Russia and is pro­ bably due to the ancestors of the Finns. Finds of Copper It cannot yet be clearly determined at which period of the neolithic age the first copper objects appear in Pomerania, since almost all the pertinent finds—with the one exception mentioned above — have included no other objects. We have to deal exclusively with flat celts (Czyczkowy, district Chojnice, Rozpędziny, district Gniew, Kamionka, district Kartuzy, Białydwór, district Grudziądz) and double chisels (Bystrzec, dis­ trict Gniew, and Radzyń, district Grudziądz). The copper axe from Białydwór is stated to have been

30 iscovered still lying in its mould. If this is true, it is vidence of the existence in Pomerania of a native opper industry, which is in itself quite probable, aice copper was already known in the neighbouring ;uyavia in the second period of the later stone age, s is proved by the discovery by Jażdżewski at Brześć Luja wski of older ribbon ware graves containing copper rnaments, as well as by the existence in Great-Poland f copper ornaments (oval upper arm-bands) of a local jrpe unknown elsewhere at this period. However, it vas only when men discovered how to make a better Hoy of copper and tin, that stone implements were isplaced and a new epoch in prehistoric times, the ronze age, was ushered in. CHAPTER 2 THE BRONZE AGE (1800—700 B. C.)

THE EARLY BRONZE AGE (1800—1500 B. C.) Hitherto but few finds from the early bronze age have been made in Pomerania. The limited number of graves found have almost all been incompetently excavated, so that we have no definite information as to either their shape or contents. This much is clear: there are both barrows — probably an inheritance from neolithic times — and flat graves, and in both types unburned bodies were sometimes buried in stone cists, as is proved by the finds at Konopat Polski, in the district of Swiecie (a barrow), and at Sobowidz, in the district of Tczew (a flat grave). The occurrence of these stone cists might also be regarded as a continuance of neolithic tradition, and in especial as evidence of the persistence of the megalithic graves culture, although both the above-named early bronze age sites lie outside its main region, as do the early bronze age cist graves of Great-Poland (Skarbienice, district Żnin, and Gor- szewice, district Szamotuły). It should also be em­ phasized that the few Pomeranian earthenware vessels

32 of the first period of the bronze age seem to approach rather to corded pottery forms (Skowarcz-Schönwar- ling and Neuschottland near Danzig). However, until we have more certain and more scientifically excavat­ ed graves of this period, the question of the origins of the early bronze age culture in Pomerania must remain open.

Fig. 11. Cups belonging to the Iwno culture (early bronze age.) 1 tulip-shaped cup from Nowawieś, district of Toruń; 2 cup from Topolno, district of Swiecie. The Iwno Culture Only one culture group belonging to this period can be described in detail and traced to its source. This is the Iwno culture, named from the site of Iwno in the district of Szubin. Forms characteristic of this culture, which embraced the north-west of Great-Poland and the south-east of Pomerania (Topolno, district Swiecie, Kaldus, district Chełmno, and Nowawieś^

XXXVII/3 33 district Toruń), ar the tulip-shaped cup, ornament­ ed below the lip with from two to four fine horizontal lines and provided with a projection for holding, from which often run divergent oblique lines (fig. 11, l), another type of cups (fig. 11, 2) and the four-footed bowl 5 the last form is as yet absent in Pomerania. The Iwno culture was strongly influenced at its origin by the bell beaker culture which made its way into Silesia and Little-Poland at the end of the stone age. This in­ fluence probably originated with the group of bell beaker folk settled in the loess district of Sandomierz, and extended down the Vistula to Cuyavia and the Chełmno district. The Iwno culture was probably that of a perhaps isolated group of the corded pottery makers. H o a r d s A second group of early bronze age finds comprises seven hoards, of which the most important are those from Brzeźno in the district of Starogard and from Skowarcz in the district of Danziger Höhe5 together with a series of scattered finds, perhaps taken from destroyed graves. The metal implements from these three sources, graves, hoards and scattered finds, are mostly articles imported from the south. Of the or­ naments, the nine eye-rings (fig. 12, 3) from the Sko- warcz hoard came from the Middle Danube valley; the massive oval upper arm-bands (fig. 12, 4) found in se­ veral localities probably from Great-Poland; and the

34 pins with obliquely pierced ball- or mushroom-shaped heads (fig. 12, 6) clearly also came from the south, from the area of the Aunetitz culture which was also the source of the battle-axe with socket-like extension of

Fig.. 12. Bronze objects of the early bronze age. 1 flanged celt and 2 dagger-blade from Brzeźno, district of Staro­ gard; 5 eye-ring (necklace) from Skowarcz (Schönwarling), district of Danziger Höhe; 4 upper arm-band from Krajenka (Krojanke), district of Złotów (Fiatów); 5 spoon-shaped bronze celt from Sobowidz, district of Danziger Höhe; 6 pin with mushroom-shaped head from Skowarcz, distr. of Danziger Höhe; 7 halbert from Mierzeszyn (Meisterswalde), district of Danziger Höhe; 8 battle- axe from Brzeźno, district of Starogard. the shaft-hole (fig. 12, 8) and of several flanged celts (fig. 12, l). The slender, spoon-shaped bronze celt (fig. 12, 5) from the cist grave at Sobowidz, district of Tczew, may have been imported from Switzerland; the

35 dagger-blade from Złotorja, district of Toruń, perhaps from Italy $ while only the halbert from Mierzeszyn (Meisterswalde), district of Danziger Höhe (fig. 12, 7)? was introduced from north Germany. Notwithstanding, therefore, the assertion of La Baume, we cannot assume from these finds that Polish Pomerania in the first period of the bronze age belonged to the northern cultural sphere. Unlike Great-Poland, Pomerania has yielded no local forms which might indicate a native bronze industry. The peculiar halbert from Bethken- hammer in the district of Deutsch-Krone, with its open-work shaft-head, which might perhaps be such a local product, was found outside its borders.

THE SECOND BRONZE AGE PERIOD ( .1500—1300 B. C.) From the second period of the bronze age we have at present in Pomerania only scattered finds, graves and hoards being wholly absent. The occurrence of east Baltic flanged celts with moon-shaped edge at Łęg in the district of Chojnice, and Tuchola and Montowo in the district of Lubawa, and on the island of Danziger Werder, points to import from East Prussia; whereas the much commoner flanged celts of north German type (which is also the commonest type in Great- Poland) may be local imitations of imported western models. The pre-Lusatian culture which is so richly developed in neighbouring Great-Poland, extends

36 north-west as far as the mouth of the^Oder, and has even influenced East Prussia, has left some traces only in the neighbourhood of Toruń. THE THIRD BRONZE AGE PERIOD (1300—1100 B.G.) On the other hand the Lusatian culture which developed out of it appears in Polish Pomerania in

Fig. 15. Bronze palstave and bronze ornaments from Lusatian barrows (third bronze age period) at Warzenko, district of Kartuzy. 1 bronze palstave; 2 pin with disc-shaped eye; 5 degenerate eyed pin of early type; 4 pin with shank thickened at the top and with spherical head; 5 pin with damaged, ribbed len­ ticular head; 6 bracelet; 7 ornamental button. the third period of the bronze age, along with a new custom, that of burning the dead. Although we have no systematically investigated graves of this period, and have to rely so far on incompetent diggings, we are nevertheless able to distinguish two local groups within the Lusatian culture in Pomerania, viz., the Cassubian and the Chełmno groups. Whereas the new­ comers on the Cassubian Heights buried the ashes of

37 the dead under barrows, in the Chełmno district only flat graves were usual.

The Cassubian Local Group Two barrows excavated at Warzenko, in the district of Kartuzy, are said to have contained stone cists above the level of the ground, which yielded a rich store of objects. Besides the hollow foot of a lost vessel and a deep, reddish-brown bowl, numerous bronze objects were found, of prevailingly Lusatian type. The most numerous class were ornaments, especially pins: a degenerate eyed pin of early type with flat head and exteriorly attached eye (fig. 15, 3)- a late eyed pin with shank bent at right angles, an invertedly conical head, and disc-shaped eye affixed at the angle (fig. 15,2) • a pin with damaged, ribbed lenticular head (fig. 15,5)* and a pin with shank thickened at the top and spheri­ cal head (fig. 15, 4). Also two broad bracelets, orna­ mented with groups of alternately vertical and hori­ zontal lines (fig. 15, 6), two spiral rings of thin bronze wire, two ornamental buttons (Tutuli) (fig. 15, 7), and a palstave with rounded stop-ridge and central rib (fig. 15, l). The two last-mentioned objects are nor­ thern types; the pin with spherical head was probably imported from Hungary; while the rest, like the pottery, show typical Lusatian forms. Two examples resembling the Warzenko pins with ribbed lenticular heads, found at Trąbki near Danzig, and an eyed

38 pin from Liniewko, district of Tczew, probably come from destroyed graves: the former supposedly from a cist grave. Further Lusatian forms have occurred in several isolated finds; for example, a specimen closely related to the Warzenko bracelet but with lenticular cross-section and ornamented with groups of vertical

Fig. 14. Bronze objects of the third bronze age period. 1 — 2 from the hoard of Czerniewice, district of Toruń: 1 armlet with spiral coils of wire, 2 bracelet; 3 battle-axe of Nortycken type from Ostrowite, district of Swiecie. and oblique lines comes from Pruszcz-Łęgowo, near Danzig; and bracelets of circular cross-section, with the same ornamentation, have been found at Młynki and Lutówko, in the district of Tuchola. Finally, a palstave found near Nowe, in the district of Swiecie, likewise belongs to the Lusatia nculture. On the other hand, the battle-axe of Nortycken type (fig. 14? 5) found at Ostro­ wite, district of Swiecie, was certainly imported from

39 East Prussia: a spear-point from Suchostrzygi neat Tczew suggests Hungary; and two objects: a spear­ head with two ears on the socket from Skowarcz neat Danzig, and a palstave from Hansfel derbrück, Kreis Schlochau, were actually imported from England.

The Chełmno Local Group Still closer are the relations of the Chełmno district to the centre and source of the Lusatian culture, as we deduce from the character of the metal objects found here. The eyed pins found at Czarnowo and Jedwabno near Toruń, and at Klęczkowo near Chełmno, which were probably gifts buried in now destroyed graves, show typical Lusatian forms. The conical-headed pin from Czarnowo (fig. 16, 9) represents a rare local form of the eyed pin, which originated in Central Poland. Among scattered finds may be mentioned a bracelet from Toruń, closely resembling the two pieces from Warzenko, and a rather different one from Ryńsk, district of Wąbrzeźno. Moreover, the one Pomeranian hoard of this period, unearthed at Czerniewice near Toruń, contained exclusively Lusatian types of object: two very broad bracelets, ornamented with alternating groups of vertical lines and of hatched, nested triangles (fig. 14, 2); and two armlets with spiral coils of wire of square end-section (fig. 14, l). The only form of outside (probably nordic) origin is that of the tanged sword from Chełmno, near Torun.

40 MAP 2. MIDDLE AND LATE BRONZE AGE CULTURES IN POMERANIA

^ Wejherów;

Starogarc

1. Lusatian culture (III period); 2. Lusatian culture {IVand Vperiods); 5. Frontiers of the Polish Republic; 4. Frontiers of the Free City of Danzig; 5. Frontiers of Polish voievodeships (provinces); 6. Towns.

Affinities of the Lusatian Culture Opinions as to the nationality of the originators of the Lusatian culture differ greatly. Kossinna and Wilke’s theory of an Illyrian affinity has gained the most adher­ ents, but Schuchhardt and in part also Ekholm ascribe this culture to the Teutons, Götze and Hubert Schmidt to the Thracians, and numerous Slavonic scholars (such

41 as Pić, Buchtela, Kostrzewski, Kozłowski, Czekanowski, Łęga, Pasternak, and others) to the Slavs or the Lituslavs. The Teutonic theory is to be rejected if only because of the profound differences between the Lusatian and the assuredly Teutonic culture of Scandinavia. The Thracians could only come into question for certain local groups of the bronze age culture of south - east Poland which show clear connexions with Roumania and eastern Hungary. Even the prevailing Illyrian theory has very weak foundations, there being no de­ monstrable relation between the culture of the histo­ rical Illyrians of the eastern Alps and the Adriatic area and the culture before us. It is not till the early iron age that the differences between the true Lusatian culture and that of the Illyrian area to the south, which during the bronze age are very considerable, begin to disappear; and this approximation is not due at all to any racial identity of the two groups of population, but to the extraordinarily powerful influence of north Italy and the Hallstatt culture on the Lusatian culture of the early iron age. The further one goes back in time, the greater are the differences between the two groups, whereas if they were indeed racially related, the opposite would be the case. The arguments for a Slavonic or Lituslavonic origin for the Lusatian culture are not only the identity of the seat of this culture with the area over which the western Slavs were disseminated in prehistoric times,

42 but also and above all the uninterrupted development of the burial customs and the survival of certain phenom­ ena of material culture (such as the wattle-and-daub house supported by posts) from the bronze age into the early historical period. Had there been a repeated complete change of population and that gap from the seventh to the ninth century which many German scholars imagine, and of which we shall speak further below, these things would be quite inexplicable. An­ thropological considerations also (the survival of the nordic dolicocephalic type in Poland from the neolithic age into the early historical period), as well as linguistic (the occurrence of Slavonic place- and river-names in the western Slavonic area as early as the period of the Roman empire), support our thesis.

THE FOURTH BRONZE AGE PERIOD (1100—900 B. G.) In period IV also of the later bronze age Pomerania forms part of the Lusatian cultural area, and the con­ trast between the Cassubian and the Chełmno sub­ groups persists. The Cassubian Sub-Group The barrows (of Cetnowo and Tłuczewo, in the coastal district, and of Czystawoda, Dubowm, Gapowo, Stężyca etc., in the district of Kartuzy) w^hich are typical of the Cassubian group, vary both in dimensions

43 and in elevation. Their diameter maybe anything from 4 to 15m (4—16 yards) while their average height is 0.75 — 1 m (2 — 5 feet), and in the largest is as much as 2 m (6.5 feet). A characteristic feature is a circular floor, whose periphery is made of specially large stones. On this rises the barrow, piled of earth and stones, and frequently containing several urns (occasionally as many as nine). Often the barrow consists of an inner core of stones, truncatedly conical in shape, with a stone edging 1 - 1.50 m (3-5 feet) broad, supporting a heap of sand. The burial urns are placed either in the central core of stones or loose, or with a special packing of stones, in the earth barrow, and in the latter case are found at different heights, both at the centre of the barrow and at its periphery. In some of the barrows rectangular or circular stone cists were found, either sunk below the level of the ground, or lying free on the original surface, or built into the central core of stones. Marks of fire beneath the floor seem to indicate that the dead were burned on the burial place itself. The ashes are for the most part preserved in large earthenware vessels with rounded, doubly conical body, often obliquely grooved, and roughened underneath, and long neck, narrowing upwards (fig. 15, 2)- or in double cone-shaped vessels (fig. 15, l) with smooth or roughened under-part 5 or more rarely in similar vessels with rounded waist. These are sometimes covered with flat lids, which usually have three symmetrically bored holes in the top (fig. 15,4). One double cone-shaped vessel has two small holes below the rim. The accompanying ritual vessels are principally bowls with or without handles, often with the sides somewhat compressed

Fig. 15. Pottery and bronze objects belonging to the Cassubian group of the Lusatian culture (IV bronze age period). 1—2 from Stężyca, district of Kartuzy: 1 double cone-shaped vessel, 2 vessel with long neck narrowing upwards; 5 handled jug from Gapowo, district of Kartuzy; 4 vessel with overlapping flat lid from Stężyca, district of Kartuzy; 5 howl ornamented with finger-nail imprints from Dubowo; 6 howl from Gapowo, district of Kartuzy; 7—8 small vessels from Gapowo, district of Kartuzy; 9 arm-ring with circular cross-section from Stężyca, district of Kartuzy; 10 and 12 ornamental buttons from Tłuczewo, coastal district; 11 tweezers from Dubowo, district of Kartuzy. below the lip, and frequently ornamented with finger­ nail imprints (fig. 15, 5—6)* but also handled jugs (fig. 15, 3); rounded double cone-shaped vessels with two handles affixed where the bulge is greatest

45 (fig. 15, 7—'<8)- two-eared vessels with curved walls; and vessels with rounded, double cone-shaped bellies, cylin­ drical necks, and four bosses in concentric circular grooves on the body (Niestępowo, district of Kartuzy). In form, technique and ornamentation these vessels perfectly resemble the usual Lusatian ware. The few metal objects laid with the dead comprise oval, unadorned or vertically ribbed bracelets with somewhat thickened ends; armrings of circular cross- section, ornamented with groups of slanting lines (fig. 15,9); tweezers (fig.l 5, H),finger-rings, razors with swan-neck handles, and double buttons (fig. 15,10 and 12). These two last forms are typical of the northern cul­ tural area, whereas the remainder apparently are local products. An important isolated find of this period was that of two celts with wings midway between back and edge, at Stęgwałd, in the district of Kartuzy.

The Chełmno Sub-Group Period IV in the Chełmno district has yielded sev­ eral large cemeteries with many graves rich in pottery, which in part pass over into the fifth period, and often extend into the early iron age. Only three have so far been systematically investigated,viz., those at Jed wabno, Kaszczorek and Rogowo near Toruń. At Jedwabno the graves lay unprotected in the soil at a depth of 50 — 60 cm (19—25 inches) and were only thinly covered with a few stones. The urns here frequently stood in deep or shallow bowls, mostly covered with a lid. There were no accompanying vessels. Besides the burned, scoured bones the urns only very exceptionally contained gifts for the dead, in the form of small

Fig. 16. Pottery and bronze objects belonging to the Chełmno group of the Lusatian culture (III, IV and V bronze age periods). 1 —2 from Nowydwór, district of Chełmno: 1 pedestal goblet; 2 deep vase with funnel neck; 5 doubly-conical vessel from Jedwabno, district of Toruń; 4 pin-head from Nowydwór, district of Chełmno; 5kbowl from Jedwabno, district of Toruń; 6 vase from Nowydwór, district of Chełmno; 7 handled mug from Tylice, district of Lu­ bawa; 8 vase ornamented with finger-nail imprints from Nowydwór, district of Toruń; 9 eyed pin from Czarnowo, district of Toruń; 10 — 12 from Nowydwór, district of Toruń: 10 tweezers, 11 bowl with obliquely channeled lip; 12 double cone-shaped vessel with rounded waist; 15 two-eared pot from Jedwabno, district of Toruń; 14 vase from Czemlewo, district of Chełmno.

47 melted bronze wire rings. At Rogowo a bell grave was laid bare. The commonestpot forms are wide-mouthed doubly- conical vessels, often ornamented above the waist with horizontal lines (fig. 16, 5) and sometimes roughened beneath it with finger-nail imprints or hatching; bowls with projecting lip (fig. 16, 5)? mostly obliquely fluted, or streaked with lines slanting alternately to right and left; large vessels with more or less clearly distin­ guished neck, either cylindrical or narrowing upwards, and two ears attached at its base; and handled jugs with cylindrical, or more rarely funnel-shaped, neck, and a small handle attached at the upper part of it, often ornamented at the base of the neck with several hori­ zontal lines, and sometimes under it with alternately slanting lines (fig. 16, 7). Rarer forms are the follow­ ing: a deep vase with sharply distinguished funnel neck from Nowydwór, near Chełmno (fig. 16, 2); a pedestal goblet with similar neck and rounded body, ornamented with transverse ribs on the upper part, also found at Nowydwór (fig. 16, l); a two-handled vase from Kijewo near Chełmno with markedly pro­ jecting neck and four wart-like excrescences sur­ rounded with semicircular furrows; a large oval pot with roughened walls, projecting neck and 4 — 5 warts on the rim, from Jedwabno near Toruń; and a large drinking-cup with handles and obliquely fluted body, from Nowydwór. Among the few objects laid in the graves for the use of the dead, a plate fibula with its bow transversely chamfered, found at Jed­ wabno, is especially noteworthy. Clearly it was a northern imported product. So far no hoards of period IV have been found in the Chełmno district. Scattered finds include a bronze sword of Hungarian type with a massive hilt ornamented with three transverse cor­ dons and spiral scrolls, from Konojad, near Brodnica, and a few spear-points. An important site is the lake-settlement of Góra- Orle in the coastal district, which apparently came into existence in the later bronze age, but was still oc­ cupied in the early iron age, and has yielded a typical bronze age vessel of double cone shape with finger-nail ornamentation.

THE FIFTH (LATEST) BRONZE AGE PERIOD (900—700 B. C.) The Cassubian Sub-Group Hitherto but few graves of the latest bronze age period have been laid bare on the Cassubian Heights. The most important are the barrows at Szczodrowo, district of Kościerzyna, and a few graves at Stężyca and Unieradze, near Kartuzy, which probably date from this period (pi. II, 1). Its pottery cannot, unfortunately, be accurately described. The metal objects from Szczo­ drowo include a razor with rectangular blade and xxxvn/4 bent handle ending in a spiral coil, and a straight knife with broken handle 5 those from Stężyca a razor with a small oblique spiral handle. Two further rectangular razors with large oval handles, from Kętrzyno in the coastal district and Dąbrowo in the district of Kartuzy (fig. 17, ll), were obviously influenced by the Lusatian trapeziform handleless razors. As compared with the few graves the numei ous hoards of this period are the more striking. The bronze objects contained in them bear witness to a strong in­ fluence from the nordic culture, and the relations with the district at the mouth of the Oder must have been very close; yet there is a clear distinction to be seen between the forms of implements occurring eastward of the Persante-Küddow valley, and those occurring further to the west. Ornaments characteristic of this eastern group (the Vistula group) are collars made of four or five embossed, sickle-shaped plates riveted together; high collars, ribbed lengthwise (fig. 17, 8); reniform rings of eastern type (fig. 17, 3); spiral arm- rings of thick double wire; and ornamental plates for horses with button-fastenings (fig. 1 7,10). These varie­ ties of nordic types adopted from the West may be contrasted with a few special forms which arose in the part of Pomerania situated eastward of the Persante- Küddow valley; the hour-glass-shaped pendants; the open-work cast ornamental discs looking as though made of thread; and finally several types which were

50 Fig. 17. Bronze objects belonging to the Pomeranian culture (V bronze age period), I spiral plate fibula from Rytel, distr. of Chojnice; 2 handle of a sword from the distr. of Danzig; 5 reniform arm-ring from Chwarzno, distr. of Kościerzyna; 4 spiral arm-band from Sztegrowy (Stegers) distr. of Czluchowo(Schlochau); 5 pendant fromRekowo, coast, distr.; 6 socket­ ed celt from Chojniczki, distr. of Chojnice; 7 horse-trapping from Maly Buczek (Kl. Butzig) distr. of Flatow; 8 collar from Chwarzno, distr. of Kościerzyna; 9 antennaed sword from Rynarzewo (Renneberg), near Danzig; 10 plate for horse from Skqwarcz, distr. of Danziger Höhe; II razor from Dąbrowa, distr. of Kartuzy; 12 part of a snaffle from Rekowo, coastal district; 13 knife from Kętrzyno, coast, distr.; 14 sword from Kartowo, distr. of Kościerzyna.

4* 51 obviously introduced from the Lusatian cultural area, or at least arose under its influence: for example, the spiral arm-bands with zig-zag hatching (fig. 17,4)- the socketed celts (fig. 1 7, 6) and the spiral plate fibulae with embossed, rhombic bow (fig. 17, l), which arose out of the spiral coil fibulae with double or triple cross­ beam head. The differences between the forms of the Vistula group and those of the Oder group are not confined to the shape, but are to be seen also in the method of manufacture, the Vistula group showing a decided preference for embossed work. As compared with this, the fact that a few common Germanic forms, such as the gold so-called Eid-ring, or north-east Ger­ man types like the reniform knobbed swords (fig. 17,2) or tanged swords (fig. 17, 14), occur also in Polish Pomerania is of minor im portan ce, for these are probably imported articles. A still unsolved problem is the origin of the antennaed swords found in Pomerania (fig.l 7,9), which formerly were generally supposed to have been developed in the Alps, but which perhaps are rather a local imitation of imported models; more especially the specimens with bell-shaped lower hilt-end. The influence of the nordic culture, which began to be felt on the Cassubian Heights already in the third period of the bronze age, and grew constantly stronger from period to period, is taken by German scholars as a proof of the Germanic origin of the population of this area, who, according to Kossinna, immigrated into

52 Pomerania in the late bronze age (period V), while La Baume puts the date in period IV. Yet in view of the local peculiarities ofthe bronze age culture here represented, even Kossinna has had to admit that its origin was in­ fluenced by the subjugated Lusatian population. As a matter of fact, however, the pottery, which shows marked Lusatian characteristics even at the beginning of the early iron age, proves that there can be absolutely no question of a Germanic immigration, and that the Germanic colouring of many metal forms is rather to be explained by the great superiority of the German bronze industry. The Chełmno Sub-Group In the Chełmno district the custom still prevailed in the latest bronze age period of burying in flat ceme­ teries, which were in part inherited from older times. The graves are still but sparingly provided with metal objects for the use of the dead, and the pottery shows a further development of the forms used in the fourth period. In place of the former double cone-shaped vessels we now have similar ones with rounded waist (fig. 16,12, Chełmno, Jedwabno and Gutowo, district of Toruń); besides which there are bowls with lip bent inwards and obliquely channelled (fig. 16,11), or hatched with alternately slanting lines; roughened, egg-shaped, two-eared pots (fig. 16,13); or similar vessels with walls curved in the shape of an S; and other, rarer forms.

53 The bronze objects laid in the graves include a spiral finger-ring of double wire, with an eye at one end and at the other the ends of the wire twisted together (Nowydwór, district of Chełmno); tweezers (fig. 16,10)- a whorl; fragments of bronze sickles; pins (fig. 16, f), etc. Two sites have yielded typical stone celts of this period, pentagonal in outline, viz. Brzeźno, district of Starogard, and Toruń. They probably came from de­ stroyed graves. A typical hoard of period V was found at Przesławice, distr. of Grudziądz, containing not only a two-handled, embossed bronze amphora of Italian pro­ venance, but also three cast-bronze drinking horns. The amphora is ornamented with horizontal rows of dots and bosses, as well as with concentric rings, hanging semicircles, birds and birds’ necks, made of dots; its edge is strengthened with a band of iron wire. Accordingly we have here the oldest iron object from the prehistoric period in Pomerania. Of the drinking horns, one is lost, one is without ornamentation, and the third is divided into four parts by groups of cordons; is ornamented with zig-zag lines, herringbone patterns, lines of dots, semicircles and concentric rings; has four ring-shaped pendants; and ends in the shape of a pointed oval roof. These drinking horns were perhaps imported from the Cassubiań Heights, since a somewhat different drinking horn has been found there, at Prausterkrug, in the district of Danziger Höhe.

54 1. Round barrow of the late bronze age at Unieradze, district of Kartuzy.

2. Unearthed stone barrow of the Roman period at Kiełpin, district of Kartuzy.

II 3. Stone cist grave of the early iron age found at Żelewo, coastal district.

4. The same grave before opening. CHAPTER 3 THE IRON AGE (700 B. C. — 1000 A. D.)

POMERANIAN CULTURE In the early iron age, which corresponds more or less to the late Hallstatt period in South Germany and Austria, and may be placed between 700 and 400 B. C., we note a further increase in the differences between the Cassubian and the Chełmno sub-groups of the Lusatian culture. While the latter develops further in close relation with the original seat of this culture, on the left bank of the Vistula there becomes noticeable an active special development, which we can only regard as the expression of a new people, there coming to maturity. If we ascribe the Lusatian culture as a whole to the Lituslavs, then the ever in­ creasing individualization of the Cassubian sub-group and the simultaneous and similar development of the Mazurian-Ermland sub-group in East Prussia can only be interpreted as the beginning of the rise of the Baltic group of peoples. In the first half of the early iron age (corresponding to Reinecke’s Hallstatt C period, about A. D. 700-550) the new culture is represented by flat graves with pottery which, though related to that of the Lusatian culture, yet shows local peculiarities.

55 Besides unprotected graves and others with stone lining, we also find actual cist graves, which are pro­ bably to be regarded as a heritage from the middle and later bronze age. The greater number of these are single graves. Characteristic urn-forms are: large vessels with rounded, double cone-shaped body (fig. 18,- 3) often ornamented on the waist with fingernail nicks; amphorae with more or less clearly distinguished neck, narrowing upwards, somewhat projecting lip, and two handles at the base of the neck (fig. 18, 2)- bulging vessels with marked short narrow neck (fig. 18, l) * and slender pear-shaped vessels. The covers of the urns are of various shapes: bowls with sides somewhat com­ pressed below the rim (fig. 18, l); flat stopper lids (fig. 18, 8)5 plates; and caplike lids with cylindrical or conical sides (fig. 18, already familiar to us here from the later bronze age). Accompanying ritual vessels (handled mugs fig. 18, 6 and cups, and bowls), as in the contemporary Lusatian cemeteries of the Chełmno district, occur but seldom (as a rule one or two in a grave). The large double cone-shaped earthenware vessels, the amphorae, the flat plates, the handled bowls, and other forms not mentioned above (e. g., twin vessels) are characteristically Lusatian; and the burial rites are also in clear accord with Lusatian custom (e.g., preva­ lence of single burial, provision of ritual vessels, etc.). The commonest metal objects are: bronze swan-neck pins (fig. 18, 5) with three to four small rolls, tweezers

56 (fig. 18, 7), arm spirals of double wire, lengthwise rib­ bed arm-bands with upper eye, lengthways chamfered collars, and twisted, eyed necklaces with long quadran­ gular ends. Iron is rare. The source of this culture, which I designate as Polish Pomeranian but Petersen as

Fig. 18. Pottery and bronze objects belonging to the Pomeranian culture (Hallstatt C period). 1 — 5 from Warszkowo, coastal district: 1 vessel with bowl-shaped cover, 2 amphora; 5 vessel with rounded, double cone-shaped body; 4—9 from Swarzewo -Wielkawieś, coastal distr.: 4 two-eared pot with two holes below the rim; 5 bronze swan-neck pin; 6 handled mug; 7 tweezers; 8 flat stopper lid; 9 caplike lid. the Grossendorf sub-group, from a typical cemetery at Wielka-wieś (German Grossdorf), is to be found on the Gulf of Danzig, between Lake Leba, the Vistula, the Baltic and the Wda. Face Urn Culture In the second half of the early iron age (Hallstatt D. 550-400), there develops in this area the face urn

57 culture, so-called from the characteristic form of urns. Family graves, which have already appeared in the Hallstatt C period, are now the rule. As many as 5 0 urns with scanty accompanying vessels are buried in rec­ tangular cists, built of thin stone slabs or larger blocks and often provided with a stone lining (pi. II3—4). Besides flat graves, barrows frequently occur, in which the cist is usually buried below the ground level, but is sometimes erected on the floor of the barrow, or even built into the upper part of it (Cheł­ my, distr. of Chojnice). Some barrows at Unieradze, distr. of Kartuzy, belonging to this period and investi­ gated in 1954, are of unusual interest, for here we have already actual ash-pit graves, containing the whole remains of the funeral pyre. The most characteristic forms of vessel are approximately pear-shaped with bulging body, long, cylindrical or upwards narrowing neck, and sometimes slightly projecting rim (fig. 19,6)? which clearly connect with related vessels of the Pom­ eranian culture. They have as a rule thin walls, a care­ fully smoothed black surface, and ornamentation. The urns are always covered with more or less cap-shaped stopper lids (fig. 19, 6), which obviously developed out of the flat stopper lids of the former stage. Other char­ acteristic urn-forms are: bulgy vases with short, nar­ row neck; and large wide-mouthed, short-necked ves­ sels of brown earthenware, which usually have a smoothed neck and a roughened body (fig. 19 l), and

58 at the base of the neck have often a notched cor­ don and three symmetrically attached ears, or three knobs or pairs of knobs, from which fringe-like headings are often dependent. The urns sometimes rest on stands in the form of dishes, flat saucers

Fig. 19. Pottery belonging to the face urn culture. 1 vessel with smoothed neck and roughened body from Nowydwór, distr. of Chełmno; 2 flat bath-shaped dish from Danzig-Ohra; 5 bowl from Nowydwór, distr. of Chełmno; 4 handled mug from Radzyń, distr. of Grudziądz; 5 saucer with 4 feet from Kleszczewo, distr. of Kościerzyna; 6 face urn with cap-shaped stopper lid from Gra­ bowo, distr. of Starogard; 7 plate from Buszkowo (Buschkau \ distr. of Danzig.

often provided with several feet (fig. 19, 5)? or goblet­ like pedestal vessels; the two latter forms being probably adopted from the Lusatian culture. The accompanying ritual vessels include: slender, han­ dled mugs related to the pear-shaped urns (fig. 19,4)*

59 stockier cups with handles, which are sometimes shafted; bowls with walls compressed below the slightly projecting rim (fig. 19, 3)? and small ears for the insertion of a cord} plates (fig. 19 7)? conical bowls} flat, bath-shaped dishes with two spouts on the one end and a grip-piece sometimes pierced at the other (fg. 19, 2), which likewise originated in the Lusatian cultural area. Further evidence of relations with the Lusatian culture is afforded by the twin vessels which appear again at this stage} and the barrel-shaped children’s rattles found at Piecewo, in the district of Flatow. A large number of the slender, pear-shaped urns and of the bulgy, short-necked vases, and less frequently of the large vessels, have on the neck a more or less primitive representation of a human face, which is probably to be regarded as an image of the dead (fig. 19, 6). Nose and ears are plastically represented, the outlines of eyes and mouth usually scratched in, and in a few cases arms and hands are either drawn or plastically represented. The ears of the female faces are frequently decked with ear-rings of bronze or iron, on which glass, amber or clay beads, or cowry shells, are arranged, or sometimes chains and metal plates fastened} on the neck is occasionally a real bronze or iron collar. However, on most of the urns collars and other ornaments, such as necklets composed of several rings, brooches, and exceptionally also fibulae (Zakrzewko, distr. of Sępolno), are merely

60 sketched. There are also numerous drawings of spear- points and shields, and there is one case of a dagger represented plastically (at Lubiszewo, distr. of Tczew). On a few urns are figure drawings of men and ani­ mals, sometimes combined into scenes (stag-hunt, waggon-driving, departure to the hunt or to battle). The objects represented in the drawings, which were probably substitutes for actual gifts, give us important information about the manner of life, domestic eco­ nomy, and material culture of the face urn people. They apprise us of the part played by the horse, which was used both for riding and for draught; they instruct us as to the use of two- and four-wheeled waggons with spoked wheels, forked frame, and pole, and of circular and oval wooden shields with oblong umbones (fig. 19,6); they show us that hunting was practised both on foot and on horse-back; and are important also for the light they throw on prehistoric dress, elucidating the difference between the male and female dress, and their most striking characteris­ tics. Thus, the ring collars and ear-rings belong ex­ clusively to female adornment, in which also only one pin was used, whereas the men used two to fasten their dress. Girdles were worn by both sexes, and both men and women wore woollen or fur caps, whose shape can be reconstructed from the urn covers. The figure ornamentation as well as many other kinds of ornament (such as incrustation, false cord pattern, graphite ornamentation), are obviously adopted from the Lusatian culture. Among the metal objects accompanying the dead, pins are especially numerous. The most frequent form is that of bronze or iron swan-neck pins, the heads vase-shaped, conical, or spherical, ornamented with small roll-mouldings, or hammered out broad and rolled up 5 there are also bronze pins with a spiral coil head, iron disc pins, sometimes covered with an ornamental disc of thin bronze- or gold-plate (fig. 20,9)$ and bone ones with small rolls. The ear ornaments in­ clude, besides the above-mentioned pendants, scutiform ear-rings. Neck and arm rings and fibulae (fig20, ll) are found as gifts for the dead much more rarely. Other metal objects comprise principally slender bronze or iron tweezers with broad triangular ends (fig. 20, 7), and trapezoid, semicircular or halfmoon-shaped iron razors (fig. 20, 10 and 12)- and occasionally tanged iron knives were laid in the graves. Apart from a few dagger-sheath-mountings weapons are entirely absent from the graves of the face urn culture of Pomerania.

Hoards In spite of the scanty provision of metal objects to accompany the dead, the numerous hoards and scat­ tered finds dating from the early iron age enable us to form a fairly accurate picture of the shapes char­ acteristic of this culture. The ornamental rings in-

62 elude, besides the above-mentioned types, also the following: ring-collars (fig.20, 3)- obliquely falling collars; hooped rings (fig. 20, 5)* neck-rings with octa­ gonal cross-section (fig. 20, 8); late reniform rings (fig. 20, 2); the bronze or iron neck-rings with hooked ends which were adopted from the Lusatian area;

Fig. 20. Implements and ornaments belonging to the face urn culture. 1 thick hollow bronze ring(anklet?) from Lake Żarnowiec, coastal district; 2 late reniform bronze arm ring from Mieroszyno, coastal distr; 5 bronze ring-collar from Amalino, coastal distr. 4 bronze necklace from Gorzę- dziej, distr. of Tczew; 5 hooped bronze ring from Mie- roszyno, coastal distr; 6 winged bronze celt with side-ear 10 11 12 from Tempelburg, near Danzig; 7 bronze tweezers from Gniewskie Młyny, distr. of Gniew; 8 bronze neck-ring with octagonal section from Kartuzy; 9 iron pin with ornamental disc of thin bronze-plate from Jastrzębiec, distr. of Sępólno; 10 and 12 iron razors from Chwarzno, distr. of Kościerzyna; 11 bronze fibula from Lipka (Linde Abbau), distr. of Złotowo (Fiatów). hollow rings with ends fitting one into the other; the spiral arm-bands with pointed ends; and finally the thick hollow rings probably used as anklets (fig. 20,1). Other especially characteristic ornaments are the spiral spectacle-shaped fibulae (adopted from the Lusatian area), and the fibulae of Tłukom type developed out

m of them. Noteworthy metal implements are: winged celts with side-ear of local manufacture (fig. 20, 6)? obviously modelled on imported Hallstatt celts, (e. g., Tempelburg, district of Danziger Höhe); and imported socket-celts of east Baltic type (Swatno, distr. of Świeci e). As in the contemporary graves, no weapons occur in the hoards. Fig. 21. Pottery and orna­ ments belonging to the Lusa- tian culture (early iron age). 1—2 from Czarnowo, district of Toruń: 1 pear-shaped amphora, 2 vase, both ornamented with false cord patterns; 5 bowl with funnel neck from Słup, distr. of Grudziądz; 4 egg-shaped vessel from Czarno­ wo, distr. of Toruń; 5 strainer from Słup, district of Grudziądz; 6 handled mug from Rzęczkowo, distr. of Toruń; 7 twisted bronze collar with ring ends from Papowo, distr. of Toruń; 8 spiral bronze arm-hand from Nicwałd, distr. of Grudziądz; 9 bronze anklet from Sarnin, distr. of Brodnica; 10 hollow bronze ring from Staw near Toruń.

Sites Sites belonging to the face urn culture so far known are few. Lusatian influence is far more marked in the pottery of daily use than in that of the graves. A site laid bare at Oliva (Danzig) has given proof of the existence of the wattle-and-daub house supported by posts, which was so characteristic of the Lusatian culture. The Lusatian Culture (The Chełmno Sub-Group) Flat graves remain in use, but now sometimes contain two urns, together with several ritual vessels, and are often protected by a stone lining. The urns are mostly covered with bowls or stones. The com­ monest type is that of the broadly pear-shaped am­ phora of waved S-shape profile, short neck narrowing upwards, and slightly projecting edge, usually orna­ mented with false cord-patterns (fig. 21, l) (horizontal lines and bands of zig-zags), less often with herringbone patterns. Besides this there are handled mugs of similar shape (fig. 21, 6)- bowls with funnel neck (fig. 21, 3)- half-spherical handled bowls (fig. 21,11)5 large, rough­ ened, egg-shaped vessels ornamented below the rim with button-like studs or a notched beading (fig. 21,4)- and flat plates (Gostkowo-Folsung, distr. of Toruń). A favourite pattern is made of finger-nail imprints, and on two vessels from Łążyn near Toruń figure ornaments are scratched. A vase from Łysomice in the Toruń district shows a peculiar form, being of Villanova type with horizontal chamfering on the shoulder and four oblong bosses at the base of the neck. Metal objects were laid but sparingly in the graves, the most frequent kinds being bronze pins and rings3 from Łążyn came two iron pins. Larger metal objects occur only in the contemporary hoards and scattered finds. They include a twisted collar

XXXVII/5 65 with ring ends from the hoard of Papowo, distr. of Toruń (fig. 21, 7)- two spiral arm-bands with pointed ends from Nicwałd, distr. of Grudziądz (fig. 21,8), and Rybieniec, distr. of Chełmno$ two anklets of Stanomin type from Sarnin, distr. of Brodnica (fig. 21, 9)- two thick hollow rings which may have been ornaments either for the upper arms or the ankles, from Staw near Toruń (fig 21,10)5 and several bronze pins with large spiral coil at the end. Sites No Lusatian sites have so far been competently investigated in the Chełmno district. Towards the beginning of the early iron age the population of the district were apparently driven to seek refuge behind fortified ramparts against the onset of the Pomeranian culture and later of the face urn folk, as may be de­ duced from the occurrence of Lusatian potsherds in some earthworks (Lembark, distr. of Brodnica 5 Gzin, distr. of Chełmno^ Słup Młyn and Nogat Wielki, distr. of Grudziądz). It is however true that none of these earthworks has so far been competently in­ vestigated. THE LA TENE PERIOD (400 B. G. — A. D. 1) The Early and Middle La Tene Period At the beginning of the La Tene period the cist grave culture made great inroads into the Lusatian

66 area, in spite of the desperate defence offered by the population behind their earthworks. Among other districts that of Chełmno was overrun, and a large part of East Prussia occupied, while to southwards the cist grave folk advanced to Silesia and south Poland. W hereas in south and central Poland this people formed only a thin upper stratum, which was soon absorbed into the older population, in Pomerania, at least on the left bank of the Vistula, part of it seems to have maintained itself into the imperial Roman period. As compared with the early iron age both the burial rites and the objects laid in the graves show marked differences. Besides the cist graves we now meet with grave forms which in part were apparent­ ly adopted under the influence of the neighbouring Lusatian culture: stone lined graves, unprotected urn graves, bone heaps, urn graves with the remains of the funeral pyre, and ash-pits (Gródek, distr. of Świę­ cie) ; and for the most part even the later grave forms contain the remains of only a single body. The pot­ tery too is much changed. In place of the slender, pear-shaped vessels, often ornamented with human faces, we find large bulging, wide-mouthed vessels with roughened body and smooth, short neck, which are usually covered with bowls instead of stopper lids 3 and also barrel-shaped pots with two large handles; and egg-shaped rough pots with as a rule notched rims. These last two forms may have arisen under

5* 67 Lusatian influence. The accompanying vessels, which now are far more numerous, include very frequently handled mugs and cups; cylindrical pedestal beakers and dishes with indrawn rims. The accompanying gifts, including the ornaments, now consist predomi­ nantly of iron. Characteristic forms of pins are, besides a few swan-necks, iron pins with hook-shaped neck and head usually hammered out broad and rolled up; spade pins and small disc-guard pins occur less often. Other ornaments include ribbon-shaped belt-clasps with ends turned back on the same side; an open-work clasp from Gogolewo, distr. of Gniew, imitated from a Celtic model; a fibula of Kaulwitz type (Unisław, distr. of Chełmno); and simple iron and bronze bracelets of circular section. Commonly used implements were, further: tanged knives; half-moon-shaped razors; and tweezers with sliding ring, usually of iron; while iron sewing-needles and spindle-whorls were occasionally laid in the graves. No weapons have been found in the graves of the face urn culture during the early stages of the La Tene period.

The Bell Grave Culture A form of grave concentrated in the eastern part of Polish Pomerania and thickly distributed in central Poland, is the bell grave, dating principally from the early, but probably also from the middle La Tene period, and apparently ascribable to a special popu-

68 MAP 3. EARLY IRON AGE CULTURES IN POMERANIA

/ \XS «

^Gdynia

IS* L-J*

1. Pomeranian culture (Hallstatt C period); 2. Face urns (Hallstatt D period); 5. Lusatian culture (Hallstatt G —D periods); 4. Frontiers of the Polish Republic; 5. Frontiers of the Free City of Danzig; 6. Frontiers of Polish voievodeships (provinces); 7. Towns. lation group, probably a blend of the face urn folk and the representatives of the subjugated “Lusatian” culture. The “bell” inverted over the urn is either un­ articulated, egg-shaped, or rather bulgy with a mark­ ed neck, and in the last case is often ornamented at the base of the neck with a notched roll-moulding. The urn shapes correspond fairly closely to those of

69 the face urn culture, whereas Lusatian forms are not seldom to be found among the accompanying vessels: e. g., dishes, flat plates, and a rattle in the shape of a bird (Rzęczkowo, distr. of Toruń). The exclusive occurrence of single-burial graves is also very char­ acteristic. The accompanying gifts consist of glass beads, iron disc pins, spiral coil pins etc.

Origin of the Cist Grave Folk The originators of the face urn culture and of the bell grave culture are regarded by the majority of scholars as Germanic, and accordingly the early stage of the former (the “Pomeranian” culture) is designated by Petersen as early Germanic. Whereas Kossinna ascribed it to the Vandals, latterly Petersen, Tacken­ berg, Richthofen and others, following Niederle, have decided in favour of the Bastarns. However, this con­ ception of the Germanic character of the cultures in question would only be tenable if it could be proved thatthe late bronze age barrow culture of the Cassubian Heights, hitherto generally regarded as a peculiar sub­ group of the “Lusatian”, from which the Pomera­ nian culture developed, is that of a Germanic tribe. But this is rendered unlikely, not only by the character of the pottery, which clearly belongs to the “Lusatian” world, but also by the shapes of the majority of the metal objects laid in the tombs. Now, if the “Po­ meranian” culture and the cist grave culture which

70 developed out of it sprang from Lusatian roots, it must — considering its close relationship to the certainly Baltic barrow culture of East Prussia, from which it can be distinguished only with extreme difficulty — likewise be ascribed to a Baltic race; all the more, that the East Prussian barrow culture arose out of a local sub-group (the Ermland-Mazurian) of the “Lusatian” culture. The Late La Tene Period (150 B. G. — A. D. 1) Finds of the cist grave culture which can with cer­ tainty be dated to the Middle La Tene Period have so far not been made in Pomerania; yet we must suppose that at least some of the representatives of it survived into the late La Tene period; the occurrence of flat stopper lids (at Oksywie, in the coastal district, and at Popowo Toruńskie near Toruń), and the survival of certain ornaments and metal shapes seem to prove it. Nevertheless, the bulk of the population of Pomerania during the late La Tene period w^as composed of another people, which appears here at the beginning of this period and is characterized by the use of ash-pit graves, as well as by divergent ornamental forms. The charac­ teristic form of grave is now urnless, containing the ashes of the dead together with the whole remains of the funeral pyre; but besides these there are also urn graves with the remains of the funeral pyre, and pure urn graves. The metal objects buried with the dead are

71 almost all of iron, and were frequently burned together with the dead, and often ritually spoiled by bending. Whereas the stone cist graves were entirely without weapons, those of the men are now richly furnished with weapons: single- and double-edged swords, spear- and javelin-points, and shield-mountings. In the graves of horsemen are found further a pair of spurs, or a single spur. Typical implements are the scissors which appear for the first time in this period, razors, and tweezers, for men’s graves; of ornaments, only one fibula is laid with the men. Women’s graves on the other hand usually contain two or three fibulae, a girdle-clasp, small, hafted, sickle-shaped knives,spindle whorls, and sewingneedles.

Celtic Influences Many of the objects accompanying the dead reveal a strong influence from the side of the Celtic La Tene culture, and many implements only come into use for the first time under Celtic influence; e. g., the scissors (fig.22,15), files and rasps,buckles, lance-butts (fig. 22,19), and spurs (fig. 22, 8). Celtic models were taken for the double-edged swords, sometimes 1.10 m (5V2 feet) in length, with sheaths made of sheet-iron (fig. 22,18)? and sometimes ornamented, like the Celtic ones, with punched designs; and the single-edged swords with clamps and finished with an iron shape, though un­ known among the Celts of this period, were indirectly derived from the Celtic sword of yataghan type of the

72 two earlier La Tbne periods, probably through the small, single-edged sword of the cist grave culture, known in one instance from Silesia. Celtic influence is also evi­ dent in the spear-heads, especially those with curving edges (fig. 22,14), which are often ornamented with pat­ terns etched out in relief: a technique adopted from the Celtic area. The barbed spear-points too apparently go back to similar Celtic arrow-heads, and the spurs per­ fectly resemble Celtic examples. Of the metal parts of shields, the shield-bosses (fig. 22, 4) are different from the contemporary and older Celtic bosses, but the grips (fig. 22,6) and the mountings of the edge are closely re­ lated to the corresponding Celtic forms. Among the ornaments, numerous fibula shapes are imitated from Celtic types; e. g., the iron fibulae with foot turned back and slender, flat-arched bow; the bronze fibulae with semicircular bow and wide-overlapping foot bent back at an acute angle; the iron fibulae with spherical thickenings on the bow (fig. 22, 5) and the fibulae with semicircular extension of the head; whereas the girdle- clasps — apart from the annular fastenings of the sword-belt — are mostly developments of older local models (fig. 22,13 and 17), or else of contemporary, im­ ported Bornholm types (e. g., the tripartite belt-hooks) (fig. 22,2l). The round buckles, too, which come into fa­ shion for the first time in the late La Tene period, arose under Celtic influence. The implements also show tra­ ces of Celtic influence; e. g., the population of Pomera-

73 18 19 20 Fig. 22. Pottery, implements and ornaments of the late La Tene period. 1—5 cup, vase, so-called “Krause” from Oksywie, coast, distr.; 4, 8, andlO iron shield-boss, spurs and fibula from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; 5 and 9 iron fibula and razor from Nowydwór, distr. of Chełmno; 6—7 iron shield-grip and fibula from Skowarcz, distr. of Danziger Höhe; 11 iron razor from Zuchcino, distr. of Danziger Höhe; 12 and 15 iron fibula and scissors from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; 15—14

74 nia owed to the Celts their knowledge of scissors, of the hammer, of files and rasps, and of the pierced iron axe. Further, a characteristic pot-form, the so-called "Krau­ se”, which is especially frequent in south-west Poland, but also occurs in the Chełmno district (Chełmno and Marusza, distr. of Grudziądz), and even as far as Oksy­ wie, on the coast of the Baltic (fig. 22, 3)? is only an imi­ tation of a metal bucket imported by Celtic traders. Finally, certain forms of ornamentation were adopted from the Celts; e. g., the triangle with indrawn sides within a circle. The relations with Germanic north-west Germany and Denmark were far less close than those with the Celtic area. North-west German models in­ spired, e. g., the triangular middle La Tene fibulae with supporting fold to the spring; the iron middle La Tene fibulae with high bow; the middle La Tene fibulae with square foot; the late La Tene fibulae with obtuse-angled bo w; and the single-hooked belt-clasps. Jutland provided the model for the early crown-like collars at Piekło, distr. of Danziger Höhe; and Bornholm probably for the fibu­ lae with shaped bronze studs. Several points of contact with the large Swedish islands of the Baltic and with the eastern part of the Swedish mainland may also be noted. bronze girdle-clasp and iron spear-head from Skowarcz, distr. of Danziger Höhe; 16 and 20 iron knife and bone spindle-whorl from Chełmno; 17 and 19 iron girdle-clasp and lance-butt from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; 18 iron sword from Bolszewo, coastal distr.; 21 tripartite bronze girdle-clasp from Maciejewo, distr. of Tczew.

75 Origins of the Ash-Pit Grave Culture The appearance of the ash-pit grave culture has hitherto been explained by an immigration from the north, principally from Bornholm, but more recent observations have considerably shaken this supposition. For it has been established that ash-pit graves and urn- graves with the remains of the funeral pyre — contrary to what was formerly supposed — occur in Great-Poland and Polish Pomerania as early as the later bronze age, period IV, that is to say, — much earlier than in Born­ holm, where they appear first in the early La Tene period. Since other characteristic features of the ash-pit grave culture of Pomerania are found in Great-Poland already in thelate bronze age: e.g., the custom of burning the gifts along with the dead, and the bending or break­ ing in pieces of the metal implements with which the grave is furnished; and most of the new implement- forms coming into fashion at this time clearly derive from the south, the relations with Bornholm not being at all close, the possibility exists that we here have to do with an immigration from Great-Poland. THE IMPERIAL ROMAN PERIOD (A. D. 1 — 400) Roman and Roman-Provincial Imports About the beginning of the Christian era the influ­ ence of Celtic culture was replaced by that of the power­ ful Roman-provincial civilization, and accordingly the

76 first four centuries after Christ are designated as the imperial Roman period. Eloquent evidence of this in­ fluence is offered by the frequent occurrence of Roman coins and other imported articles, less objects of daily use than luxury articles: bronze and glass vessels, oc­ casionally also fine earthenware, glass beads, etc. These imported articles doubtless came from Italy, where were famous factories of bronze vessels, especially at Capua, which worked also for export. These Capuan bronze utensils include, e. g., the jug with trefoil shout and artistic handle found at Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz ; a barrel-shaped bucket with movable handle from By- sławek, distr. of Tuchola; and several open pans with circular pierced ends for holding. On the otherhand,the obliquely fluted bronze cauldrons (pi. I) found in Pomerania, and dating from the late imperial period, were made in the Roman province on the Lower Rhine. The glass vessels include an obliquely fluted beaker of the late imperial period, found in a barrow containing a skeleton at Mściszewice, distr. of Kartuzy; the imported earthenware a black varnished vase with two masks, of a Silenus and a Nymph, and the figures of two Roman legionaries for handles, found at Topolno, distr. of Świecie (pi. I); and a bowl of terra sigillata with a Bacchic procession found in the neighbourhood of Danzig. The commonest imports, however, are glass and enamel beads of the most varying forms, mostly dating from the late imperial period, among which

77 mosaic and millefiori glass are the most striking. Fur­ ther worth mentioning are a few Roman-provincial fibulae: e. g., several early fibulae made of one piece only with a supporting plate; a fibula of striking pro­ file from Maciejewo, distr. of Tczew; several Norico- Pannonian fibulae with two rings on the bow; a so- called winged fibula from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; and a disc-fibula with enamel ornamentation from Grudziądz; and finally numerous finds of coins. In spite of their proportionately frequent occurrence, these imported wares were only buried in the richer graves, and formed but a small fraction as compared with the native products; for the Roman and provincial wares, with the exception of the glass and enamel beads, were costly, and therefore accessible only to the richer and socially higher classes. THE EARLY IMPERIAL PERIOD (A. D. 1 — 200) Goths and Gepids At the beginning of the Christian era there appears in Pomerania a new people, immigrating for the most part from the Swedish provinces of Eastern and Western Gotland: namely the Goths and their branch the Gepids,bringing with them a funeral custom unknown here since the early bronze age: that of burying, not burning, the dead. Nevertheless, burning was still prac­ tised by the earlier population, who remained as a sub-

78 jugated lower stratum, and as a matter of fact urn graves are distinctly in the majority, and both methods of burial are almost always met with, here and at this time, in the same cemeteries, so that we can speak of mixed cemeteries. The Goto-Gepidic unburnt burial graves appear first at the mouth of the Vistula, whence they gradually extend eastwards, southwards and west­ wards. In the course of the second century the whole of Pomerania is occupied by the Goths, but in the second half of the century a large part of them have already left this district and migrated to the south of Russia. Far the greater number of skeleton graves are fiat, but on the Cassubian Heights in the second century barrows were raised over unburied bodies (pi. II, 2), or the dead were buried in older barrows. The barrows which have been the most carefully excavated, at Odry in the district of Chojnice, are some 2 m (6 ft. 6 in.) high and 20 m. (6 5 feet) across, and consist of a stout core of stone and an outer stone edging. The bodies were buried at a depth of about 1.70 m (5 ft. 6 in.) below the ground level and covered with several large stones. The same arrange­ ment was observed at the flat-grave cemetery of Gost- kowo-Folsung, distr. of Toruń; whereas at Oksywie in the coastal district the skeletons were sometimes covered, in the Gotlandic way, with a circular stone lining, which perhaps points to a mixture of Gotlandic immigrants. The unburnt burial graves never contain any weapons; and under the influence of the new-

79 comers weapons disappear even from the burnt burial graves of the indigenous population, so that we can say nothing about the forms of weapons in use in Pomerania during the imperial Roman period. Of the whole equip­ ment of a warrior of that time, only the spurs are to a certain extent known to us, since they are found in the graves singly or in pairs. Both the rare rivetted Stuhlsporen adopted from western Germany and the much more frequent buttoned spurs typical of western Poland and eastern Germany were in use. On the other hand the graves are now richly furnished with ornaments, principally fibulae. Forms typical of Pomerania and the neighbouring districts are: the later eye-fibula with side-projection and crest (fig. 25,4), and its latest degeneracy,the so-called common hook-fibula (fig. 23,5)- the fibula with two-lobed semi-cylindrical cap for supporting the spring and a sheath for the chord (fig. 25, 6—7); the later strikingly outlined fibula with supporting plate and spiral spring sheath; and the stepped fibula (fig. 25,8). Sometimes, besides the fibulae, bronze or iron pins with richly outlined heads were used to fasten the dress. The belt was fastened with a bronze or iron buckle, replacing the girdle- clasps usual in the La Tene period. Besides more or less semicircular one-piece buckles (fig. 25, 9)? occasion­ ally fitted with a sheath for the end of the belt, we find also one-piece, circular tongue-plate buckles, of distinct­ ly Pomeranian local shape; as well as rare two-piece

80 buckles with semicircular frame ending in interior spirals, which go back to Roman prototypes. The loose­ hanging end of the belt was usually provided with a metal mounting (fig, 23, 10)- sometimes the belt was ornamented with rectangular metal plates, or composed of several parts connected by bronze links. Armlets in the form of rings or bands were regarded with special liking.The older wire-like rings with ball-ends gradual­ ly develop by broadening, at first the ends and then also the middle, into bands, which are ornamented with a longitudinal row of dots or bosses, hammered circles, or dice pips (fig. 23, n). The most important group are the snake-head armlets, in which the development is likewise from a wire-like original form to a broad band, ending in the semblance of a snake’s head, from which they are named (fig. 23,12). These broad band forms, often of silver, with broad, flat head are especially char­ acteristic of the area we are dealing with. The latest of them, with two turns, always of silver, belong to the later imperial period. At Komorowo, distr. of S wiecie, was found a gold snake-head armlet of Scandinavian type. A rare form is that of the so-called waved armlets, which date from the final stage of the early imperial period. No neck-rings of the first two centuries after Christ have been found in Pomerania. In place of them necklaces of beads and pendants, fastened with bronze and silver hooks (fig. 23,22) at the ends, were worn. Pendants from the end of the early imperial period

XXXVII/6 81 Fig. 23. Pottery, implements and ornaments of the Roman period. 1 and 5 vessel and vase from Mściszewice, distr. of Kartuzy; 2 vessel from Gostkowo-Folsung, distr. of Toruń; 4 bronze eye-fibula from W. Łąck, distr. of Działdowo; 5 bronze book-fibula from Grubno, distr. of Chełmno; 6 and 16 bronze and silver fibulae from Nowydwór. distr. of Chełmno; 7 bronze fibula from Marusza, distr. of Grudziądz: 8 bronze stepped fibula from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; 9, 10 and 17 iron buckle, bronze mounting of a belt and bronze fibula from Oksywie, coastal distr.; 11 bronze armlet from Kleszczewko, distr.

83 include: annular specimens with stud ornamentation3 capsular pendants; spherical or pear-shaped specimens, usually made of precious metal (fig. 23,27)- and a half- moon-shaped filigreed gold pendant from Zelnowo, distr. of Grudziądz. The doubly conical hollow silver beads belong to the same period, as do the flattened spherical and the completely spherical amber beads. Various types of glass and enamel beads begin also to appear at this time, although they become more frequent only in the later imperial period. In the women’s graves we often find bronze sewing needles; bone combs (fig. 23,13) of one or more sections; clay spinning whorls, mostly of double truncated-conical form; sickle-shaped knives; and iron, or more rarely bronze, lock-parts: mountings, springs and keys. The men’s graves often contain straight knives with the tang marked off on both sides, awls, and now and then also iron semicircular or half-moon-shaped razors, and bronze tweezers. of Danziger Höhe; 12 bronze armlet from Wydrzno, distr. of Gru­ dziądz; 15 hone comb from Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew; 14 bronze fibula from Kłanino, coastal distr.; 15 bronze fibula from Gołoty, distr, of Chełmno; 18 pendant from Kuchnia, distr. of Toruń; 19 gold finger­ ring from Komorowo, distr. of Swiecie; 20 and 29 glass bead and silver neck-ring from Grubno, distr. of Chełmno; 21 wreath-like pendant from Rządz, distr. of Grudziądz; 22 silver hook from Odry, distr. of Chojnice; 25—24 bronze belt-mounting and amber bucket trinket from Oksywie, coastal distr.; 25 and 27 iron bucket trinket and gold pendant from Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew; 26 steel for striking fire from Kowalewo, distr. of Wąbrzeźno; 28 enamel bead from Grudziądz. . _

6* 83 The Pomeranian pottery of the early Roman em­ pire is still insufficiently known. The skeleton and also the ash-pit graves usually contain no earthenware $ and in the urn-graves and ash-barrows it is often very ill- preserved. Broad, bowl-shaped vessels are found, with rounded body and scarcely distinguished short neck (fig. 25,1)5 and also taller, rounded, doubly conical vessels with neck sinking inwards, projecting rim, and attached to it 2—5 X-shaped handles (fig. 25,2)3 one- handled, high-shouldered vessels of inverted pear shape (fig. 23,3)? for the most part richly ornamented, with slender, compressed under-part, which survive into the third century; handled jugs (Grubno, distr. of Chełmno) and cups. The most characteristic form of ornamentation consists of alternate smooth and rough­ ened surfaces (vertical stripes, horizontal bands of zig­ zags, triangles, etc.) (fig. 23,2). Most of the vessels have a brown, carelessly glazed surface, but the more richly ornamented are distinguished by a shining black. Many forms of vessels (such as the handled mugs) and of ornamentation (such as the herringbone pattern) seem to be inherited from the cist grave cul­ ture, and so perhaps evidence the survival of a small part of the representatives of this culture into the period of the early Roman empire. In any case it can only be a question here of small remains of this culture, whereas the principal part of the population of Pomer­ ania were probably descendants of the ash-pit grave folk which had come in in the late La Tene period and now lived under the domination of the Goths or Gepids. From accounts given by the Greek geogra­ pher Ptolemy, it appears probable that this subjugated people were the Slavonic Venedi i. e., Wends.

THE LATER IMPERIAL PERIOD (A. D. 200 — 400) In the later Roman period the number of grave- finds in Pomerania begins so to decrease that we are compelled to assume a fresh emigration of the Scan­ dinavian immigrants, this time principally Gepids, who pass up the Vistula and the Bug to the upper Dniestr, and thence penetrate over the Carpathians into Transylvania. The peculiar burial custom, forbid­ ding the laying of weapons with the dead, persists, so that we know again only the spurs of the warriors. There are compact stud-spurs with low heel-piece and tetragonal or faceted spike3 and also stud-spurs with spike marked off. From Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew, come two later, imported stud spurs with four rivets and silver inlaid work. The most noteworthy orna­ ments are the fibulae, among which the two-piece cross­ bow specimens with foot turned under and wrapped round the bow are the commonest (fig. 25,14—15). They arose in imitation of south Russian one-piece fibulae with chord outside the spring, and often have a rec­ tangularly bent bow, which is sometimes also faceted;

85 later they were enriched by the addition of a head- stud and two studs at the ends of the spring axis, as well as by several, maybe silver, rings of pearled wire (fig. 25, 16). Peculiar local forms are cross-bow fibulae with foot turned under with spiral extension of coiled wire, and cross-bow fibulae with high catch (fig. 25,17). Out of these cross-bow fibulae with foot turned under, develop others, in which the bow is cast in one piece. The buckles of the late Roman period are either made of one piece, with oval, or rarely rectangular frame, or of two pieces, with semicircular, rectangularly rounded or sharply rectangular frames. The late-imperial metal belt-mountings are flat, considerably broadened, and either pierced or provided with a disc at the end (fig. 25, 25). The latest forms of snake-head armlets with double spiral turn have so far not been found in Pomerania, but there are a few thin wire-like silver neck-rings with their ends bent back into a hook and loop and then coiled round the ring; and a gold twisted collar with rudiments of a similar arrangement and a capsular clasp, found at Dorotowo, distr. of Sępolno. Besides collars, necklaces were also in use, made of diverse imported glass or enamel beads (fig. 25,28)? the blue or violet imported cubo-octahedral ones (fig. 25, 20) from south Russia being especially char­ acteristic of this stage; amber beads of varying shape; figure-of-eight amber pendants; bronze, iron or amber bucket trinkets (fig. 25, 24 - 25)* wreath-

86 like pendants (fig. 25, 2i). and the so-called bound pendants (cowries or beads bound round with bands of bronze sheet, fig. 25, 18). The women’s graves contain among other implements combs consisting of two handle-pieces in the form of segments of a circle, or rather of triangles, more or less richly ornamented, and a toothed centre-piece of several sections, all held together by bronze or iron rivets. The tweezers often found in the men’s graves of this period are usually provided with a slide-ring and sometimes paired with an ear-spoon. The only spear-head dating from the late imperial period, was found (together with a steel for striking fire, fig. 25, 26? and an awl) in a burnt burial grave at Kowalewo. The pottery of this period is likewise very insuffi­ ciently known. In addition to vessels with almost spheri­ cal body and three handles attached to the rim (Odry, distr. of Chojnice), we meet with the high-shouldered, one-handled vessels already familiar from the early imperial period 5 and bowl-shaped drinking-cups with tall, often obliquely fluted pedestal (Mściszewice, distr. of Kartuzy), which vividly remind us of similar, late bronze age vessels of the Lusatian culture$ and in the ornamentation also we can perceive a revival of typically Lusatian forms. On the other hand, many implement forms clearly show south Russian in­ fluences, introduced, in all probability, through the mediation of the Goths who had migrated to the

87 northern shores of the Black Sea and there had been strongly influenced by the Graeco-Roman culture. This south Russian cultural stream is especially illustrated by the fibulae with foot turned under and wrapped round the bow, the cubo-octahedral and many other glass beads$ the tripartite combs 5 and the silver and gold collars with coiled back wire ends.

Sites Sites of the imperial period in Pomerania are few. In especial, no ground-plan of a house has yet been examined. Nevertheless, from the occurrence in the neighbouring districts (e. g., at Weisshof, Kreis Marien werder) of wattle-and-daub houses of this period sup­ ported by posts and having a veranda, we may con­ clude that this form of house, with the entrance at the end, which goes back to the Lusatian culture, was known also in Pomerania.

THE PERIOD OF THE GREAT MIGRATIONS (A. D. 400 — 600) Only a few finds have been made in Pomerania from the period of the Migrations. The most impor­ tant grave find is the rich skeleton grave of a woman at Pruszcz (Praust), near Danzig, which contained three clay pots (fig. 24,1 and 6)-a bronze star-foot fibula covered with silver leaf of East Prussian type (fig. 24,4)* a tripartite comb (fig. 24,3)- a bronze knife 5 a bronze

88 sewing-needle$ an oval silver buckle (fig. 24, 5) • bronze and iron bucket-mountings (fig. 24, 2) and three im­ ported Roman-provincial vessels, viz. a glass beaker, a glass bottle, and a bronze dish with projecting, trans­ versely-fluted rim. A second star-foot fibula was found

Fig. 24. Antiquities of the Migration period from Pruszcz (Praust), distr. of Danziger Höhe. 1 and 6 clay pots; 2 wooden bucket with iron mountings; 5 tripartite bone comb; 4 bronze star-foot fibula covered with silver leaf of East Prussian type; 5 oval silver buckle. at Skowarcz (Schönwarling) near Danzig, where also an animal’s head fibula turned up, representing a type especially characteristic of the Mazurian district of East Prussia. While these fibulae are clear evidence of relations with East Prussia, then inhabited by Old- Prussian tribes, the silver buckle and the comb are nearly related to parallel specimens from south Russia

89 and suggest a back-migration of a portion of the south Russian Goths. Another find, made at Kiełpin (Kölpin) near Danzig, and dating from the first half of the fifth century, contained imported Roman glass and enamel beads$ native bronze beads and silver orna­ ments 5 and two cast-silver fibulae covered with gold- leaf of Scandinavian type, and accordingly gives evi­ dence of relations with Scandinavia. Contrasted with this hoard, however, are others which contained ex­ clusively Roman and Byzantine gold coins, and like the graves were concentrated at the mouth of the Vistula. The largest hoard, that of Mrzezino in the coastal district, yielded 150 solidi,• in addition to which a few smaller finds of coins and several scat­ tered finds may be mentioned. The hoard of Rado­ stowo, distr. of Tczew, buried at the end of the fifth century, contained 22 coins, a gold bar, and an incised ornamental disc of silver. In spite of the limited number of finds, however, we are unable to share the opinion that Pomerania was substantially uninhabited during the Migration period, for the soil of Pomerania has yielded almost no finds from the following three cen­ turies (A. D. 600—900), and yet this area was quite certainly inhabited at that time by the ancestors of the present Slavonic population. Moreover, a whole series of phenomena characteristic of the material and intellectual culture of the early historical period con­ nect — in spite of the supposed gap — with analogous

90 ones of the late Roman period and still earlier, there­ by proving that at least a part of the older popula­ tion survived into the early historical period: e. g., the early Slavonic doubly-conical clay pots (fig. 27, 1-2), which connect with related forms from the later Roman and the Great Migration period (Pruszcz — Praust, fig. 24, 1 and 6)- and further, the verandaed house and certain grave forms. The lack of finds in Pomerania from the period of the Migrations and the first part of the early historical period is probably to be ex­ plained by a careless form of burial, exposed to easy destruction: perhaps ash-layer graves such as occur at Lenzen, Kreis Elbing, and at Ciążeń, distr. of Słupca, in Great-Poland; and perhaps also by the poverty or complete absence of accompanying gifts, which may have been due to the impoverishment of the older population by centuries of Scandinavian oppression. With the departure of the ruling stratum ceased also the commercial intercourse they had maintained with the Roman provinces, which had been for them a source not only of wealth but of much technical and ar­ tistic inspiration. The exhausted and impoverished population of Pomerania who remained behind no longer had anything to offer the southern mer­ chants, and the unrest of the Migration period to­ gether with the fall of the Western Empire put a final end to these commercial relations. The long separation of Pomerania and the neighbouring Western

91 Slavonic area from the vivifying influences of the south and east was fateful for these districts. To the same degree as the late La Tene and the Roman periods were highly favourable conjunctures for western Poland and eastern Germany, the period of the Mi­ grations and the first centuries of the early historic period were unfavourable. In place of the hitherto swift change in the form of implements, there is now an almost complete stagnation of development, so that it was possible for e. g., many ceramic forms to persist unchanged from the later Roman period through that of the Great Migrations into the tenth century. This fact together with the absence of imported objects naturally renders the dating very difficult, and is prob­ ably the reason for our having in Pomerania no quite certainly dated Slavonic finds from the three first centuries of the early historical period, although there are plenty of considerations making such a dating in many cases very probable.

THE EARLY HISTORICAL PERIOD (A, D. 600 — 1000) Certainly dated finds only appear in Pomerania again in the tenth century, towards the end of the early historical period, in which this area had a pure Slavonic population. The heathen custom of burning the dead now gives way to that of burial. In the Chełmno district inhabited by the Polish tribe of the

92 MAP 4. EARLY HISTORIC EARTHWORKS (FORTIFIED CAMPS) IN POMERANIA

^Gdynia

• •• •,

jrudziadzJ

• Fortified camps. Cuyavians cemeteries of flat graves are customary as they had been in the earlier periods, the dead being usually buried side by side in rows (row cemeteries)} whereas the Pomeranians on the Cassubian Heights continued to raise round and long barrows of earth and stones, which frequently contained several bodies (as many as 12 in one barrow). The only cremation cemetery of the early historical period was discovered at Pruszcz (Praust) near Danzig, and contained about 20 ash-pit graves about 1 m in diameter and 25—50

93 cm in depth, which most unfortunately were not scientifically examined.

The Chełmno District The flat graves of the Chełmno group are richly provided with accompanying gifts, female ornaments being especially frequent. On either or both sides of the head hung attached to a band or a strip of leather temple-rings, generally of bronze, sometimes of silver, rarely of lead, the national ornament of the Slavonic woman. Besides the older forms with ends cut off straight or more often rolled up, the commonest have an S-shaped eye-fastening. A form which probably arose in the Chełmno district is hollow and made out of an ornamented band of silver (fig. 25, l). Round their necks the women wore chains of beads (fig. 25, 15 and 17), made of glass, amber, enamel, silver, lead, clay, agate, fluor spar, rock crystal, and cornelian, as well as various pendants. The silver, clay, lead and amber beads are of native origin, the remainder im­ ported. Imported pierced cowry shells were used for pendants (Gruczno, distr. of Swiecie), as were foxes’ teeth (Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno); and also hollow bronze pendants of eastern type, generally spherical, more rarely oval or doubly conical (fig. 25, H—12); bronze chain-pendants; cruciform and other pendants of amber (fig. 25,10); simple lead pendants; and occasion­ ally beautiful fili greed ones of silver. Finger-rings

94 Fig. 25. Ornaments of the early historic period. 1—2 from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno: 1 hollow temple-ring of silver, 2 bronze finger-ring; 5 silver armlet with stamped ornamentation from Łążyn, distr. of Lubawa; 4 bronze finger-ring from Gruczno, distr. of Świecie; 5 and 6 fragments of silver ear-rings from Puck, coastal distr.; 7 necklace plaited of several double wires from Strzeczona, distr. of Człuchów; 8 cast silver ear-ring from Bierzgłowo, distr. of Toruń; 9 silver ear-ring from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno; 10—11 amber and bronze pendants from Gruczno, distr. of Swiecie; 12 bronze pendant from Kosakowo, coastal distr; 15, 15 and 17 from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno: 15 silver pendant; 15 and 17 glass beads; 14 silver collar-clasps from Łążyn, distr. of Lubawa; 16 bronze buckle.

95 were much in favour, usually of bronze, exceptionally of silver or glass, and are found even in men’s graves. Sometimes they are simple wire rings, but the ma­ jority are narrow bronze bands, variously ornamented and often broadening in the middle into a circular or oval bezel (fig. 25,4). Rather rarely we meet with finger-rings with coloured stones inset 5 or bronze rings composed of two or three wires twisted together (fig. 25, 2); or rings obliquely grooved in imitation of twisting, probably imported from the south-east; as, most probably, were the few glass finger-rings found in the Chełmno district (Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno, and Gruczno, distr. of Świecie). The wire and band-shaped rings were apparently produced in the country itself, being distributed only in Cuyavia and the Chełmno district. The rare bronze armlets with snake’s-head ends are probably of east Baltic origin. Besides these articles we find in women’s graves spinning-whorls (fig. 26,7), most often of double-cone shape; bronze and iron sew­ ing needles; and small, straight iron knives, often stuck in bronze-studded leather sheaths. In men’s graveslarge iron knives (fig. 26,8) form the most frequent accom­ panying gift, and besides we find whetstones, rectan­ gular or rather oval steels for striking fire (fig. 26, n), wooden buckets with iron handle and hoops, and occas­ ionally also spurs (fig. 26,6) and weapons (battle-axes, fig. 26, l,lance- fig.26,9and arrow-heads, fig. 26,5).The dead of both sexes were further provided with clay pots.

96 The Cassubian and Danzig Groups On the west bank of the Vistula we can distinguish a western group with barrow-graves on the Cassubian Heights, and an eastern group at the mouth of the Vistula and in the neighbourhood of Danzig with

Fig. 26. Weapons and tools of the early historic period. 1 iron battle-axe from Grębocin, distr. of Toruń; 2 two-edged iron sword from Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew; 5 Easter-egg of enameled clay from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno; 4 bone comb from Jedwabno, distr. of Toruń; 5 iron arrow-head from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno; 6 iron spur from Papowo, distr. of Toruń; 7—8 from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno; 7 spinning whorl; 8 iron knife; 9 iron lance-head from Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew; 10 bronze-studded leather sheath from Grucz- no, distr. of Świecie; 11 oval steel for making fire from Chmielno, distr. of Kartuzy; 12 bronze chape from Dąbrowa, distr. of Chojnice. flat graves similar to those of the Chełmno group. Among the former, accompanying objects are but sparely laid with the dead: in the men’s graves we find usually only an iron knife in a bronze-studded leather sheath (fig. 26,10), with an occasional whetstone,

XXXV1I/7 97 Steel for striking fire, bronze buckle, awl, or spurs. The women’s graves usually contain temple-rings, and ex­ ceptionally also a fewbeads or a spinning-whorl. Never­ theless, richly furnished graves also occur: e. g., a girl’s grave at Unieradze in the district of Kartuzy con­ tained 8 temple-rings, a necklet made of two bronze wires twisted together like a cord, a chain of beads, two finger-rings, and a large amber-drop serving to hold together the (very well preserved) tress of hair. The Vistula mouth group not only shows more richly furnished graves, but is distinguished from the Cas- subian also by the occurrence of Old-Prussian and Scandinavian imported objects. Thus, e. g., at Pruszcz (Praust) near Danzig a bronze horse-shoe fibula was found, and at Bąkowo in the same district a temple­ ring with a little bronze bell imported from the east Baltic region; at Kosakowo in the coastal district double-cone-shaped bronze pendants; and at Opalenie, distr. of Gniew, a spiral necklet of east Baltic type plaited of three silver wires. Imported Viking wares include a bronze chape of Swedish type from Oksywie in the coastal district, and perhaps two bronze bowls from Stefanowo and Łętowice in the same district. There is also the Viking grave of Ciepłe, distr. of Gniew, which will be discussed more fully below. The richer furnishing of the graves and the admixture of Viking and east Baltic forms is explained by the situation at the mouth of the Vistula, bordering upon

98 the Old-Prussian tribes and offering lively commercial intercourse with Scandinavia. Notwithstanding the differences, both groups probably belonged to the same east Pomeranian population. Hacked-sil ver Finds The district at the mouth of the Vistula is, further, especially rich in treasure finds, the so-called hacked- silver finds, consisting of delicate filigree ornaments, silver bars, and at first (until about 950) Arabian, later occidental coins. Most of the objects are hacked into small pieces, a practice connected wdth the pre­ vailing custom of payment by weight. At Łaszyn and Radzyń in the district of Grudziądz bronze scales for weighing silver were found, and at Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno, and Pętkowice in the coastal district, bronze weights. The silver bars and finds of coins probably reached Pomerania indirectly, through the hands of the Scandinavians, whereas the greater part of the filigree ornaments found with them, long erroneously regarded as oriental imports, must now, after the in­ vestigations of Jakimowicz, be recognized as native products^ they show local forms to which we can find no analogies in the Orient. Especially the greater part of the ear-rings and hollow beads must be the work of native Slavonic silver-smiths. They are of great variety, the ear-rings including specimens with three hollow beads affixed (fig. 25, 5)- others with three

7* 99 hollow cylinders soldered together (fig. 25, 6)- others with semicircular under-part, from which depend several small chains with metal plates at the end; and cast imitations of filigreed models (fig. 25, 8); while the most numerous of the silver beads are spherical, or oval, often ornamented with prominent soldered studs. Native craftsmen certainly made the wallet-shaped pendants, often ornamented with horses’ heads; the elliptical collar-clasps with stamped orna­ mentation (fig. 25, 14) • and probably also the necklets plaited of several double wires, with similarly orna­ mented elliptical flattened ends (fig. 25,7). On the other hand, we cannot yet be certain of the origin of the half-moon-shaped pendants ornamented with hollow bosses (fig. 25, 15), nor of the disc-shaped ones. The former possibly came from the Orient, the latter from Scandinavia. Other noteworthy silver ornaments of outside origin are: necklets plaited of two wires with animal’s head ends from Dąbrowa, distr. of Sępolno (from the east Baltic); and a few armlets with ends cut off straight and stamped ornamentation (fig. 25, 3), from Łążyn, distr. of Lubawa (perhaps from the same area). The native silver ornaments are evidence of a high degree of skill among the Slavonic silversmiths, while the imported silver objects and the coins testify to active commercial relations with the neighbouring districts and with Scandinavia. The custom of burying treasures in time of peril is so common to mankind and

100 so wide-spread both in time and space that it is sur­ prising some scholars should have had the idea of find­ ing it characteristically Germanic (Seger, Langenheim). It is enough to mention that buried treasures from the period in question occur in different countries where

Fig. 27. Pottery of the early historic period. 1 and 2 double-conical clay pots from Stężyca, distr. of Kartuzy and Oksywie, coastal district; 5—6 pottery made on the potter’s wheel: 3 from Dąbrowa, distr. of Chojnice, 4 from Jedwabno, distr. of Toruń, 5 from Lubiszewo, distr. of Tczew, 6 from Kalbuda (Kahlbude) near Danzig; 7, 8 and 9 potters’ marks: 7 from Wujeścisko (Wonneberg), near Danzig, 8 from Kałdus, distr. of Chełmno, 9 from Kałbuda (Kahlbude), near Danzig.

Viking influence is quite excluded: e. g., in Bohemia, and again in Turkestan and south-west Asia general­ ly r and that even during the World War not only valuables but also stores of food were similarly buried on a great scale. Finally it should be remembered that even in Scandinavia only a part of the treasure finds,

101 either of the Viking or of earlier periods, were intend­ ed as provision for the next life, far the greater num­ ber having been buried for safety in times of unrest.

Forts In times of danger the population took refuge in the numerous forts which were built preponderatingly in this period. The sure choice of sites which were suited by nature for defence, and the skilful adapta­ tion of the fortifications to the terrain draw the sin­ cere admiration of every observer. These earthworks were laid out sometimes in low, wet ground, on islands or peninsulas shut off by rampart and fosse; sometimes on inaccessible eminences in the midst of marshes and waters, which were isolated by ditches and pro­ tected by raised mounds of earth. The forts on low ground are mostly round or oval; those on hill-tops have round or oval (the so-called Contour Forts), or sometimes semicircular, ground-plan, and often consist of the fort proper and the fore-court. (In contrast to the circular banks, the conical hill-forts were devised only in the late Middle Ages). W e have unfortunately no accurate information as to the construction of the earthworks, as so far none have been scientifically investigated in Pomerania. Probably the defences con­ sisted originally of parapets of earth revetted with timber, such as have frequently been traced in the neighbouring districts. The lake dwellings also whose

102 existence has been established in Pomerania probably served in part as places of refuge. In addition, a large number of undefended sites have been traced, some­ times quite near to the forts. To judge by the results of excavations at Zgniłka, distr. of Wyrzysk, the exist­ ence of the wattle-and-daub house supported by post in Pomerania in the early historical period is certain. In the oldest forts and settlements we find pottery made by hand, most often of doubly-conical shape with comb-ornamentation (fig. 27,1—2). In later settlements there was pottery of more rounded shapes partly or completely made on the potter’s wheel (fig. 27,3—6). The bottoms of these vessels often bear potters’marks (fig. 27,7, 8 and 9). The most common ornamental mo­ tives of the early historic period are wavy lines (fig. 27, 2, 4 and 5).

Stone Figures A certain light on the religious beliefs of the an­ cient population is thrown by the remarkable stone figures existing principally in the districts of Rosen­ berg (Susz) and Stuhm (Sztum), that is to say, in the Old-Prussian area; though one has been found at Leźno (Leesen) near Danzig. They represent men, sometimes with a sword at their side, and often also with a drinking-cup in their hand. Similar stone fig­ ures occur frequently as grave-stones as far afield as Mongolia, and the Pomeranian specimens are probably

103 to be regarded as a western branch of this group of monuments. The Vikings Finally we have to consider certain finds which are characteristically nordic: namely the well-known richly furnished warrior’s grave of Ciepłe in the dis­ trict of Gniew, and a few objects of Scandinavian origin found isolatedly or in Slavonic graves, which belong either certainly or in all probability to the Viking culture. The above-mentioned Viking grave, the only certain one in Pomerania, contained a two- edged iron sword (fig. 26, 2), the grip and guard of which are ornamented with inlaid work in silver and copper; an iron lance-point; two iron stirrups with inlaid work; an iron bridle-bit and several iron stud- dings for leather, similarly ornamented; and finally fragments of a collapsible bronze balance and nine iron weights covered with bronze-leaf. Other sites have yielded two bronze chapes (Oksywie in the coastal di­ strict and Dąbrowo in the district of Chojnice, fig. 26,12)* an iron sword (Złotorja, near Toruń); some spear- points with inlaid blade (Grudziądz), or wdth wings attached below the blade (Belno, distr. of S wiecie); several axes with edge extended downwards (Zagórze, in the coastal district, Lake Krąg near Konarzyny, distr. of Kościerzyna, Grębocin, distr. of Toruń, (fig. 26, l);and several bronze bowls. On the other hand, the nordic origin of the spurs overlaid with silver-leaf found at

104 Łętowice in the coastal district and at Unieradze in the district of Kartuzy is not quite certain, as unornamented spurs of perfectly corresponding forms occur fairly often in the Slavonic area. The remains of ships, again, found at Rumia and Chylonia, are probably quite indepen­ dent of the Vikings and are to be ascribed to the Po­ meranians, inasmuch as they have no typically Viking features, and navigation was as is well known highly developed among the Baltic Slavs also. These finds, and the occurrence of a few probably Viking place- names on the Polish coast of the Baltic (Hel, Jastarnia, Oksywie), justify the supposition that the coast of Po­ lish Pomerania, like others, was raided by the Vikings, who occasionally may have penetrated deeper inland, as the Viking grave of Ciepłe shows. There can scarcely, however, have been an actual settlement, still less can the Vikings have ruled the country for a time, as Langenheim supposes. The great rarity of certainly Viking graves, and the complete absence of nordic female ornaments (e. g., tortoise shell fibulae, ring fi­ bulae), as well as the absence of Viking sites in Po­ merania make such a supposition quite untenable.