Hydrogeology of the Chinle Wash Watershed, Navajo Nation Arizona, Utah and New Mexico

Home , Bluff Formation, Chinle Valley, Chuska Sandstone, Kayenta Formation

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/191379 HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE CHINLE WASH WATERSHED, NAVAJO NATION, ARIZONA, UTAH AND NEW MEXICO

Raymond J. Roessel

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE WITH A MAJOR IN HYDROLOGY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1994 2

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED:

APPROVAL BY THESIS CO-DIRECTORS This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

4 Charles Kreitler DATE Professor of Hydrology

, s y 0 1,/a1,,;(4r 1. \)676q(1 V/Prill'gq Don Davis DATE Professor of Hydrology 3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Navajo Nation Department of Water Resources Management (NNDWRM) provided support for this study. Special thanks to Teresa Showa, NNDWRM Director and her staff. I am very grateful to my thesis committee co-directors, Charles Kreitler and Don Davis. Dr. Kreitler provided numerous ideas, critical review and genuine interest during the development of this study. Dr. Don Davis continued with support and understanding.

And of course, extraordinary thanks to my parents for their undying love and support. Their lifelong devotion to helping the Navajo people provided the inspiration and basis for my conducting research on the Navajo Nation. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 7

LIST OF TABLES 10

ABSTRACT 11

1. INTRODUCTION 12

Background 12 Purpose and Scope 14

Previous Investigations 15

Method of Study 19

2. DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 24

Location 24

Climate 24

Physiography 26

3. GEOLOGY 30

Introduction 30

Stratigraphy 30

Supai Formation 30

De Chelly Sandstone 33

Chinle Formation 35

Glen Canyon Group 38

Wingate Sandstone 38 5

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Kayenta Formation 39

Navajo Sandstone 40

San Rafael Group 41

Morrison Formation 42

Dakota Sandstone 43

Chuska Sandstone 44

Quaternary Deposits 44

Geologic History 45

Structural Geology 46

4. HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING 50

Groundwater 50 Ground-water Quality 57 Surface Water 58 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 61

Regional Ground-water Movement 61

C-Aquifer 62

N-Aquifer 62

Hydraulic Properties of the Aquifers 64

Ground-water Geochemistry 83 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Spatial Distribution of Ground- water Geochemistry 85

C-Aquifer 85

N-Aquifer 99 Trilinear Diagrams 100

Ground-water Usage 106 Water Budget 110 Recharge 111 Discharge 113 Future Ground-water Usage 115 Ground-water Management 116 6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 119 Recommendations 126

APPENDIX A. C-AQUIFER DATA 130 APPENDIX B. N-AQUIFER DATA 143 APPENDIX C. ALLUVIAL AQUIFER DATA 156 LIST OF REFERENCES 162 7

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1 Map of Chinle Wash Watershed 13

FIGURE 2 Map of Physiographic Regions Within the Navajo Nation 27

FIGURE 3 Generalized Geologic Map, Navajo Nation 31 FIGURE 4 Generalized Stratigraphic Column, Chinle Wash Watershed 32 FIGURE 5 Generalized East-West Cross Section, Chinle Wash Watershed 48

FIGURE 6 Geologic Structural Features, Navajo Nation 49 FIGURE 7 Contour Map Depicting the Elevation of the Top of C-Aquifer 52 FIGURE 8 Contour Map Depicting the Elevation of the Top of N-Aquifer 53 FIGURE 9 Schematic Diagram Showing Influence Monoclines have on Groundwater 55

FIGURE 10 Semi-log Plot of Drawdown Data for Well 8T-544 69 FIGURE 11 Log-log Plot of Drawdown Data for Well 8T-544 71 FIGURE 12 Semi-log Plot of Drawdown Data for Well 10T-242A 73 FIGURE 13 Semi-log Plot of Recovery Data for Well 10T-242A 74

FIGURE 14 Log-log Plot of Drawdown Data for Well 08-609 75 8

FIGURE 15 Semi-log Plot of Drawdown Data for Well 08-609 77 FIGURE 16 Semi-log Plot of Recovery Data for Well 08-609 78 FIGURE 17 Spatial Distribution of Transmissivity Values for the N-Aquifer 80 FIGURE 18 Spatial Distribution of Transmissivity Values for C-Aquifer 82 FIGURE 19 Spatial Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells 86 FIGURE 20 Spatial Distribution of Bicarbonate (mg/l)for C-Aquifer Wells 87 FIGURE 21 Spatial Distribution of Calcium (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells 88 FIGURE 22 Spatial Distribution of Sodium + Potassium (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells 89

FIGURE 23 Spatial Distribution of Sulfate (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells 90 FIGURE 24 Spatial Distribution of Na:Ca ratio for C-Aquifer Wells 91

FIGURE 25 Spatial Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells 92

FIGURE 26 Spatial Distribution of Bicarbonate (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells 93 FIGURE 27 Spatial Distribution of Calcium (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells 94 FIGURE 28 Spatial Distribution of Sodium + Potassium (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells 95

FIGURE 29 Spatial Distribution of Sulfate (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells 96

FIGURE 30 Spatial Distribution of Na:Ca Ratio for N-Aquifer Wells 97 9

FIGURE 31 Piper Diagram for C-Aquifer Wells 102

FIGURE 32 Piper Diagram for N-Aquifer Wells 103

FIGURE 33 Piper Diagram for Alluvial Wells 104 10

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 Transmissivity (gpd/ft) values from C-Aquifer pumping tests results 76

TABLE 2 Transmissivity (gpd/ft) values from N-Aquifer pumping tests results 79 TABLE 3 Summary statistics of pH and major ion concentrations (mg/1) for major aquifer units in the Chinle Wash Watershed 84 TABLE 4 Total production from municipal sources located within the study area for 1990 106 TABLE 5 NTUA water production by aquifer for study area, 1989 109 11

ABSTRACT

A general hydrogeological study of the Chinle Wash Watershed is presented. Field collection of water chemistry and water level data is used in addition to historical data to further define and characterize the ground-water conditions of the study area. Computer-generated maps depicting the ground-water conditions of the major aquifers are presented. Ground water occurs in two major regional multiple aquifer systems and locally in the alluvium along the major drainages of the area. The N-aquifer yields the greatest amount of ground water. Water quality tends to decrease along the flow path. Domestic and municipal water use are the primary usage of the ground water. The most heavily utilized aquifer regionally is the N-aquifer system. The alluvium near Chinle is used extensively where it is hydraulically connected to the underlying C-aquifer. 12

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Background The Chinle Wash watershed study area (Figure 1) is located in the central portion of the Navajo Indian reservation in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah. It is one of the larger watersheds located entirely within the Navajo reservation, and encompasses approximately 4000 square miles. The study area is a sub-basin of the San Juan River Basin which is part of the Upper Colorado River Basin. The area has two of the most important and heavily utilized aquifer systems within the reservation. The N-aquifer system is comprised of Jurassic-Triassic sedimentary rocks including the Navajo sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, and the Wingate sandstone. The C-aquifer system is comprised of Triassic and Permian sedimentary rocks including the Shinarump conglomerate of the Chinle Formation, De Chelly sandstone, and the Supai

Formation. Existing and potential sources of ground water within the reservation need to be accurately identified and evaluated. The reservation's population continues to Figure 1. Chinle Wash Watershed 14 increase above the national average. With the increased population comes additional demand for water for livestock, farming and hopefully industrial development. Also with the increasing importance of Indian water rights, this study will provide the Navajo Nation with an analysis of its ground-water resources located within a basin that will most likely be adjudicated in the future.

Purpose and Scope The purpose of this study is to address the need for a determination of the ground-water conditions within the Chinle Wash watershed. This information can be used for future planning of the area and/or for the quantification of the ground-water resources to be used in future water rights issues. This study also can contribute as a single source of information for the water wells located within the Chinle watershed. It compiles past water well information with current unpublished information which can be used as a reference for future ground-water studies of the area. This is important on the reservation where much initial effort is needed just to compile a complete listing of all wells and their accurate locations. Although several studies have overlapped into the study area, none have focused on the watershed's ground-water resources as a complete hydrologic system. The study focuses on the primary aquifer systems within the watershed, the C- and 15

N-aquifer and the alluvium. Other minor or local aquifers are discussed where appropriate, but are not the central interest of the thesis. The ground-water flow and the geochemistry of the major aquifer systems are discussed. This study is not meant to be an in-depth analysis of the aquifer characteristics or on the geochemistry of the aquifers, but rather a general description of these factors and how they are interrelated within the watershed. This approach was taken due to the vast size of the watershed and its complex hydrologic conditions. Published and unpublished data were the primary source for determining and evaluating the geologic, hydrologic, and water quality conditions of the region. Field data were collected as time and resources allowed. Field data collection were targeted for areas where there were limited previously-collected information.

Previous Investigations

Several generalized studies have been written on the geology and hydrology of the Navajo Indian Reservation. Most of these studies have been sponsored in part by the

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS), and the Navajo Nation. They usually study the whole reservation which is approximately 25,000 square miles and therefore are very general in nature due to the 16 large areal extent of the reservation and the scarcity of data. The first significant study of the reservation's water resources and geology was conducted by Gregory (1916, 1917). He provided the basic geologic framework of the region and conducted a hydrologic reconnaissance of the area. In 1946 the USGS in cooperation with the BIA began an investigation of the geology and water resources of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations. This work resulted in a four-part data report from the Arizona State Land Department. Part I consisted of a compilation of wells and springs (Davis and others, 1963). Part II contained the results of selected chemical analyses from the wells and springs that were sampled (Kister and Hatchett, 1963). Part III contained selected drillers' logs, lithologic logs, and stratigraphic sections (Cooley and others, 1964). Part IV consisted of maps showing the locations of the wells and springs (Cooley and others, 1963). The Arizona Land Department's data report provided the basis for the most significant and comprehensive interpretive study of the reservations' ground-water resources (Cooley and others, 1969). This work described the stratigraphy, areal geology, aquifer characteristics of the various geologic formations, and provided a 1:125,000 scale geologic map of the region. The field inventory and 17

data collection was completed in 1961. It resulted in over 2,700 ground water supplies being described and more than 1,300 water samples being collected from selected sources. The data collected during this time continues to provide the basis for subsequent studies of the region. McGavock and Edmonds (1974) created a series of maps depicting the availability of ground water for irrigation, municipal, or industrial use for the reservation. These maps are very general and are more suited to an administrative review of the ground-water resources. Levings and Farrar (1977a,b,c,d) prepared a series of maps depicting the ground-water conditions in the Black Mesa and Chinle Valley areas.

Numerous publications have reported on the region's geology and stratigraphy. Recent publications have suggested revisions to stratigraphic nomenclature of Triassic and Jurassic rocks. Stratigraphic nomenclature in earlier works such as Harshbarger and others (1957), Cooley and others (1969), and O'Sullivan (1970) have been revised by more recent works, Dubiel (1989), Peterson (1988), and Condon and Huffman (1988). Some of these revisions are incorporated in this study. The Navajo Nation have sponsored several works in support of current and future water rights issues. These include a seven volume study conducted by Williams Brothers 18

Engineering Company (1976). In cooperation with the BIA, a similar study was done by Morrison-Maierle (1981). Recently, several studies have focused on the adjudicated Little Colorado River Basin (Hydro Geo Chem, 1991) and the use of N-aquifer water for a coal-slurry pipeline in Black

Mesa (Brown and Eychaner 1988). Cooper Consultants (1988) looked at the ground water exploration on the Hopi and Navajo Indian reservations within the Little Colorado River Basin. No studies have concentrated solely on the Chinle Wash Watershed. Several studies have focused on adjacent areas that overlapped into the Chinle Watershed, Hydro Geo Chem (1991), Brown and Eychaner (1988), and Avery (1986) who conducted a study of the bedrock aquifers in the northern part of the study area in southeastern Utah. Other reports have concentrated on a small part of the watershed, Levings and Farrar (1977,a,b,c,d), and Harshbarger and Repenning

(1954) that looked at the water resources in the Chuska Mountains area along the eastern portion of the study area. Two recent studies have looked at the simulation of ground water flow for the Mesozoic (Thomas, 1989) and Paleozoic (Weiss, 1991) rocks in the Four Corners region. These reports were part of the Upper Colorado River Basin Regional Aquifer System Analysis Program. 19

Method of Study- For a regional ground-water study of this nature the identification of water wells located within the study area was the first step. The primary source for the water well information was the Navajo Department of Water Resources

Management (NDWRM). This department maintains a computer data base of most of the water wells located within the reservation. In addition to the wells data base, NDWRM manages a well file room which contains the hard copies (if available) of the chemical analyses, pump test data, drillers and geophysical logs, etc. for the water wells.

A computer search of the NDWRM's data base was conducted. A data printout for each well was obtained. The well files for the searched wells were then reviewed to determine if any additional information was available and also to double check the information obtained from the data base. Other data from other sources were also used in this process. This inventory process was done to ensure all pertinent data were found, plus to help update the Navajo tribe's water wells data base. Other sources of data were the Navajo Tribal Utility Authority, the Indian Health Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Navajo Department of Water Development, and the Navajo Environmental Protection Administration. 20

As time and resources allowed field verification of the individual wells were conducted. The field verification included the following steps. The location of the well was done either by locating it on a 1:24,000 scale topographic map or by using a Global Positioning System (GPS) device. This was necessary to ensure accurate locations were obtained. This is important considering much of the reservation is not surveyed and the location data on file is usually general in nature. The well status and any site improvements were also recorded. Water samples were obtained from wells which met certain criteria: 1) No previous water chemistry analysis

on file, 2) ease of access for sample, 3) and well located in area lacking sufficient water chemistry data. All wells targeted for sampling were livestock wells, either windmills, shallow hand pump wells, or flowing artesian wells, because criteria number one usually precluded municipal or domestic wells. Due to limited time, expanse of the area, and limited resources, only 12 samples were obtained. Also contributing to the limited number of samples was the fact that even if a well met all the criteria a sample could not be taken if there was no wind blowing at the time of the site visit. This happened often since the majority of the wells visited were windmills. 21

Water samples were collected during the period of July

30, 1992 to August 16, 1992, with the exception of one sample taken July 18, 1991 after a pump test. Field parameters (temperature, specific conductance, and pH) of the ground water were measured at the time of sample collection. Other field parameters such as dissolved oxygen and bicarbonate were not conducted due to lack of necessary equipment.

The windmills were operated for at least 50 minutes prior to sampling to allow discharge of several well volumes. It was assumed that many of the windmills had been operating for longer periods, because at the time of arrival for sampling they were already operating. The pH, temperature, and the specific conductance were periodically monitored until stabilization occurred and at which time a sample was taken. For windmills the access point was the drop pipe at it "drops" into the water tank. The one hand pump which was sampled was pumped for approximately 30 minutes prior to sampling. All samples were immediately placed in ice-packed coolers and transported to the Navajo Tribal Utility Authority's lab in Ft. Defiance, Arizona within 24 hours of sampling. No preservatives were added to the samples as this was NTUA's practice for water analysis. The NTUA lab is a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) certified lab. 22

The water level measurements proved more difficult than anticipated due to the lack of access to the well bore. The measurement of the water level in a windmill can only be accomplished either when a well is being rehabilitated (which is not very often) or more likely when the steel plate cover overlying the surface casing is uplifted by the use of a hoist. Once access was obtained, a water level indicator was lowered into the well bore and readings taken from the top of the casing. The depth to water was corrected to land surface by subtracting the difference between the top of casing and land surface. Due to the difficulty of obtaining measurements, the NDWRM field staff provided most of the new measurements used in this study. One pump test was conducted with the cooperation and assistance of the Navajo Department of Water Development. This was done on a newly completed N-aquifer well. Pump tests were not planned for any existing wells due to the relatively high costs, but newly completed wells were targeted for pump tests. Several pump tests on new wells or recently rehabilitated wells were done within the study area. The author was not personally involved with these tests, but they are included in this report. Several existing test data were located in the tribe's well files. 23

Many of these tests were never fully analyzed and are included in this report. All data compilation and map construction was done on the NDWRM's ARC/INFO Geographic Information System (GIS). The base map used for the geologic and various contour maps was the USGS 1:100,000 series topographic maps. For the geologic map, pertinent formational contacts and structural features were transposed from Cooley and others (1969),

Haynes and Hackman (1978), and O'Sullivan and Beikman

(1963) to the base 1:100,000 topographic maps. The contacts and features were than digitized into the GIS computer system. The geologic map has not yet been finalized and is still in production. It is not included with the thesis, although it was used in draft form to help determine recharge areas, potentiometric surfaces of the aquifers, confined/unconfined areas, top of formation contour maps, and in the creation of geologic cross sections. The contour maps were also digitized off of the

1:100,000 topographic maps. 24

CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA Location

The study area is the Chinle Wash drainage basin and is located in the north-central region of the Navajo Indian Reservation in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah. It drains the eastern and northern slopes of Black Mesa and the western slope of the Defiance Plateau and encompasses approximately 4,000 square miles. Several Navajo communities are within or near the basin boundaries including Kayenta, Rough Rock, Many Farms, Chinle, Mexican Water, and Tsaile.

Climate

The climatic characteristics of the study area vary in relation to the topography and altitude of the region. The area to the west of the Defiance Plateau and Chuska Mountains is largely arid to semiarid. In this area the community of Many Farms lies at an elevation of 5305 feet in the Chinle Valley and receives an average annual precipitation of about 7 inches. Many Farms' average monthly temperatures range from about 29° (F) in January to about 76° (F) in July. At Lukachukai, which is at the base of the Lukachukai Mountains at an elevation of 6520 feet, receives about 11 inches of precipitation per year. The 25 average monthly temperature varies from about 29° (F) in

January to just over 70 0 (F) in July. At Kayenta (elevation 5700 feet) in the western part of the study area, the annual precipitation is about 8 inches.

Kayenta's average monthly temperature ranges from about 30°

(F) in January to about 75° (F) in July. Throughout most of the year it is dry except for late summer when heavy localized thunderstorms are prevalent. The summer precipitation is the result of moist air moving into the area from the Gulf of Mexico causing monsoonal type storms. During the winter, Pacific air masses contribute to more evenly distributed and less intense storms. The winter precipitation contributes more to ground-water recharge than do the summer storms which result in local runoff and flash flooding. The Chuska Mountains and the Defiance Plateau receive greater precipitation than along Chinle Valley due primarily to the increased altitude. The mean annual precipitation in the mountains ranges from 24 to 28 inches (Becker, personal communication). The climatic patterns are similar to the lowlands with just an increased in precipitation and cooler temperatures. The seasonal temperature can range from a winter low of about -30° F to a summer high of about 95° F. 26

The climate of Black Mesa is similar to that of the Defiance Plateau. This is primarily due to the similar altitude. Black Mesa receives about 12 to 16 inches of precipitation per year with slightly higher temperatures than the Defiance Plateau.

Physiography In general the study area is located in the southwestern part of the Colorado Plateau. This region was and continues to be subjected to broad uplift of generally flat-lying Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata. The area is characterized by isolated buttes, mesas, deeply-carved canyons and windswept outcrops of sandstone formations. The Chinle Wash drainage basin is a north-trending broad valley extending from just north of Ganado, Arizona to the San Juan River in Utah. The Chinle Wash is the principle stream in the basin and is underlain by easily eroded Triassic sediments in the southern part of the study area and by the massive Glen Canyon Group in the northern part of the study area. The valley is bounded on the west primarily by Black Mesa and on the east by the Defiance Plateau and the Chuska Mountains (Figure 2). The elevation along Chinle Wash is about 4,000 to 5,000 feet above mean sea level (msl). Black Mesa is a large highland area occupying the structural center of the Black Mesa

MONUMENT COLORADO alb .1 ••• MD VALLEY NEW Nt, MEXICO

WESTERN o >- NAVAJO z •r a UPLANDS WESTERN C., SAN JUAN CHINLE BLACK BASIN VALLE MESA

DEFIAN PLATEAU

PAINTED DESERT

I NAVAJO NATION BOUNDARY

0 10 20 30 40 50

SCALE IN MILES

(ADAPTED FROM COOLEY, ET AL, 1969)

Figure 2. Physiographic Regions Within the Navajo Nation 28 structural basin. It covers about 2,000 square miles and is bounded by cliffs in the north and east as high as 2,000

feet in elevation and 30 miles long. The overall elevation of Black Mesa is over 8,000 feet at its northeast point. The Defiance Plateau is a large oval upland approximately 100 miles long and 40 miles wide. It is a regional anticlinal structure trending north-northwest with elevations exceeding 8,000 feet. The Chuska Mountains consist of a long narrow mesa comprised of thick horizontal sequences of sedimentary strata (Cooley and others, 1969). It is the highest topographic feature in the study area with elevations over 9,000 feet. Comb Ridge, a hogback of Jurassic-Triassic strata, is part of the Eastern Navajo Uplands physiographic region and forms the western boundary in the northern part of the study area. The major tributaries of Chinle Wash along the western boundary include Laguna Creek and Tyende Creek. Laguna Creek primarily drains the outcrop region northwest and west of Kayenta. Tyende Creek and to a lesser extent, Trading Post Wash drain the eastern escarpment of Black Mesa. Major tributaries originating along the eastern boundary include Whiskey Creek, Lukachukai Creek, Tsaile Creek, and Walker Creek. These all drain the Chuska Mountains and the Defiance Plateau. Several of the eastern boundary tributaries carved deep canyons; the most 29

spectacular of these is Canyon de Chelly. Canyon de Chelly is over 600 feet deep and is comprised primarily of De

Chelly Sandstone. Vegetation varies with elevation and the associated precipitation regimes. The changes in vegetation generally correspond to elevation changes and the associated factors like slope, precipitation, outcropping sedimentary units, soils, and exposure (Anderson, 1958). In the lower regions, the major vegetation communities include grasslands. desert-scrub, greasewood, sagebrush and some pinyon-juniper. Phyreatophytes such as cottonwood, tamarisk, and willow grow in areas of springs, seeps, and shallow ground water as well as along ephemeral stream channels throughout the study area. In the higher regions like on top of the Chuska Mountains or on the Defiance Plateau, the major plants include ponderosa pine, greasewood, and Douglas fir. Along the lower regions of the Defiance Plateau pinyon-juniper is a dominant vegetation type. 30

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGY

Introduction

The study area is located in the southwestern part of

the Colorado Plateau physiographic province. The area is

underlain by sedimentary rocks which range in age from Cambrian to Tertiary, although Permian and younger rocks

are exposed in the majority of the area. Figure 3 is a generalized surface geology map of the Navajo Nation. Rocks of Precambrian age underlie the sedimentary strata at deeper depths and outcrop south and southeast of the study area. Quaternary unconsolidated deposits cover much of the

region's land surface especially along the major drainages and mountain slopes. Folding and fracturing of the sedimentary strata is common in the area; faulting is less

common.

Stratigraphy

Supai Formation The Supai Formation is the oldest Paleozoic strata that outcrops in the study area (Figure 4). It is exposed in the deeper reaches of Canyon de Chelly and to the east of the study area, near Bonito Canyon and Buell Park. The

Supai consists of alternating sandstone and siltstone o A 32

Figure 4. GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN, CHINLE WASH WATERSHED I

Quarter - Quaternary Primarily alluvial and terrace deposits along Chinle nary Wash, Laguna Creek, and Tyende Creek. Chiefly sand, Deposits gravel with thicknesses less than 200 feet. C) silt, and H 0 Present only in the Chuska Mountains. Chiefly N Tertiary Chuska C) Sandstone sandstone with thicknesses less than 1000 feet. Z Fluvial and eolian origin sandstone interbedded with ril siltstone, bentonite and ash beds. C._) northern part of the Creta - Dakota Caps mesas and buttes in the Sandstone study area. Chiefly sandstone and siltstone, less ceous than 100 feet. Morrison Formation consists of alternating sandstone and Formation siltstone members near Sweetwater and along edge of Black Mesa. 200-600 feet thick. Cow Intertonguing sandstone in the northern part of the Springs/ study area and along Black Mesa. thicknesses 100-200 —1o ft. V) Bluff SS U) as Wanakah Formerly the Summerville Formation. Siltstone with Formation some sandstone. Thicknesses vary between 100-200 ft. b Entrada Sandstone with some siltstone. Thickness 50-350 ft. Sandstone Sandstone is of eolian origin. Carmel Predominantly siltstone and mudstone with some sandstone beds. Thickness less than 300 ft. Forms Formation upper confining bed of the N multiple-aquifer system. Navajo Fine-grained sandstone of eolian origin. Thickness varies between 0 and over 1000 feet throughout the C) Sandstone study area. Is not present on the Defiance Plateau. i--1 of the N multiple-aquifer system. C) chief aquifer N Kayenta Only the sandstone facies is present in the study 0 area. Less than 200 ft. in thickness. M U Formation Cil -H Z m Upper member is massive eolian sandstone; lower member m Wingate al Sandstone is predominantly siltstone. Thickness is usually less -H than 700 ft. Greater areal distribution than Navajo P Ei sandstone. Chinle Thick sequence (1500 ft.) of alternating shaly units and sandstone beds. Basal member, the Shinarump, is a Formation sandstone with some conglomerate. The shaly units, excluding the Shinarump, form the confining bed between the N and C multiple-aquifer systems. The Shinarump is considered the top of C-aquifer in the area. Moenkopi Present in only the western part of the study area. Siltstone and some sandstone with thicknesses less Formation than 200 feet. sandstone present throughout the study C.) De Chelly Massive eolian H area either at depth in the western and northern parts C) Permian Sandstone or as outcrop on the Defiance Plateau. Thickness N varies between 300-800 ft. C) W Pennsyl - Supai Chiefly silty sandstone. Maximum thickness within the vanian study area is about 600 ft. Outcrops in the deeper Formation reaches of Canyon de Chelly. 33 units. It is primarily reddish-brown to reddish-orange in color. Calcareous materials make up the cementing material. Limestone beds are scattered throughout the siltstone unit. The Supai is about 595 feet thick near Nazlini in the southern part of the study area and at least 242 feet thick near Canyon de Chelly (Irwin and others, 1971). In the Defiance Plateau the Supai is the basal Permian unit and unconformably rests on highly fractured and weathered granite and metamorphosed rocks. The base of the Supai apparently becomes younger to the west. This indicates a westward migration of the depositional environment (Havenor and Pye, 1958). De Chelly Sandstone The De Chelly Sandstone is of eolian origin with massive crossbedding and conformably overlies the Supai Formation. It outcrops in the Defiance Plateau region chiefly in the Canyon de Chelly area, its type locality. The De Chelly has a maximum thickness of 743 feet at Canyon de Chelly and thins in all directions. The De Chelly is divided into two members which can be identified by their crossbedding. The lower member consists of asymmetrical trough and planar types of crossbedding. The cross beds are medium to high angle and medium to large scale (Irwin and others, 1971). This lower unit is comprised of reddish-orange, fairly sorted fine- to medium grained 34 sandstone and flat bedded siltstone. It is cemented with calcareous material. Within the study area, the lower member is present only in the Canyon de Chelly area. The lower member and part of the upper member are the lateral equivalents of the Supai. The contact between the De

Chelly and Supai ranges in thickness from 25 to 100 feet (Irwin and others, 1971). At Canyon de Chelly the lower member is 235 feet thick. The upper member consists of crossbeds of the wedge and trough types. The crossbeds are high angle and very large scale (Irwin and others, 1971). This unit is a grayish-reddish orange, fairly to well-sorted sandstone. The cementing material varies from calcareous, ferruginous, and siliceous in nature. The upper member extends through the Defiance Plateau region. The maximum thickness of the upper member is 503 feet at Canyon del Muerto. In the northern part of the study area the De Chelly Sandstone is defined as the De Chelly Sandstone Member of the Cutler Formation. It does not outcrop in this area except to the west in the Monument Valley area where it forms the spectacular buttes and mesas for which Monument Valley is famous. It consists of fine to medium subangular poorly sorted quartz grains. The cementing materials are primarily calcareous and ferruginous. Just south of Comb Ridge it has a reported maximum thickness of 550 feet. 35

Chinle Formation

The Chinle Formation is the most widely extensive deposit in the study area. It underlies the entire study area and outcrops in much of the south-central part of the study area. The Triassic Chinle Formation is a thick sequence of mudstone and siltstone layers with several thin sandstone and limestone beds forming prominent ledges or capping buttes and mesas (Repenning and others, 1969). It consists of in ascending order, the Shinarump, Monitor Butte, Petrified Forest, and the Owl Rock Members. Throughout most of the Navajo Indian Reservation a major unconformity marks the boundary between the Triassic and Permian strata. The erosion occurred from Late Permian time until the deposition of the Moenkopi Formation in Early and Middle Triassic time. The Chinle is underlain by the Triassic Moenkopi Formation in the western part of the study area. In the rest of the study area the Moenkopi was either eroded away or never deposited. Where the Moenkopi is absent the Chinle Formation overlies the De Chelly Sandstone. The boundary between the uppermost Triassic rocks and the overlying Jurassic strata is less conspicuous. Gregory (1917) divided the Chinle into the basal Shinarump Member plus four divisions labeled D, C, B, A , in ascending order. Over the years several reports have called Division 36

A the Rock Point Member of the Jurassic Wingate Sandstone south of Monument Valley. Recently, Dubiel (1989) suggests the Rock Point Member should be considered part of the Chinle Formation. Based on his sedimentologic and stratigraphic study conducted near Round Rock, Arizona, he found the comparison of depositional environments indicate a closer affinity of the Rock Point to the Chinle than to the Wingate. For the purpose of this study, the Rock Point Member will be considered a part of the Wingate Sandstone. Each of the members of the Chinle Formation will be described briefly. The Shinarump Member is a blanket deposit of firmly cemented sandstone and conglomerate. It consists of lenticular crossbedded units of sandstone, conglomerate, and mudstone. Throughout the reservation the thickness ranges between 25 and 100 feet with an average thickness of 80 feet (Repenning and others, 1969). In the Defiance Plateau the thickness is usually greater than 80 feet although irregularities of the basal contact and intertonguing with overlying members make exact boundary determinations difficult. The Shinarump increases in thickness towards the east. At Chinle it is about 50 feet thick, at Lukachukai it is about 170 feet thick. The Monitor Butte Member in the Defiance Plateau region consists primarily of red mudstone weakly bonded 37 with calcareous cement. It also contains discontinuous sandstone and limestone lenses. The Petrified Forest Member is a thick sequence of mudstone and siltstone which erode into colorful badlands and low buttes. The Sonsela Sandstone bed separates the Petrified Forest Member into an upper and lower part. The upper part is generally thicker and contains more resistant siltstone and therefore erodes into more prominent buttes. It is about 400 to 500 feet in thickness in the northern part of the Defiance Plateau. The lower part is comprised mostly of mudstone containing varying amounts of tuffaceous siltstone and sandstone. Generally, the lower part is between 200 and 300 feet thick because of intertonguing with the Monitor Butte Member. The Owl Rock Member is comprised of interbedded limestone and calcareous siltstone. The resistant limestone beds form many thin ledges in the central part of the study area. The limestone is grayish-blue and contains chert nodules and mud pellets. The limestone beds are 1-20 feet thick. The siltstone beds are lenticular in shape, light orange in color, and bonded with calcareous cement. Impure limy zones and calcareous nodules are common in the siltstone. The thickness of the Owl Rock Member vary considerably because of the intertonguing nature of its contacts with some of the overlying deposits (Repenning and 38 others, 1969). It is approximately 300 feet thick at Chinle, Arizona. Glen Canyon Group The name Glen Canyon Group applies to in ascending order, the Wingate Sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, and the Navajo Sandstone. The Glen Canyon Group lies between the Triassic Chinle Formation and the Carmel Formation which is of Middle and Late Jurassic age (Imlay, 1952).

Harshbarger and others (1957) suggests the Glen Canyon Group be assigned to both the Triassic and Jurassic systems. Wingate Sandstone For the purpose of this study the lower boundary of the Wingate proposed by Harshbarger and others (1957) will be used. Therefore, the Wingate is considered to have two members, the lower Rock Point Member and the upper Lukachukai Member. The Rock Point Member outcrops in the central part of the study area and extends north of the study area. It consists of a thick sequence of silty sandstone and siltstone. It erodes into fairly uniform ledgy slopes beneath the vertical cliffs of the Lukachukai Member. The Rock Point Member conformably overlies the

Chinle Formation with no apparent break in deposition. It is 263 feet thick at Lukachukai, 130 feet thick on Tyende Mesa north of Kayenta, and 344 feet thick at Rock Point. 39

The Lukachukai Member has a larger areal distribution than the Rock Point Member. It outcrops in the central part and western boundary of the study area. The Lukachukai Member is a pale reddish-brown fine-to very fine-grained massive quartz sandstone. It contains some limestone deposits, but in general has little carbonate (Harshbarger and others, 1957). The predominant clay is smectite, with the remainder illite (Dulaney, 1989). It forms sheer cliffs above the Rock Point Member. Within the study area it is of eolian origin with trough type, high angle, and large scale crossbeds. Near Round Rock it is 479 feet thick and at Rock Point it is 352 feet thick. Kayenta Formation The typical facies, as defined by Harshbarger and others (1957), of the Kayenta Formation is present within the northern half of the study area. It consists of reddish brown-purple fine-grained quartz sandstone interbedded with grayish-red mudstone. The sandstone and mudstone units are lenticular in shape with the sandstone exhibiting trough type, small to medium-scale low angle crossbedding. Clay particles are present in the sandstone unit. It weathers into irregular series of ledges. The Kayenta intertongues with the basal Navajo Sandstone which makes the upper boundary of the formation arbitrary. At 40

Rock Point, near its eastern extent, it is 55 feet thick and near Kayenta it is 144 feet thick. Navajo Sandstone

The Navajo Sandstone is present in the northern and western part of the study area. It is not present on the Defiance Plateau. The Navajo is one of the most conspicuous formations in the region due to its extensive outcrop area and its barren heavily eroded surface which is usually devoid of soil or vegetation. It consists of medium- to fine-grained subrounded quartz grains bonded with weak calcareous cement. The quartz grains make up about 98 percent of the total, with plagioclase feldspar making up a little less than the remaining 2 percent (Harshbarger and others, 1957). Dulaney (1989) found

smectite is the dominant clay fraction, with some illite present. The Navajo sandstone is pale orange to reddish brown in color. It is characterized by the large scale, high angle crossbedding in tabular-planar, wedge-planar, or trough-shaped sets generally 20-50 feet thick (Peterson and Pipiringos, 1979). These features are typical of modern sand dunes of the transverse and barchan types. Therefore, the Navajo is considered to be wind blown deposits. There are several lenticular beds of mudstone and cherty limestone or dolomite which comprise about 2-3 percent of the Navajo (Peterson and Pipiringos, 1979). These beds 41

form ledges less than 10 feet thick. The occurrence of the limestone lenses is more abundant in the Navajo sandstone than the Wingate Formation (Baker, Dane and Reeside, 1936). The Navajo is thickest (1400 feet) northwest of the study area. It thins eastward; 1,150 feet thick at Kaibito, Arizona, 950 feet thick at Shonto, Arizona, 478 feet thick at Dennehotso, Arizona, 335 feet thick at Rock Point, and 15 feet thick northwest of Chinle (Harshbarger and others, 1957). The Navajo intertongues with the overlying fluvial Kayenta formation and is unconformably overlain by the Middle and Upper Jurassic Carmel formation. San Rafael Group In the study area the San Rafael Group consists of in ascending order, the Carmel Formation, the Entrada Sandstone, the Summerville Formation, and the Bluff Sandstone. The San Rafael Group is considered to be of Middle and Late Jurassic age. The Carmel is the confining layer for the N-aquifer system. It consists of dark reddish-brown to grayish-red silty shale, siltstone, and gray to brown sandstone. The sandstone of the Carmel consist of approximately 30% soluble carbonate minerals (Hydro Geo Chem, 1989). The Entrada Formation is comprised of white to reddish-brown, fine- to medium-grained well sorted quartz sandstone. In Utah, north of the San Juan

River, the Entrada is considered part of the N-aquifer 42 system. The Summerville Formation contains red, gray, green, and brown, thin evenly bedded sandy shale, siltstone, shale, mudstone, and fine-grained sandstone. The Bluff Sandstone is a light gray to light brown fine- to medium grained well-sorted quartz sandstone. Recently there have been several revisions to stratigraphic nomenclature regarding Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks of the Colorado Plateau (Condon and Huffman, 1988; Peterson, 1988). Condon and Huffman suggest the name Summerville Formation be discontinued and in its place the name Wanakah Formation should be used. They propose the Wanakah has two members, the basal Beclabito which is assigned to the red beds of the previous Summerville Formation and the upper Horse Mesa Member. The Horse Mesa Member is applied to the former lower sandstone unit of the Bluff Formation in the Carrizo Mountains area east of the study area. Morrison Formation The Morrison Formation is comprised of in ascending order, Salt Wash, the Recapture, the Westwater Canyon, and the Brushy Basin Members. The Salt Wash consists of white to reddish-brown fine- to medium-grained sandstone in thick discontinuous beds with interbedded greenish-gray siltstone and mudstone. The Recapture is reddish-gray, white, and brown fine- to medium grained sandstone, interbedded with reddish-gray siltstone and mudstone. The Westwater Canyon 43 member is predominantly yellow to gray lenticular fine- to coarse-grained sandstone with some interbedded shale and mudstone. The Brushy Basin Member is mostly variegated gray, pale green, and red-brown bentonitic mudstone and siltstone. Other recent stratigraphic revisions include the naming of the predominantly mudstone basal unit of the Morrison, the Tidwell Member of the Morrison (Peterson, 1988). Peterson also proposes reducing in rank the Cow Springs Sandstone to a member of the Entrada Sandstone. Dakota Sandstone Within the Navajo reservation the Dakota is characterized by three lithologic types that were deposited in response to changes in the environment marginal to the advancing Cretaceous sea. The lower member is a pale orange medium- to fine-grained sandstone, the middle member is carbonaceous brown-black flat-bedded mudstone and siltstone, coal, and interbedded sandstone lenses, and the upper member consists of alternating thin sandstone ledges and intercalated shaly beds (O'Sullivan and others, 1972). This upper member forms the prominent cliff over much of the north half of the Black Mesa area. Regionally, the Dakota thins southward and southwestward. The only place in which the Dakota exists within the study area is in the northern part of the area near Red Mesa where it caps small buttes and mesas. 44

Chuska Sandstone

The Tertiary Chuska Sandstone is limited exclusively to the top of the Chuska Mountains which form part of the eastern boundary of the study area. It forms the bulk of the mountain above an elevation of 8,000 feet and reaches a maximum thickness of approximately 1,800 feet (Repenning and others, 1958). The Chuska is comprised of a lower and upper part. The lower part is of fluvial origin containing significant amounts of silt and clay with an average thickness of about 250 feet. The upper part contains numerous eolian, very fine- to fine-grained sandstone.

Beds in the upper part contain little cement. The eolian sandstone beds are interbedded with siltstone, bentonite, and ash beds. Quaternary Deposits Quaternary deposits consist of unconsolidated dune sand, colluvium, and alluvium. The primary deposits are alluvial located along the major drainages such as Chinle Wash, Laguna Creek, Tyende Creek, and Lukachukai Wash. The alluvium consists chiefly of sand, silt, and gravel with thickness' usually less than 200 feet, except along Chinle Wash near Chinle where the alluvium is greater than 200 feet in thickness. In the northern part of the study area dune sand covers much of the underlying formations in the region. 45

Geologic History The sedimentary history of the area has resulted primarily from two major geosynclines. The Cordilleran geosyncline to the west of the study area and the Rocky Mountain geosyncline to the east. The Cordilleran lasted throughout the Paleozoic and part of the Triassic. The Rocky Mountain geosyncline was present during Cretaceous time. Two major highlands were elevated during Late Paleozoic and Early Triassic times and were the source for much of the sediments deposited in the study area (Cooley and others, 1969). The Uncompahgre Highlands to the northeast contributed much sediments to late Paleozoic and Triassic rocks such as the Chinle Formation. The Mogollan Highlands to the south formed in Early Triassic time and were a source for much of the Mesozoic rocks like the Glen Canyon Group, the San Rafael Group, and the Morrison Formation (Cooper Consultants, 1988). During Late Triassic and Early Jurassic time the area occupied by the Cordilleran geosyncline was uplifted and a new structural trough, the Rocky Mountain geosyncline, was formed during Cretaceous time (Cooley and others, 1969). During this period, the Mogollan Highlands continued to erode and furnish sediment across the southern Colorado Plateau region. This resulted in coarser Jurassic and 46

Cretaceous sediments nearer the Mogollan Highlands but thicker and finer grained northeastward across the region. Early Cretaceous time was characterized by uplift and erosion of older deposits. During Middle Cretaceous time, seas advanced and retreated from the northeast. The Laramide orogeny from Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time caused the final withdrawal of marine waters and the creation of structural basins of the region. In the study area, most Tertiary sediments have been removed by Late Cenozoic erosion. Several volcanic rocks of the Minette Province are distributed throughout the area as isolated dikes, necks, and dike swarms (Akers and others, 1971). The Quaternary unconsolidated deposits which cover much of the area include extensive dune fields and alluvial, stream terrace and landslide deposits.

Structural Geology

As mentioned previously the deposition of the sediments during Paleozoic and Mesozoic times are the result of major episodes of structural deformation that caused the formation and destruction of the Cordilleran and Rocky Mountain geosynclines. Events resulting in the present structural configuration of the area began in the Late Cretaceous or early Tertiary time. The Laramide Orogeny resulted in deep-seated, high-angle faults which, 47 at the surface, were expressed as monoclines and uplifts (e.g. Defiance Uplift). Figure 5 is a generalized east-west geologic cross-section which shows the broad uplift of the Defiance Plateau. Davis (1975) describes these faults as being Precambrian zones of weakness, which were reactivated as centers of major faulting, monoclinal folding, and centers of structurally controlled emplacement of igneous intrusions. The monoclinal trends are NNW, NE, and NNE with the NNW group being the most dominant. Numerous broad symmetrical and shallow plunging anticlines and synclines are associated with the fault-controlled monoclines and uplifts (Figure 6). These folds are generally subparallel to the uplifts. Surface exposures of faults are uncommon in the study area, occurring only south of the study area near Pine Springs, Arizona. The scattered volcanic fields are also related to the structural history of the area. 48

- trt

co Q) ,--1 •r-4 z

a_ 0

0 0 o o a o o a a o o o a a a o a o o o a co r- co to ..v. CI CNI

aaa J 49 PARADOX

BASIN

UTAH i COLORADO

LEGEND: BOUNDARIES OF UPLIFTS ANTICLINE --1-- SYNCLINE 10 20 30

LACCOLITHIC CENTER MONOCLINE, ARROW SHOWS HILES FAULT DIRECTION OF DIP

Navajo Nation Figure 6. Major structural features, (From Williams Bros., 1976) 50

CHAPTER 4 HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING

Ground Water Most of the ground water is found in Paleozoic and Mesozoic sandstone rocks which underlie the study area or are exposed at the surface. Intervening layers of mudstone, siltstone, and silty sandstone store some ground water, but do not yield water readily to wells due to the generally low permeability of these units. These low permeability units act as confining layers and result in portions of aquifers being confined in certain areas. In addition to sedimentary rocks, Quaternary unconsolidated deposits contribute some usable ground water but only in localized areas. The primary source of ground water within the thesis area comes from two main regional multiple-aquifer systems. The C-aquifer system consists of the Supai Formation, De Chelly Sandstone, and the Shinarump Member of the Chinle Formation. It is present throughout the study area but is utilized only in the southern half of the area where it is either fairly close to or outcrops at land surface (Plate 1). On the Defiance Plateau it is under both unconfined conditions and confined conditions. In the northern half of the study area it is at too great of depth to be economically utilized and is considered to be of low 51

quality. Utilizing existing drillers logs, geophysical logs, and geologic maps, a top-of-aquifer map was created for the C-aquifer (Figure 7). It illustrates the structural top of the C-aquifer generally follows the surface topography. The top of the C-aquifer is generally the Shinarump conglomerate. The N-aquifer system consists of the Wingate Formation, Kayenta Formation, and the Navajo Sandstone. It is present only along the western portion and northern half of the study area where it is under both confined and unconfined conditions (Plate 2). It has been eroded off in the southern part of the study area. Avery (1986) includes the overlying Carmel and Entrada formations as part of the N-aquifer systems in southeastern Utah. For this report, the Carmel and Entrada are not considered part of the N-aquifer system. A top-of-aquifer map was constructed for the N-aquifer (Figure 8). It indicates the top surface of the N-aquifer is much more complex than the C-aquifer. Alluvium occurs along all the major drainages in the thesis area (Plate 3). Some of the major drainages include Laguna Creek, Chinle Wash, Tyende Creek, Lukachukai Wash, and Tsaile Creek. The majority of the alluvial aquifers are localized and of limited extent. In much of the study area the alluvium is hydraulically 52

Figure 7. Elevation of top of C-Aquifer, Chinle Wash Watershed 53

Figure 8. Elevation of top of N-Aquifer, Chinle Wash Watershed 54

connected to the underlying aquifer, especially the N-aquifer.

Several geologic conditions affect the occurrence, movement, availability and quality of the ground water. These include the following:

1. Lithology - Sandstone units are the primary aquifers because sandstone is generally more porous and permeable than other clastic sedimentary deposits. Grain size and sorting of the sand particles have a strong influence on the ability of an aquifer to yield water. Within the thesis area much of the sandstone is fine-grained which results in generally low well yields. 2. Structure - Several monoclines, synclines, and anticlines transect the study area and may alter the direction of ground-water flow or cause variations in saturated thicknesses of the aquifers. Cooley and others (1969) indicate monoclines exert a greater influence on the occurrence of ground water than do anticlines and synclines. They explain the relation of monoclines to ground water as: 1) Water-table conditions may prevail on the upthrown and downthrown sides of the monocline (Figure 9A); 2) the upthrown side is above the water table and the aquifer is dry (Figure 9B); 3) a change from water-table to artesian conditions takes place along a monocline (Figure 9C); and 4) artesian conditions may prevail on both sides 55

Well

EXPLANATION

Water taule

Strata not bearing water Saturated part of strattgraprue unit Part of stratigraphie unit above saturated zone Pteromemc surface

r- -

Figure 9. Schematic diagram showing influence monoclines have on ground water (From Cooley and others, 1969) 56 of a monocline (Figure 9A). In addition, the secondary porosity and permeability may be enhanced in the vicinity of monoclines, synclines, or faults due to fracturing (Cooper Consultants, 1988). Within the study area several regional structural elements contribute to and affect the ground-water system. The Defiance Plateau (anticline) contributes to the recharge of the C-Aquifer system in the eastern portion of the study area. The N-aquifer system is truncated by the Comb Ridge monocline along the northwestern edge of the area. West of Kayenta there is extensive folding of the exposed Glen Canyon Group. Faulting and fracturing associated with the folding may enhance the secondary porosity and permeability of the aquifers. Fracture zones may be associated with important anticlinal structures because they typically create more tension (open) fractures. These fractures may result in deeper water tables due to more rapid drainage. Structural features located down hydrologic gradient may function as dams, building up ground water up dip. Most faults in the study area occur on the Defiance Plateau. The displacements range from 50 to 150 feet (Cooley and others, 1969). The faults are predominantly normal high-angle faults trending between east and north and intersecting the axes of the folds at acute angles. According to Cooley and 57 others (1969) the faults in the region are too isolated and the displacements are too small to exert much control on the ground water. Although there are a few grabens on the Defiance Plateau which may act as traps for the ground water.

Stratigraphy - Lateral stratigraphic conditions can affect the movement, occurrence and ground-water quality. For example, the N-aquifer system has been eroded away in the central portion of the thesis area which results in it not being present on the Defiance Plateau. Less permeable units overlie sandstone units which in many areas results in confined conditions. Near Round Rock, Arizona the artesian pressure is sufficient to cause the C-Aquifer wells in the area to flow at the surface.

Ground Water Quality Ground water quality within the study area is of generally good quality. Most wells yield water acceptable for livestock usage (1000 mg/1 to 10,000 mg/1 total dissolved solids). Obtaining water suitable for domestic usage (< 500 mg/1 total dissolved solids) in sufficient quantity is somewhat more difficult. Cooley and others

(1969) found the total dissolved solids (TDS) are generally lower in well-sorted clean sandstone aquifers of eolian origin such as the Navajo, Wingate, and the De Chelly 58 sandstones than in other aquifers. However, there is a noticeable increase in TDS in the alluvial aquifer. In general, anthropogenic ground-water contamination is not a major problem in the study area.

Surface Water The study area is drained by ephemeral or intermittent streams that generally are perennial in their headwaters. Direct evaporation from the shallow water-table and transpiration by phreatophytes increases downstream in all drainages resulting in no perennial flow in the lower reaches of the streams. The primary stream in the thesis area is Chinle Wash, an ephemeral stream. As Chinle Wash flows through the Chinle Valley it overlies the impermeable Triassic shales and clays of the Chinle formation. In the northern part of the study area it overlies the exposed, barren outcrops of the Navajo Sandstone. The other major streams in the study area are Laguna Creek, Tyende Creek, Whiskey Creek, and

Tsaile Creek. Since 1964 the USGS has operated a continuous stream gage along Chinle Wash near Mexican Water. The mean annual discharge for the period between 1964 and 1989 was 24,050 acre-feet/year. A maximum discharge of 12,000 cubic feet per second was recorded in August, 1982. Several times 59 each year there is no flow. This usually occurs from mid-May to late-July. The greatest flows occur during the spring as a result of snow melt in the Chuska Mountains and the Defiance Plateau and during late summer as a result of the monsoon thunderstorms. The intense summer thunderstorms result in surface runoff and flash flooding. Higher reaches of many drainages are fed for much of the year by snow melt runoff. This is especially true in the Chuska Mountains and Canyon de Chelly. In the lower reaches of the drainages runoff is affected more by precipitation events than snow pack melting. The months with the greatest percent of annual runoff are April and August. The months with the lowest are December and June (Garrett and Gellenbeck, 1991). Diversions have altered the natural flow of several of the larger streams in the study area. Flow has been diverted from Chinle Wash and Wheatfields Creek to provide water for Many Farms Lake and Wheatfields Lake, respectively. Tsaile Lake is an in-stream reservoir on Tsaile Creek. All of the previously mentioned lakes are dam projects built by the federal government primarily for irrigation use. The largest of these lakes is Many Farms Lake. It was built in 1939 with an original capacity of

25,000 acre-feet. The lake provides off-channel storage 60 for irrigation of about 1,600 acres (Boner and others,

1990). 61

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Regional Ground-water Movement

Based on available water level data a potentiometric surface map was constructed for both the C- and the N-Aquifers. Where a well had more than one water level measurement, the most recent measurement was used. Water level data was collected by the Navajo Department of Water Resource Management as part of a continuing effort by the Tribe to assess its water resources. Much of the data were reported values, some dating back to the 1950's. In some instances where there were 1950's data and recent data, the water levels were fairly constant over the years. Due to the relatively low pumpage from the aquifers and the areal extent of the aquifers, it is assumed the potentiometric surface is in steady-state and has been for the past 30 years. Therefore, it should not make much of a difference if old or new water level measurements are used except around major pumping centers like Kayenta or Chinle. Water level data from the Supai Formation, the De

Chelly Sandstone and the Shinarump Member were grouped together for the C-aquifer map. For the N-aquifer map the Wingate Sandstone, the Kayenta Formation, and the Navajo Sandstone were contoured as one unit. 62

C-Aquifer

C-aquifer ground water movement within the study area is predominantly to the west and north from the Defiance Plateau (Plate 1). Generally, the potentiometric surface follows the topography of the area except where it is influenced by Canyon de Chelly and geologic structures like faults, folds and fractures. The hydraulic gradient is steeper along the flanks of the plateau than it is further west or north. The C-aquifer is recharged directly from precipitation on exposed aquifer units along the Defiance Plateau. The Shinarump Member is the dominant outcrop within the study area. Some of the recharge waters leave the C-aquifer system in the form of seeps, springs, surface flows, and as evapotranspiration losses before reaching the regional system. A discharge zone occurs near and in Canyon de Chelly as can be seen by the potentiometric surface map. These discharge waters move west and north of the canyons and are intercepted by Chinle Wash. Plate 1 also indicates the top of the Defiance Plateau is unconfined and the flanks of the plateau is under confined conditions. Unconfined conditions correspond with the outcropping of the C-aquifer and extends south of the study area. N-aquifer The potentiometric surface map for the N-aquifer (Plate 2) is more complex than the C-Aquifer. In general, 63 the contour map suggests ground-water movement is ultimately northward to the San Juan River. Along the western edge of the watershed near Tyende Mesa the N-aquifer flow system splits into two directions. A portion of the ground water moves to the south and southwest under Black Mesa. The major flow component within the study area moves to the southeast initially and eventually east and northeast. Combs Ridge probably functions as a hydrologic barrier to the northwest, causing the northeast flow towards the San Juan River. Near Mexican Water there is an area of depression and may suggest discharge of the aquifer into Chinle Wash. From the contour map it appears portions of Gothic Creek, Walker Creek and Laguna Creek are gaining streams receiving discharge from the Navajo Sandstone. Avery

(1986) states Chinle Wash receives discharge as spring flow from the N-aquifer in the short tributaries on the east side of Chinle Wash. Near Rock Point, the N-aquifer also appears to discharge into Chinle Wash. The primary recharge area for the regional N-aquifer system is northwest of Kayenta (Cooley and others, 1969). Another major recharge area is near Mexican Water where the Navajo Sandstone outcrops at the surface. The recharge is from precipitation, primarily winter precipitation more than the short intense thunderstorms of the summer. 64

The southwest portion of the N-aquifer's areal extent within the study area is under confined conditions. Fine-grained Jurassic sediments overlie the N-aquifer and confine the ground water in this area. Confined conditions also exist northeast of the study area. This region has several synclinal and anticlinal structural features that probably influence the conditions of the ground water

(Figures-6 & 8). The confined areas tend to trend in the same direction (northwest) as the synclines and anticlines. It appears the confined areas are associated with the synclines and the unconfined area between the two confined areas is along an anticline. Flowing well conditions also exist along Gothic Creek south of Bluff, Utah. The Carmel formation or the fine-grained alluvium or both confine the ground water in the underlying Navajo Sandstone (Avery, 1986). Hydraulic Properties of the Aauifers

Aquifer characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, and the storage coefficient can be determined from pumping tests. Tests on wells are conducted primarily for two reasons: 1) to determine the performance characteristics of a well, and 2) determine the hydraulic parameters of the aquifers. Most of the pumping tests performed within the thesis area were to determine well performance rather than the aquifer's hydraulic 65 parameters. As a result some of the test data were not as comprehensive or accurate as is needed for reliable interpretations of the aquifer characteristics. There are two primary types of pumping tests used to evaluate the hydraulic parameters of the aquifers: constant-rate tests and step-drawdown tests. In the constant-rate test, the discharge rate is held constant throughout a relatively long pumping period. In a step-drawdown test the well is pumped at successively greater discharges for relatively short periods. A well responds differently depending on whether the aquifer it penetrates is under confined pressure or at atmospheric pressure (unconfined aquifer). When a well is pumped in a completely confined aquifer the water released comes from the expansion of the water as the pressure in the aquifer is reduced and from the reduction of pore space as the aquifer compacts. In an unconfined aquifer water is derived by the vertical drainage of the water in the pores due to gravity. The methods used in the interpretations of pumping tests are based on the nonequilibrium flow equation for confined aquifers. C.V. Theis (1935) first solved the equation based on the analogy between flow of water in an aquifer and flow of heat in a thermal conductor. The solution that Theis developed is 66

112 4 ho -h = 71-111 - 2,0 3>61 - u 0.5772 ln u + u - 4x411 -

where r2 s u = 4Tt and Q = constant pumping rate h = hydraulic head at time t since pumping began ho = hydraulic head before the start of pumping r = radial distance from the pumping well to the observation well T = aquifer transmissivity S = aquifer storativity

Several assumptions need to be made when using the Theis equation: - water is discharged instantaneously from storage - aquifer is homogenous - aquifer is isotropic - constant aquifer thickness - negligible slope of aquifer - aquifer of infinite extent - well fully penetrate the aquifer Jacob and Cooper (1946) determined that after long pumping periods, higher values of the infinite series became very small, and the nonequilibrium equation could be closely approximately by

,2.3Q , 2.25Tt ho—n = 4,cr log ( —sr2 67

Pumping tests are an important and powerful method for analyzing the hydrogeologic character of an aquifer. A pumping test provides values for some of the terms used in the Theis equation (explained below). These values allow for the calculation of the transmissivity and storage capacity of the aquifer. The values determined from pumping tests are usually more reliable than values obtained from aquifer samples tested in the laboratory. Pump tests give values averaged over a large volume which are better suited for regional aquifer studies. All available pump test data, whether actual measurement data or reported values were collected and compiled. The reported hydraulic parameter sources included Cooley and others (1969), Williams Brothers Engineering (1976), and Hydro Geo Chem (1991). The raw test data which were not previously analyzed or included in the above mentioned reports, were interpreted for this study. As the data allowed, the drawdown data were plotted on log-log and semi-log paper as drawdown vs. time since pumping started (t). And the recovery data were plotted on semi-log as residual drawdown vs. the ratio t/t'. Where t' is the time since pumping stopped. The log-log plot was just used to help determine whether the aquifer system followed the Theis Curve and if unconfined, confined or 68

leaky systems exist. The Cooper-Jacob and residual drawdown recovery methods were used in the analysis, with the residual drawdown method being preferred. All the tests analyzed were single well pump tests and therefore no storativity values could be determined. The graphical solutions used, indicate possible leakage occurs in both the C- and N-aquifer systems. Figure 10 is a semi-log plot of drawdown vs. time since pumping started for N-aquifer well 8T-544. In a confined, nonleaky aquifer the semi-log plot should be a straight line if the previously mentioned assumptions are met. In reality, the complexity of geologic systems prohibit many or all of the assumptions from being satisfied. As a result, the plot of the field data will contain anomalies which introduce uncertainty into the interpretation of the test data. The plot of Figure 10 shows the slope of the line flattens out at around 10 minutes. This indicates the rate of drawdown is decreasing with time. This may suggest a recharge boundary was encountered or the initial water pumped from the well came from casing storage rather than the aquifer. In either case, the early time data is not used in the analysis, since it will result in a transmissivity value which does not accurately represent the aquifer. Eychaner (1983) states there is leakage (recharge) from the overlying D-aquifer into the N-aquifer, 69

,-.

0 0 0

\0 0 0 0

la0 0 o 0

\ 0 0 0 a

C C (u) umopmaki 70 although the percentage (3%) of annual recharge is rather small. Casing storage effects can be potentially significant in relatively large diameter wells and wells with low pumping rates. Schafer (1978) provides the following calculation to estimate the effects of casing storage 0.6(4-4) te = Qls

Where: t, = time, in minutes when casing storage effects become negligible d, = inside diameter of well casing, in inches

dp = outside diameter of pump column, in inches Q/s = specific capacity of the well, in gallons per minute per foot (gpm/ft)of drawdown, at time t,

The log-log plot (Figure 11) of 8T-544 shows a flattening of the Theis curve, again suggesting recharge of some sort to the N-aquifer or casing storage effects. The t, calculated was approximately 350 minutes. Therefore, any portion of the data plot up to approximately 350 minutes into the aquifer test would be potentially affected by water stored in the well casing. The majority of the t, values calculated for the aquifer tests analyzed for this thesis were approximately 200 to 400 minutes. This prohibits the use of the early time data for many drawdown 71

8 0 0

1 0o 0 O 1 0 0 r;0

1 0 0 0 0 0

%0 O O

G .-.

6 I.. 0 C C 0 o 0 1,.. (u) trAtopmricl 72 plots. The transmissivity calculated from the semi-log plot for 8T-544 was 55 Ft 2 /day.

Figure 12 shows possible leakage or casing storage effects of a C-aquifer well (10T-242A), although the discharge rate gradually decreased (from 160 to 120 gpm) over the 24-hour test period. This decline in the rate of drawdown could also be attributed to the decreasing discharge rate. In order to obtain the best estimate for transmissivity, the recovery data was used. The Theis recovery method has the advantage that the rate of recharge Q is constant and equal to the mean rate of discharge Q during pumping (Kruseman and De Ridder, 1983). Therefore differences in the rate of discharge pumping do not occur during recovery. Figure 13 is a plot of residual drawdown (s') and the ratio t/t'. The transmissivity value calculated from the recovery data is approximately 21

Ft 2 /day.

If all the previous assumptions are met the recovery data should plot on a straight line. These assumptions and conditions must be satisfied if the Theis recovery method is to be used. The recovery method is usually the most accurate and can provide a check on the values calculated from the Cooper-Jacob or Theis curve methods. A 24-hour aquifer test on well 08-609 (N-aquifer) was conducted as part of this thesis. Figure 14 shows the 73

o o

o o o

0 0

o o o o o o (,J) untopmeua 74

0 0 0 0 1.1

0 0 0

0 0 0 0

lowl

0 0 o 0 0 o en t‘i (ii) umoPtArICI IrnMsoll 7 5

8 (u) tuttopAtauj 76

log-log plot of the drawdown data. Again there is not a typical Theis curve, but rather a flattening of the curve suggesting a recharge boundary. The semi-log plot of

08-609 (Figure 15) shows a recharge boundary at about 25 minutes after pumping started. The recovery data does not plot on a straight line indicating the required assumptions and conditions were not met (Figure 16). Using the Cooper-Jacob straight line method the transmissivity value calculated was 20 Ft 2 /day.

The minimum, maximum, and the average transmissivity values for the C-Aquifer obtained from Williams Brothers Engineering (1976), Hydro Geo Chem (1991), and from this current study are tabulated in Table 1. The transmissivity values for the N-aquifer is shown in Table 2. All wells are located within or near the study area boundary.

Table 1. C-Aquifer Pumping Test Results Transmissivity (Ft 2 /day)

No. of Data Source Values Minimum Maximum Average Williams Brothers 34 3 214 54 Hydro Geo Chem 2 37 50 44 Thesis 7 19 107 47 TOTAL 43 3 214 48 77

o o o o

o o o

1E2

G 0 0 O O O O O

6 o o o o (u) uAtzIpmma 78

o o o o

0 o o o

a a a a 0 0 0 0

sa 0 •,..., 0 .. a

0 o o 0 .r, untopmvia panmsaN 79

Table 2. N-aquifer Pumping Test Results Transmissivity (Ft 2 /Day)

No. of Data Source Values Minimum Maximum Average Williams Brothers 44 3 804 209 Hydro Geo 2 20 36 28 Chem Thesis 8 17 134 65 TOTAL 54 3 804 101

From Tables 1 and 2 its apparent that the N-aquifer is more transmissive and variable than the C-Aquifer. This correlates well with Cooley and others (1969). From four Navajo Sandstone pump tests, their transmissivity values ranged from 62 to 509 Ft 2 /day. For the C-Aquifer, one pump test for the Shinarump yielded 268 Ft 2 /day transmissivity, and five De Chelly pump tests resulted in a range of 42 to

101 Ft 2 /day transmissivity. N-aquifer transmissivity values are greatest in the outcrop area northwest of Kayenta (Figure 17). There are no distinct trends or zones of increased or decreased transmissivity. Within the study area, the N-aquifer is thickest northwest of Kayenta and this results in the high values of transmissivity in that region. The fact that there are no distinct trends is probably the result of secondary porosity and permeability due to localized 80

•••

41033

•

e #

424

% +MO ftatofil Ern 4160+ t 46000 16°5420

;20 %g ..550 ;6230 .2140 e 41240 f.0760 1i160

1.^-‘

•". I

Figure 17. Spatial Distribution of Transmissivity Values for the N-Aquifer (gnd/ft) 81 structural features such as anticlines, monoclines, synclines, and faults. The N-aquifer also appears to have the largest variability between the two aquifers. For the C-Aquifer the greatest transmissivity values are on the Defiance Plateau (Figure 18). Most likely where the Shinarump Member and the De Chelly Sandstone are both open to the well bore and where the aquifer is at its thickest. To illustrate the highly variable data which results from pump test analysis, reported pump test results from four C-Aquifer wells within a one-and-half mile radius were analyzed. The calculated values ranged from 350

Ft 2 /day to 1600 Ft 2 /day. Structural features probably contribute to this variability, but also the design of the pump test, the duration of the pump test, the type of test analysis used, the well construction, and the person interpreting the data all contribute to this high variability of values. The greatest transmissivity values in the study area are found in alluvial aquifers, usually along the Chinle Wash. Just north of Chinle, Arizona a 24 hour pump test was performed on an alluvial well (10T-500) by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1967. Three observation wells were monitored as well as the pumping well. The transmissivity values ranged from 1,608 Ft 2 /day to 6,700 Ft 2 /day. The Storage coefficient ranged from .0027 to .016. According 82

40,„n•n"N

( 412 k._ mi

C-Aquifer Water Weil 432 4244 Ntraber I ndloara TrantntlativIty Value

t3450600 0,21 :267: 4,1 421 4130

432

tt24

/—

\nA, n 11.'

Figure 18. Spatial Distribution of Transmissivity Values for the C-Aquifer (god/ft) 83 to the driller's log the alluvium was over 200 feet thick.

Again the high variability of the results are primarily due to the geology of the alluvium in the wash. As with most alluvial deposits, bedding is very lenticular, and grain size and sorting may differ significantly within short horizontal distances. Other alluvial wells show similar values. A calculated transmissivity of 1,340 Ft 2 /day was obtained from a 24-hour pump test results for well Chinle

PDC 1, near Chinle. Near Rock Point, approximately 50 miles north of Chinle along Chinle Wash, Williams Brothers

Engineering (1976) calculated a transmissivity of 864

Ft 2 /day. Most of the alluvium is of limited extent and probably cannot provide sufficient amounts of water for a significant pumping period. The only alluvium that is thick enough and could possibly provide adequate water is along Chinle Wash between Chinle and Many Farms.

Ground-water Geochemistry

Geochemical information acquired through the field work and from existing water quality analyses were examined to evaluate the ground-water chemistry in the study area. Twelve samples were collected and analyzed in addition to the existing 148 water chemistry analyses used in this study. The water chemistry analyses for the C-aquifer, the

N-aquifer, and the alluvium are described in Appendices lc, 84

2c, and 3c, respectively. All analyses had cation/anion balance errors of less than 10 percent. Summary statistics of chemical species from the 160

analyses representing the C & N aquifers plus the alluvial aquifer in the study area are shown in Tables 3.

Table 3. Summary statistics of pH and major ion concentrations (mg/1) for major aquifer units in the Chinle watershed, Arizona. Number of samples in parentheses.

C-Aquifer N-aquifer Alluvium (70) (64) (26) Stat. min max mean min max mean min max mean pH 6.61 10.51 7.97 7.21 11.01 8.77 7.6 8.6 7.9 TDS 60 1,390 414 95 5,016 541 277 3,330 854

HC0 - 3 13 529 256 9 456 185 180 590 376

S0 2- 4 0.1 934 108 3 2,380 158 24 891 247

Cl - 3 156 17 0.4 1,361 78 6 1,120 74

Ca 2 * 1 204 56 0.6 186 24 6 187 47 0.3 68 21 0.1 57 7 1 71 17 Na' 1 230 56 0.7 1,467 192 17 1,150 231 I(' 0 24 6 0.4 18 3 ------

S10 2 9 31 13 2 19 14 10 29 18

-Alluvium pH values only from five analyses

Generally wells penetrating the C-aquifer within the study area yield better quality water than either the N or

alluvial aquifers. The mean total dissolved solids content is less in the C-aquifer than the N-aquifer. The N-aquifer displays a wider range of chemical constituents than either the C or the alluvial aquifer. The highest mean total 85 dissolved solids were found in the alluvium. This is consistent with most shallow alluvial aquifer systems in semi-arid regions.

Spatial Distribution of Ground-water Chemistry

Major ion concentrations were plotted on a map of the study area in Figures 19 to 30. These maps were used to interpret the spatial distribution and changes in the ground-water chemistry of the C- and N-aquifers across the study area. No spatial distribution maps were made for the alluvium.

C-Aquifer

The distribution of dissolved solids content appear to follow no clear pattern except for certain areas. In general, TDS values are lower closer to the Defiance

Plateau, the major recharge area within the study area for the C-aquifer. And near the northwestern edge of the Defiance Plateau between Many Farms and Round Rock there are elevated TDS values. The highest TDS values were found in the southwestern part of the study area, further along in the flow path. There was no clear trend in the bicarbonate concentrations except that generally the values tended to

decrease along the flow path. The highest HC0 - 3 concentrations (529 mg/1) occur near Many Farms and Round 8E

N' t. 390 \. 1- 7' 236,4+ y211 .

''-',2-3 -1 ', \ /639 25-5i - -,..‘ + 564 s‘, /68‘0%'..%),, 4104' 590'5, ,,„\______200 I, ,652', ,60 1 461' NV+ 1 -, 286 n I L b, +577 4676+42, \ ,„, _,..... 2,Tv " 522 NVN,+:1.1/56_0Li .Nv ..2.1 . s, ,t.t499 6,+ 6 _ ,,I 13

420 -- ',,-/-1' ,NV

+330 's;)::719 421+1------277,286 228 274,26g,5 , s2, 30 .. i.:,h '-‘- `—_-'--2,--9-23' --'- +280 çi57(4:4-.;-4-7-- --'-3 07 ' ,328

0 10 20 tNV Miles 302 ___40.`" 44 .( , 248/i

INV

Figure 19. Spatial Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells. NV=No value

+250 + 269

/ . n 1 , (k.:328 / / 188 1 192

/' I :',? .,' +)..4-8' • I, ,s .' s + 382\8-46,26'4\ 21‘2*s."'"\ ,„ , I + 405 ,.., / '" .o.33‘6-'•+438 .'"41- ' ,. *.!\---2 68-202 /x 11 +238 1 +249 +3625+1542r‘9‘..,,. 95 260- ,I-, „( \+311 305 / 49 / /,, 1. )3 2,1.3 --3,-,4 2502* 13 1020 + 258--,,-- +3 0 3 0 / 1 231 .23 , . +470 ;3/6:6- - - - — -, 222 4 ,). 390+ 266 11 - . , ,...... 4t ,-----' . n +278 ...... çlErt4I'T8 --- + 181 ,' -' 4,179 +306 , / I / 6 s .6 / / I, +211 ,N....,./ 10 20 \\„. +319/ +225 Miles /

4-3124(1 3/

Figure 20. Spatial Distribution of Bicarbonate (mg/1) for C- Aquifer Wells

30 +65

8 .., ss.N.,422

t»:, • ... 'i-n--... , . 107 ‘, + + 3 ‘...... '"..\ 63, f + 116 '', ----• 19 I 112.... ,55 is '126 _... +66 , ,! --; 496 1°1 + '1'8' 24 \„.74 + 102 69\ / 3.4 / 27 1) 4,• ---‘, s ,t90 +55 +12fr0

- "gt 60 1 - ' 4.6

+35

0 10 20 Miles

Distribution of Fig Ure 2 1 . Spatial Calcium (mg/ 1 ) for C-Aguifer Wells. NV=No Value

•

IS I % +85 +109 • ,• ; '-‘n '..\..N.n • 1 s .

e ....‘....% ....7'Ar/ •''\' I • ..

, \• i I. I ', (s + 85 / 77 • 64 1 + ,'')

n \ \ \+ 35 ‘------/ +28 +2 , s , . s? / 2 3‘0.... "1„ 42 + 1 +51 s,

+77 ' '"17 ' ''s „N 24 n 1 1 +5 9-'1 \ +36 + 15 +272 8 ', ( 'H.50 20 , - t • \+ '' / / 36 21 ' - \, ‘,4-31 +17 ,d,-7-'---+38 35,-1- + #,--"---- _/'\------27 r ---- 23 15 ... f,. +275 +46, n2 0). +17 X + 31 ' \ 28 .' 77+ `,...‘, s ,‘-', 67.---++,4 4+, -‘-'-'-

(ii..02,„4.4,6_3...... ,„...„,__8;„._,,i,67-:....72.3292.,1‘)2‘1 27'

/ l t44 » s 0 10 20 +133/ +33 Miles

Figure 22. Spatial Distribution of Sodium Potassium (mg/1) for C-Aquifer Wells

+220 1094 +235 ,‘ _2 + 278 `,174 * 12 — 3 it +140 ) 12,t *247 126+,,

126f * 101 23 8 t ,111 / 0 ‘,24 +31 r/ , 6

. 84 +57_ 13 +175 + 64 s), , +42

46 ....„---- .-+C"'-C70)31 19 0 '-'------— _------32 --, • ) +38 ( +56 ‘ -- — +50

0 10 20 I Miles - -1+ 934 41'11/ -45

32+ 47/

•-• ,34

Figure 23. Spatial Distribution of Sulfate (mg/1) for C - Aquifer Wells

+2 8 * 1.6

ts,25.5

A +55.1

‘‘

*8.2\

64.4:1 6.4

6.6 œ . 27*. —2 5 — . 67.,. ! +.48 4_2.6 \ ± .92 —,,.44 1- 70+ 38 ‘,+ .67 *.15+ .28 .29 ;34 / / ,• si .,; 13---t. 95 , .3 .31 + • 47:—. 43 • 8 . 7-11—\ .85 .24 ,5 0 -.52 +.33 3.9+ 64

3.2 4*) .4 • 54 .‘

,.81

t.34 0 10 20 „4 .,.. 64 1 Miles .954. ,—"

+ 1.7

Figure 24. Spatial Distribution of Na:Ca ratio for C-Aquifer Wells

NV + 266

+NV 1_341

• 317 224

'171 484 t *118 k I -1-380 537 +396 Nv-s t370 ? "4,6%..9484. t 493 • t 290 n ,••••- .• ••!,Vi • • # -"' .134 267 •

103 NV 188 ,---' .,.. 262 196' 286 / n 202 1- t / NV \ , .1- , f NV 1 NV ' 271 ,

260,' L • 206 ''' +535 : + Af- f.MI , i t389 t283 ,' .-Nv f 238 i NV"- i -ti- i NV, ...„.---. - 788 I. 217 NV NY /1 '14 / 5 * t/- Nv j 343 4. / 400 , 5016.. + ... „ ,,,,,17 425 , t208 1 I 'a43 31” 1 42,760 / b., f ./- i \ / ••,, • e i '

/1 \'‘ ir# ) ,„ ri

---

0 10 20 Miles

\..

Figure 25. Spatial Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids(mg/l)for N-Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value •

+ 11V * 120 +339 477

,..' I Ns teo M . ,

;15:242 \ I k, I -'217 +295 1 261 + 1--, 77 +3 36 . . 9 ;. / ; +65— 7+9 \ \ 255.1%*"1.,11- * *299 • ' 1 at

252 • • • 207 ')

150 / * /" 169 193', 90\ 126 +19,6/' + * ' 1 156 956 168 /s + rt.\ s , + 176 , 211 t +170 +137 - +159 7,4--

; 1.209 +198 ,‘./35 * 301 1 12,8, 237 /4" 8 1.3;4 +k- 329 , 301* 52 / +' 90 +123 '65 251 + 116 08 +79

0 10 20 Miles

Figure 26. Spatial Distribution of B icarbonate (mg/1) for N -Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value 94

'1- +2

+44

• 4 . 20

s 2 ,8 +‘, 2 + 2 26 \ e."*.'N .n•Ol t e • 32 . . +25 I r w .54 32 ‘, 19 26 s t t34, 98 ,

' 11V - .50 ,f 432 f

0 10 20 Miles

Figure 27. Spatial Distribution of Calcium (mg/1) for N-Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value

+67

+165 +131 "Z- 2

+EN +43 + 161

n °-45 196 +8 +148 1-- ± 150 1 '-` ."\IN.361+* + + 120 185 • # 1-s

• n + 12

103 - , 16 r

+119 / s/ t s' i /190 f /144 t--- +107 / 88 1 N.,, ; 148,, 2 3 3 83,+ 61 * 1 93 / +- 68 121+ /Î. 19 / 1-/— 1000‘No • . 141" +66 ;\ 16 + A.1981 2 , N, .• / -:Al:A88 126 1 je • ' '69 +1012 t / n 1/1 4140 I i"\,

• ••5 .-- / /// ) i -

, I I % 1 o ej # ''....-, '--- I ) n-- , -- --- ,, .. ,',, 10 20 ,,,s , ,/ • Miles , • „/"../,... ,N...... r

Figure 28. Spatial Distribution of Sodium + Potassium (mg/1) for N - Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value

+14V t42 +51 +50

+143 116

+12

t +64 116 ,74 1- - f 33 *105 1' , 9+ -3619 4" \NI. .•••^• + n lub • * - 226,/ n‘>,. olt • +23 r 21 36 74 24

. . 7 ''17 13t 114 .-.. t + ' t'' ,179 s '.....4*....N.r. 1 12 r • ,' +.251 r7 F ' A f .'4143 /133 `I 6 ; rn r +426 n ; 21 307 /488 ---- "-- .""- 19 44 1, 10 1+5, 860 r / f , s t S ... ,112 , + nes 48 , , ,\_v 6858 +44 a *-**--50 + 1177 ....1/41 .,2380

10 20 Miles

Figure 29. Spatial Distribution of Sulfate (mg/1) for N - Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value

+0.32

+ 0.01 + 0.02

t2.8 0.02 1- + 0.01

nn•) +0.2

0.01 0.01 + 2.6 # +0 3 ' 1-- - 1- +0.01 # 0 .07 r 0 . 07.16"••.. 0 +03 +CI 01 • ; 3*1 *%.,%mml +1.9 0.29 +0.511

3.9 / 15.2 + 0.01 0.3k 0. 2.2 k t 0.02 t + 1- r0.02 ' ..... -11V ,'l ' 0.06 ,i4-0. 702 +0.28 's / r "-KO . 02 / . 0'030.03 .' ' tO .13 0.01 II + 0 0.10 1 '4- ' '-' 1,-Ô.01 , / r().21 0.05 0.03

0.10 +0.62 's ;N.\ 0 02+ 4-0.13 .... ,,,,..,,,, 0.01 *0.67 i / 1 1 ' -P0T 6 .7 +0.10 +0.06 ,

0 10 20 Miles

Figure 30. Spatial Distribution of Na:Ca ratio for N-Aquifer Wells. NV=No Value 98

Rock in well 10T-520. The lowest HC0 - 3 value (13.0 mg/1) was from 10T-525 in the southern part of the study area. Concentrations of calcium were generally lower to the north and west, further along the flow path. The highest calcium value was from well 10T-520. The lowest value was observed in 11Y-75 in the central part of the study area. Sodium and potassium concentrations were combined in

Figure 21 since some of the older chemical analyses reported these two parameters together. The Na + +K + values tend to increase along the flow path. Potassium contributes usually less than 10 percent of the total Na + +K + concentrations. The increase along the flow path coincide with the decrease in calcium and suggest ion exchange of calcium for sodium. There was a large spatial variation in the concentrations of sulfate throughout the study area. Near Many Farms and Round Rock sulfate values are regionally high. The highest value is from well 10T-530 in the southwestern corner of the study area. The lowest is from

11T-512 near Tsaile.

The ion ratios of Na':Ca 2+ increase in the northern parts of the aquifer. This supports the suggestion that

Na + :Ca 2+ ion exchange is occurring. 99

N-aquifer The dissolved solids content are the highest in the southern part of the N-aquifer's extent in the study area. The highest TDS value (5016 mg/1) was from well 10T-562. The lowest TDS value (95 mg/1) was from 9T-514 near Mexican Water in the northern part of the thesis area. Generally, the highest TDS values correspond to wells which penetrate the confined portion of the N-aquifer. Concentrations of bicarbonate values show no clear spatial trends in the study area. The highest value (456 mg/1) occurred in the outcrop recharge area west of Kayenta. At the same time the lowest value (9 mg/1) also occurred in an outcrop recharge area west of Mexican Water. There are two areas with high values of concentrations of calcium, one in the outcrop area west of Kayenta and the confined area near Rough Rock. Low calcium values are found northeast of the study area and west of Kayenta. Sodium and potassium values were combined in Figure

27. This plot shows the highest Na + +K + values near Rough Rock. There are no clear spatial trends except it appears

Nati-K + concentrations are higher in the confined portions of the aquifer. The highest concentrations of sulfate are found between Rough Rock and Many Farms. Generally, the sulfate values are lower in the northern part of the study area. 100

The lowest value (3 mg/1) was west of Kayenta and the highest value (2380 mg/1) was from the southern extent of the N-aquifer southeast of Kayenta.

The ion ratios of Na':Ca 2+ was generally higher west of

Kayenta in the outcrop area. There was large spatial variability of the Na':Ca 2+ ratio. The ion ratio does not increase along the flow path as one might expect. In fact, the highest values appear to be in outcrop areas which act as recharge zones for the N-aquifer.

The majority of the alluvial wells are located along Chinle Wash. In general, there appears to be an increase in TDS, sodium and sulfate along the Chinle Valley to the north. The highest TDS value is found in 10R-0058, which is located in the southwestern portion of the study area. The lowest TDS concentration is found in 10K-0232, near Chinle. This well is also open to the underlying De Chelly

Sandstone.

Trilinear Diagrams

Trilinear diagrams as developed by Piper (1944) are useful tools in the interpretation of water chemical analyses. The chemical behavior and water types of the aquifers were studied using Piper trilinear diagrams.

Piper diagrams show the relative percentage of ions in units of milliequivalents per liter (meq/l). Figures 31, 101

32, and 33 are trilinear diagrams for ground water in the C-, the N-aquifer, and the alluvial aquifer, respectively. Ground water in the C-aquifer is predominantly a calcium bicarbonate water-type. The Piper diagram displayed a trend toward increasing percent sodium and sulfate. The recharge area of the C-aquifer is primarily a calcium bicarbonate water-type. The geochemistry eventually evolves into a sodium bicarbonate water further from the Defiance Plateau (recharge area). Within the study area the expected subsequent sequence of reactions to sodium sulfate waters occurs minimally and sodium chloride waters do not develop until at great depths near the San Juan River. The sodium sulfate waters that do exist within the study area are in the confined region between Rough Rock and Many Farms. This high sodium and sulfate area is probably the result of local evaporite dissolution. Avery (1986) indicates where the C-aquifer exceeds 2,500 feet in depth near Aneth, Utah, it is a sodium chloride type water. In this area, the aquifer is considered to be a moderately saline to briny water. The N-aquifer trilinear diagram displayed mostly a sodium bicarbonate water-type. Again, sodium sulfate type water was found between Rough Rock and Many Farms along the confined and unconfined boundary. Hydro Geo Chem (1991) suggests the initial geochemical reaction for the N-aquifer 102

100

AvA /WA AVAVA AVAVA80 6C') • A A A 60 so4 Mg AYAVAYAVA AM I I. • 40 AV WAY • 41"Ay • 40 AVAWAVAVA 100 • 2 O AVATAR YAVAVA 80 80 I3 rAVA • 20 AvAVAWAI WAVAVA NAVA PAVA 0 A AM ATM& 100 100 0IVA /VA. • 100 80 60 40 20 O 20 40 60 80 10°0 Ca 0

Figure 31. Piper Diagram for C-Aquifer.Wells 103

100 100 40 c) • 80 AVA C) .20 AVA AVAVA • A80 60 AVAVAVA 40 a I% g a „ Mg AWAYAVA ALTA vA° v s 0 4 40 AWAVAVA • VAT AFA AVAWAVAVA 100 °A157 11.W. Ate° 20 AI STAY Atit FAVA 80 80 AWL% • 20 AVAVAVAVAYAVAVAVA AWAVA A AvAv0 Mgt0 100 100 Am 0 20100 80 60 40 20 0 40 60 80 100

Ca CI

Figure 32. Piper Diagram for N-Aquifer Wells 104

100 AVA ALVA 80• A AVAVA80 60 AVAVAVA AWAVA 60 so4 Mg A AWAYA A 40 • A AWAVA• 40 A6° 100 ATA TO A A TAVATAV A A VAlrAWA80 80AWAVAWAWAVA20 o • 100 100 AVA • loo 80 60 40 ,C) 0 0 20 40 60 80 10°0 Ca Cl

Figure 33. Piper Diagram for Alluvial Wells 105

is calcite dissolution which generates a calcium bicarbonate water. This probably occurs very quickly, since the sodium or bicarbonate concentrations do not change much. The calcite dissolution is followed by

Ca + -Na 2+ and Mg + -Na 2+ ion exchange producing a sodium bicarbonate water. The high sodium sulfate waters between Rough Rock and Many Farms is probably the result of local dissolution of halite and gypsum in the overlying formations. The D-aquifer waters which overlie the N-aquifer in the area is known for high sodium and sulfate concentrations. This mixing of waters could have resulted from poor early well completion methods or from fractures or faults which provided a path of migration. This area consists of numerous folds which may have caused fracturing or may inhibit flow of the ground water resulting in increased dissolved concentrations (Figure 8). The alluvium Piper diagram shows a trend from calcium and magnesium waters to a sodium type water. An increase in sulfate type waters from a bicarbonate type water also appears in the alluvium. There is no distinct regional trend, but in general, concentrations of TDS, sodium, and sulfate tend to increase towards the north. There is no noticeable regional trend for calcium and magnesium. The increase in TDS could be because of evapotranspiration or 106 the evolution of a sodium sulfate or bicarbonate type water.

Ground-water Usage Within the study area the primary ground-water usage is for municipal or domestic purposes. The Navajo Tribal Utility Authority (NTUA) provides the majority of the municipal water service on the reservation. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) operates and maintains their own wells and water systems for several schools, hospitals, agency offices, and associated housing. The tribal Water Operations and Maintenance office also operates several small community water systems. Table 4 shows the approximate water production for all the domestic and municipal usage within the study area for the year 1990.

Table 4. Total Production from Municipal Sources located within the study area for 1990.

Water System Production (Acre-Feet)

NTUAl 1,500

BIA2 800

WOM2 500 Other 200 (churches,private,etc.) 2 TOTAL 3,000

1 /TruA production records 2 Estimated from BOR (1991) & (1992)

The other significant ground-water usage within the study area is for the area's livestock. The majority of 107 the reservation's wells are windmills (with a few flowing wells) which are primarily for livestock usage. Some domestic water hauling from these wells do occur in areas where there is no community water system available. It is difficult to determine the actual amount of water obtained from the livestock wells due to inadequate measurements, sporadic daily and seasonal pumpage, and multiple uses of these wells. The quantity of ground water discharged from livestock wells is only a small percentage of the total amount discharged from all water wells. Brown and Eychaner

(1988) estimated the total annual withdrawal for 98 windmills in the Black Mesa area to be about 23 acre-feet.

Avery (1986) estimated 21 acre-feet per year is discharged from livestock wells from the northern part of the reservation in southeastern Utah. He based his estimate on the distribution of wells for stock, length of time in use, and discharge estimates. In contrast, BOR (1991) estimates

1,500 acre-feet per year is discharged from livestock wells in the upper Colorado river basin area of Arizona. There are several ways to determine the quantity of water used from livestock wells. One is based on per capita consumption and another can be based on estimating the length of pumping periods and the discharge rate. Both have their own inherent errors and limitations and should be viewed only as first approximations. The per well 108 estimate has the advantage of breaking down the usage by aquifers to help determine which aquifer system is more heavily utilized.

From the 1990 census, approximately 30,000 people live within the study area. Using Table 4, the total municipal water usage for 1990 was about 3,000 acre-feet. Using the per capita consumptive rate used by NTUA of 160 gallons per day, results in approximately 16,750 people serviced by some sort of community water system. As a result about

13,250 people receive their domestic water from other sources, most likely livestock wells. BOR (1991) uses a per capita rate of 40 gallons per day for water hauled from livestock wells for domestic purposes. This results in about 600 acre-feet per year for domestic water hauling from livestock wells. This does not take into account actual livestock water usage from these wells. It is impossible to accurately differentiate between domestic water hauling from livestock wells with actual water usage by livestock from the same wells. Another method to estimate water usage from livestock wells is by averaging the discharge rate over a period of time. According to the Navajo Water Development's substation personnel, a windmill on average discharges at a rate of about 3 gallons per minute for 8 hours per 24 hour period. This results in an average annual 109

rate of 1.6 acre-feet per well. The substations are field offices which are responsible for the daily maintenance of the livestock wells and as a result probably know better than anybody how much water is actually discharged from the wells. There are approximately 150 active livestock wells in the study area. Therefore, about 240 acre-feet per year is used for livestock purposes, excluding domestic water hauling, although there is some overlap. About 5% of the area's total ground water pumpage is from the livestock wells. The total quantity of ground water that is discharged from wells in the study area is about 3,848 acre-feet per year.

Another useful approach is to look at the production by aquifer systems. Again the analysis depends on the data available (i.e., production records per well). The best records available are from the NTUA (Table 5).

Table 5. NTUA Water Production by Aquifer for Study Area, 1989. Values in acre-feet per year.

Aquifer Confined Unconfined Total Alluvium 757 757 N-Aquifer 522 108 630 C-Aquifer 122 45 167 Total 644 910 1,554

This analysis shows the distribution of ground-water usage rather than total quantity. The distribution by 110 aquifer is probably similar if the livestock wells and BIA wells were included, with the exception that the quantity from the alluvial wells would be less than the N-aquifer wells because of smaller number of alluvial wells. As can be seen, the N-aquifer is more extensively used than the C-aquifer. Although, most of the alluvial water production is near Chinle where several wells also produce from the C-aquifer, but are listed as alluvial wells. It is also apparent more ground water is pumped from the confined portion of both aquifers than from the unconfined regions.

Water Budget The concept of a water budget is very useful in understanding the hydrologic conditions and in assessing if an aquifer is being over utilized. A water budget of an aquifer accounts for all inflows, outflows, and changes in ground-water storage. If inflows generally equal outflows, the aquifer system is considered to be in equilibrium or steady state. Due to the areal extent of the C- and N-aquifers, these multiple aquifer systems can be considered to be in steady state. Locally, transient conditions may exist, but the aquifer systems as a whole are in steady state. For this study, several components of the water budget were difficult to calculate without the use and application of a mathematical computer model. The development of a computer model was beyond the scope of 111 this study. Instead, a discussion of the major components of the water budget and how they apply to the C- and N-aquifer systems is presented. Recharge

Rainfall and snowmelt recharge the aquifer systems where they are exposed at the surface. An approximation of the natural recharge can be made with the existing data for both the C- and N-aquifers. The outcrop area for the C-aquifer within the study are is approximately 450 square miles. A value of 3 percent of the precipitation was assumed to become recharge. This value is similar to previous investigations in the area (Brown & Eychaner, 1988 and Avery, 1986). Average annual precipitation for the area was estimated to be 12 inches. Therefore, the estimated average annual recharge to the C-aquifer within the study area was 9,000 acre-feet. For the N-aquifer, the outcrop area that contributes recharge to the study area is approximately 1,300 square miles. Again, recharge was assumed to be 3 percent of the average annual precipitation. The average annual precipitation was estimated to be 8 inches. Approximately 17,000 acre feet was calculated to be natural recharge to the N-aquifer within the study area. Other recharge to the N-aquifer occur as underf low into the study area and as leakage from adjoining confining 112

beds. Underf low from the Black Mesa basin which borders the study area to the south can be estimated using Darcy's Law.

Q = 0.061KIA where

Q = discharge, in cubic feet per second; 0.061 = net factor to convert all units to feet and seconds; K = hydraulic conductivity; I = hydraulic gradient, in feet per mile; A = cross-sectional area through which flow occurs, in square miles; If using the following values from field estimates: K =.47 ft/day, I = 50 ft/mile, A = 7 square miles, Q = 10 cubic feet per second (7,250 acre-feet/yr). Approximately, 7,250 acre-feet/yr of N-aquifer water enters the study area from the Black Mesa Basin. Recharge of the C-aquifer is primarily from direct precipitation along the Defiance Plateau. These recharge waters flow west and north within the study area. Some of the water is discharged into Chinle Wash. Leakage from the overlying D-aquifer occurs in the N-aquifer. Eychaner (1983) estimated leakage from the D-aquifer to be about 200 acre-feet/yr. Some leakage may 113

occur in the C-aquifer, but it is probably much less than what occurs in the N-aquifer. Discharge As previously discussed, the greatest discharge from the aquifers is pumpage of ground water from wells. In comparing the previous production values with the recharge values, it is apparent that the C- and N-aquifers are not being over stressed at the present time. It should be noted this comparison does not incorporate the pumpage from the N-aquifer within the Black Mesa basin. The use of the N-aquifer for coal mining/transportation purposes has been an issue of debate and several studies. In general, the studies have shown the that the N-aquifer is not being adversely impacted by the mining activity. At present, the current production of both the C- and the N-aquifer systems is a small percentage of the total recharge to the system. In the future, the greatest impacts on the aquifer systems will most likely be from the continued growth of the area's main communities such as Kayenta, Chinle, Tsaile, and Rough Rock. A component of the water budget is evapotranspiration (ET) which occurs along drainages where the water table is near the ground surface. Direct evaporation from the shallow water table and transpiration by phreatophytes occur along the major drainages of the study area. ET 114

decreases with increasing depth to ground water. The

primary regions for the occurrence of ET are along Chinle Wash, Tyende Creek, and Laguna Creek. An estimate of ET was not attempted. Brown and Eychaner (1987) estimated the ET for the N-aquifer in the Black Mesa region to be 5.1 ft/yr (6,600 acre-feet/year). Avery (1986) assumed the evapotranspiration rate to be zero. The N-aquifer also discharges as springs or seeps into Laguna Creek, Chinle Wash, Tyende Creek or other major drainages. The C-aquifer discharges into the southern reaches of Chinle Wash. Both the C- and N-aquifer discharge from the study area as underf low along the northern boundary. The C-aquifer also discharges as underf low along the western, eastern and southern boundary. Along the western and northern boundaries, the C-aquifer is considered to be of poor quality and at such depths that it is currently not considered a viable water source. Insufficient field data exists to accurately calculate the outflow of the C-aquifer in these regions. The outflow of N-aquifer groundwater along the northern boundary can be estimated by again using Darcy's Law. If using the

following: K = .47 ft/day, I = 40 ft/mile, A = 2 square miles, the estimated total outflow Q is 1,660 acre-feet/year. This does not include the basef low from

Chinle Wash near Mexican Water, which was estimated to be 115

about 2,900 acre-feet/year (Eychaner, 1983). Therefore,

its estimated approximately 4,560 acre-feet/year of N-aquifer water leaves the reservation and most probably into the San Juan River.

Future Ground-water Usacre

Both the C- and N-aquifers are capable of providing sufficient long-term production of ground water for certain regions of the study area. In general, the two aquifers yield good quality water with adequate yield. The alluvium provides greater yield, but with a decline in water quality. The water quality tends to degrade further from the recharge zone as it moves along the flow path. High yield wells needed for certain industrial and agricultural uses will need to be situated most likely in or near the recharge zones of the major aquifers and/or along the Chinle Wash alluvium between Many Farms and Chinle. This water may need to be piped to the region of usage if not in the immediate vicinity. In general, there appears to be sufficient water in the study area's aquifers to support the current conditions and the immediate further development of the region. Any large-scale development of the region will require the installation of additional wells and/or water supply delivery system. 116

Ground-water Management

Since 1984, the Navajo Nation have taken significant steps towards the management of their water resources.

With the passage of the Navajo Nation Water Code in 1984, the Navajo Nation set as a priority the collection and analysis of past water resource data so that informed and intelligent decisions can be made for future management of the resource.

Proper management of a ground-water system involves knowing the limits to which water can be drawn without depleting or harming the resource or impacting current users. The concept of safe yield is often used to help in the management of ground-water systems. The term safe yield has undergone several definition changes or usage. For this study, safe yield defines the rate at which water can be withdrawn perennially under specified operating conditions without producing an undesired result. Undesired results may include overdrafting of the groundwater, degradation of quality, interference with prior water rights, or economic limits due to increased pumping lifts. Several ground-water basins within the reservation, including the Chinle Wash area, are developed less than safe yield. As a result, subsurface outflows of groundwater and losses to the atmosphere by 117 evapotranspiration (ET) along the alluvium occur. In terms of water rights it would be beneficial to the Navajo Nation if such losses did not occur and the water put to good use. To obtain this goal, a management strategy would need to be implemented which would reduce or eliminate ground-water outflow and ET losses and at the same time allow more water to be recharged by increasing the availability of ground-water storage. Safe-yield values will continually change as the ground-water, social, economic, political conditions of a basin changes. The values will vary with time and may change with the ground-water level of a basin. In a basin where recharge is sufficient, the greater utilization of groundwater, the larger the safe yield (Todd, 1980). The maximum safe yield will be controlled by economic or legal constraints. A quantitative determination is based on specified conditions, either existing or assumed, and any changes in these conditions will modify the safe yield. A single value for the safe yield of an aquifer cannot be provided in the way mean annual precipitation is presented (Fetter, 1988). As previously mentioned, several factors complicate the concept of safe yield, economic considerations, water quality, environmental issues, water rights, overdrafting, etc. For each of these factors, there may be an optimal safe yield value which adversely 118 impacts another factor. Ideally, in a basin, a series of safe-yield values, one for each identified and applicable factor, should be determined for a ground-water system. 119

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

There were three phases to the hydrologic study in this report. The first phase described the ground-water conditions of the study area. The second phase focused on the water quality of the various aquifer systems. The third phase looked at the current and future water usage of the study area.

Ground water in the Chinle Wash watershed study area occurs in two primary multiple-aquifer systems and one secondary aquifer system. In the northern part of the study area the N-aquifer system is the principle source of ground water. In the southern half of the study area the C-aquifer system is the major aquifer system. The N-aquifer consists of the Wingate sandstone, the Kayenta formation, and the Navajo sandstone. The C-aquifer system is comprised of the Supai formation, the De Chelly sandstone, and the Shinarump member of the Chinle formation. Some ground water is obtained from alluvial aquifers located along the major drainages of the study area. C-Aquifer Within the study area the C-aquifer system is recharged along the Defiance Plateau. Ground water discharges from the system as seeps or springs in the deep 120

canyons of the Canyon de Chelly area. Much ground water is also discharged as under flow to the north and west where it is at too great of depth to be economically utilized.

General ground-water flow is to the north and west from the Defiance Plateau. Confined and unconfined conditions exists within the study area. Ground water is under unconfined conditions on top of the Defiance Plateau and becomes confined as the C-aquifer formations dip away from the outcrop area. Near Round Rock, artesian pressure is sufficient to create flowing well conditions at several wells.

The transmissivity of the C-aquifer is the lowest among the three aquifers. The transmissivity values range from 3 Ft 2 /day to 214 Ft 2 /day, with an average value of 48

Ft 2 /day. The transmissivity values are higher in wells which are open to both the Shinarump and the De Chelly formations. The C-aquifer is chiefly a calcium bicarbonate type water. The water quality is generally the best of the three aquifers located within the study area. Regionally, the TDS values are lower closer to the Defiance Plateau, but there is no clear pattern in the distribution of the dissolved solids content. Calcium and bicarbonate concentrations tend to decrease along the flow path. Concentrations of sulfate indicated a large spatial 121 variation throughout the study area. Sodium and potassium concentrations tend to increase along the flow path. The coincidence of calcium decreasing and sodium increasing along the flow path suggest ion exchange processes occurring. N-Aquifer The major regional recharge area for the N-aquifer is located west of the study area between Echo Cliffs and Monument Valley. Another zone within the study area is near Mexican Water. This area provides less recharge to the regional aquifer system than does the Echo Cliffs recharge area. Generally, the N-aquifer is discharged into Laguna Creek, Tyende Creek, Walker Creek, Gothic Creek, and the northern reaches of Chinle Wash. The N-aquifer also discharges into the San Juan River in the northern part of the study area. The ground-water movement is predominantly northward to the San Juan River. Confined conditions exist along the flanks of Black Mesa and northeast of the study area near Red Mesa. West of Kayenta and near Mexican Water the Navajo sandstone is well exposed and exhibits considerable jointing which facilitates recharge.

The transmissivity values ranged from 3 Ft 2 /day to 804

Ft 2 /day, with an average of 101 Ft 2 /day. The greatest transmissivity values were found in the heavily-jointed outcrop areas west of Kayenta, although no clear spatial 122 distribution was exhibited throughout the whole study area. This is probably the result of localized structural control of the ground water and the limited number of transmissivity values. The N-aquifer is predominantly a sodium bicarbonate type water. Its been suggested that the initial chemical reaction is calcite dissolution which generates a calcium bicarbonate type water. Subsequent Na-Ca ion exchange results in sodium bicarbonate waters further along the flow path. The N-aquifer contains highly variable water quality. It is of generally good quality, except for an area between Rough Rock and Many Farms. The TDS values are highest in the region which borders Black Mesa and which also correspond to confined areas of the aquifer. Concentrations of bicarbonate and calcium show no clear spatial trends. Sodium and potassium values tend to be higher in the confined portions of the aquifer. Sulfate concentrations are highest near Rough Rock and Many Farms, and are regionally lower in the northern part of the study area. Alluvium Alluvial aquifers are primarily located along Chinle Wash. In the northern part of the study area the Chinle Wash receives ground water from the N-aquifer. Although there are several wells receiving water from the alluvium, 123 most alluvial aquifers are localized and limited in extent and production. These small alluvial aquifers are sufficient for livestock usage, but not likely for any activity requiring long term pumping and large quantities of water. The only area which may have sufficient alluvium to provide sustained quantities of water is along Chinle Wash between Many Farms and Chinle. The alluvium is the most transmissive of all the aquifers. Transmissivity values along Chinle Wash range from 864 Ft 2 /day to 6,700 Ft 2 /day. The water quality of alluvial aquifers is generally of poorer quality than either the C- or the N-aquifers. The average TDS value is 806 mg/1 and ranges from 277 mg/1 to 3,330 mg/l. Overall, the water quality and the aquifer's hydraulic parameters are highly variable which is typical of most alluvial aquifers. Alluvial aquifers are generally more sensitive to pumping than regional aquifers. The elevated TDS values usually results from the high evapotranspiration rates of the area. Increased pumping of the aquifer would lower the water table, resulting in less water available for evapotranspiration. But this would also decrease any stream flow or eliminate springs along the normally dry washes. The majority of the ground water is used for municipal or domestic purposes. This usually occurs around the 124

larger communities where the demand is obviously higher than in the remote areas. NTUA operates most of the community water systems. The BIA, Navajo Tribe, and churches, etc. operate the rest of the systems. The total estimated amount of ground water used for municipal or domestic purposes is approximately 3,000 acre-feet per year. Not all people in the region obtain their water from these community water systems. Many people have to haul water from livestock wells to their homes for domestic purposes. Production values from livestock wells are more difficult to determine. Based on per capita consumption and the number of people living in the study area, the water hauling from livestock wells for domestic purposes is about 600 acre-feet per year. The quantity of ground water used by livestock in the study area is about 240 acre-feet per year. This was based on average discharge rates and length of discharge times for a typical windmill. The total amount of ground water that is pumped from the water wells in the study area is about 3,840 acre-feet per year. The N-aquifer system is the most heavily utilized aquifer within the thesis area. The confined part of the

N-aquifer provides about five times as much water as the confined portion of the C-aquifer. More ground water is 125 pumped from the confined portion of both aquifers than from the unconfined regions of the aquifers. An actual water balance was not done for the study area, but rather various components of the water budget equation were analyzed. The N-aquifer which has the greatest recharge area of the multiple-aquifer systems had the largest precipitation recharge rate (17,000 acre-feet/year) compared to the C-aquifer (9,000 acre-feet/year). The N-aquifer also obtained recharge from inflow from the Black Mesa basin (7,250 acre-feet/year). Both the C- and N-aquifers receive recharge along major tributaries during times of runoff. As previously stated, the greatest discharge for all aquifers is pumpage from wells for domestic, livestock or industrial usage. The C-aquifer discharges as underf low along the northern and western study boundaries, and to a lesser degree the southern and eastern boundaries. The

N-aquifer discharges as underf low along the northern boundary. Other discharge for the C- and N-aquifer occur as seeps or springs into the lower reaches of the various tributaries. Due to insufficient data no natural discharge values were estimated, except for the N-aquifer underf low

(4,560 acre-feet/year). In general, the rate of discharge is much lower than the rate of recharge. 126

Recommendations Further collection and interpretation of hydrogeologic data is needed to provide more detailed information regarding the watershed's multiple ground-water system. Suggestions for further study or action include: development of a ground-water monitoring network that will include collection of water chemistry and water level data on a periodic basis. The Navajo Department of Water Resource Management is presently preparing such a program, but focusing on the Little Colorado River Basin. Although the Black Mesa basin to the southwest has been modeled extensively, the Chinle Wash watershed's ground-water systems should be modeled to help determine more accurately the ground-water flow system and the water budget of the area. Further hydrogeologic analysis should be conducted of the surface and ground-water interaction along Chinle Wash. The southern part of Chinle Wash is dependent on the shallow alluvium, and previous studies have indicated further development of the alluvium in this area is feasible. Collection of additional ground-water samples from locations previously unsampled for water quality would provide better areal coverage of water chemistry in the study area. Many wells throughout the area have no record of water quality sampling. Many wells with historical data 127 should be resampled to update older water quality data. A water quality ground-water monitoring network is needed so that sufficient data is available to analyze the origin, flow path, and water chemistry changes of the ground water. Isotope analysis should be included in the water chemistry sampling to help determine the age and origin of the major aquifers of the watershed. Isotope analysis can also serve to confirm the ground-water flow systems of the N- and C-aquifers.

The Navajo Department of Water Development (NDWD) is responsible for the drilling of new wells on the Navajo Nation. To date it has primarily collected data that is primarily for well development and water supply. The NDWD needs to start collecting data (i.e., aquifer tests, water chemistry samples, geophysical logging, lithologic analysis of drill cuttings and drill cores) that can be used to better understand the regional ground-water systems and subsequently improve development of new water systems. A major goal of any ground-water system is to determine the safe yield of that system. The study area in particular and the reservation as a whole is no different. Outflow from both the C- and N-aquifers is occurring within the study area. As a result, in the Chinle Wash area current ground-water usage is less than safe yield and is underdeveloped. The calculation of a safe-yield value for 128 the region would require the development of an accurate estimate of the area's water balance. This would require the collection of additional data and probably the implementation of a computer model as described above. A starting point for the determination of safe yield could be the natural recharge or a percentage of the natural recharge to the basin. For an underdeveloped basin such as the Chinle Wash, this rate should suffice until such time where increased development of the area would warrant modifications. With major development, the safe yield will depend both on the way in which the effects of withdrawal are transmitted through the aquifers and on the changes in rates of ground-water recharge and discharge induced by the withdrawals (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The safe-yield value should be less than what Freeze and Cherry (1979) calls the maximum stable basin yield. This is the rate where it is impossible for the basin to supply increased rates of withdrawal because the maximum available rate of induced recharge can no longer be attained. There must be a safety factor between the pumping rates and the maximum stable basin yield. In terms of ground-water management of the basin, the outflow from the N-aquifer to the San Juan River is important because once the groundwater reaches the river, it leaves the reservation. A management plan should be 129 developed which would allow for the capture of the outflow of N-aquifer water. This would require increased pumpage from existing wells and the identification of additional uses for the groundwater which would justify the installation of additional wells. Since domestic or municipal water usage is the priority on the reservation, the additional pumpage should be for providing quality drinking water to as many people as is possible. Decreased reliance on livestock wells for drinking water is a goal with the Indian Health Service, Navajo Tribal Utility Authority and the Navajo Nation. Serious thought needs to be given to transporting good quality water to areas which lack the quantity or quality of water. The additional wells described above should be located in the recharge zones of both the C- and N-aquifer. The best quality water is found in these regions and this will allow additional storage capacity for induced recharge. 130

APPENDIX A

C-AQUIFER DATA • •

131

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V N 4.40% N .4. ...IOW .4 01 0 3 N 10 N 01 C MONNM- 7 'a M03 M m .,,Nd ..N..0103,4,1 2 -11—o."0 M W Oin .4,,,,. MN O "'",0N.mo M 3 40 X.-. 0 1 .4-4 4 N Z t/3 0 N . Z Z mr- MU Z Z N 4 ZmIX.UXZU al 50orqc4.-iNmo,firm0. wEmmmw n X&.4 X OMMmWMMONmmt mulw V 14,40000005INNM544NMZrZMXXE G O 000000000000000Z ZAMM .-1 E.›.›.›.xbdacce.E.EA>.r. xzo o moimmmmmo+0000000 4 ggooz mz00000000 ...... ox aZZta .2. 156

APPENDIX C

ALLUVIAL AQUIFER DATA

157

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LIST OF REFERENCES

Akers, J.P., and Harshbarger, J.W., 1958, Ground water in Black Mesa basin and adjacent areas, in Anderson, R.Y., and Harshbarger, J.W., (eds), New Mexico Geological Society Ninth Field Conference, 1958, Guidebook of the Black Mesa basin, northeastern Arizona, p. 173-183.

Akers, J.P., Shorty, J.C., and Stevens, P.R., 1971, Hydrogeology of the Cenozoic Igneous Rocks, Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 521-D, 18 p. Anderson, R., 1958, Life zones of northeastern Arizona in Anderson, R.Y. and Harshbarger, J.W., eds., in Guidebook of the Black Mesa Basin, northeastern Arizona: New Mexico Geological Society, Ninth Field Conference, p. 199-200. Avery, C., 1986, Bedrock Aquifers of Eastern San Juan County, Utah: Utah Department of Natural Resources Technical Publication No. 86, 114 p. Baker, A.A., Dane, C.H., and Reeside, J.B., Jr., 1936, Correlation of the Jurassic formations of parts of Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 183, 66 p. Becker, B., Personal Communication; Navajo Department of Water Resource Management, Ft. Defiance, Arizona. Boner, F.C., Garrett, W.B., Konieczki, A.D., and Smith, C.F., 1990, Water-Resources Data for Arizona, Water Year 1989: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Data Report AZ-89-1, 383 p.

Brown, J.G., and Eychaner, J.H., 1988, Simulation of Five Ground-Water Withdrawal Projections for the Black Mesa Area, Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 88-4000, 51 p. Cooley, M.E., Akers J., and Stevens, P.R., 1964, Selected Lithologic Logs, Drillers Logs, and Stratigraphic Sections, Pt. 3 of Geohydrologic Data in the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah: Arizona State Land Department Water Resources Report 12-C, 157 p. 163

, 1966, Maps Showing Locations of Wells, Springs, and Stratigraphic Sections, Pt. 4 of Geohydrologic Data in the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah: Arizona State Land Department Water Resources Report 12-D, 2 sheets.

, Harshbarger, J.W., Akers, J.P., and Hardt, W.F., 1969, Regional Hydrogeology of the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, with a section on Vegetation, by O.N. Hicks: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 521-A, 61 p. Condon, S.M., and Huffman Jr., A.C.,1988, Revisions in Nomenclature of the Middle Jurassic Wanakah Formation Northwestern New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona in Revisions to Stratigraphic Nomenclature of Jurassic and Cretaceous Rocks of the Colorado Plateau: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1633-A, p.3-12.

Davis, G.E., Hardt, W.F., Thompson, L.K., and Cooley, M.E., 1963, Records of Ground-Water Supplies, Pt. 1 of Geohydrologic Data in the Navajo and Hopi Indian Reservations, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah: Arizona State Land Department Water-Resources Report 12-A, 159 p. Davis, G.H., 1977, Monocline fold pattern of the Colorado Plateau: Geological Society of America, Memoir 151, p. 215-233. Driscoll, F., 1986, Groundwater and Wells: St. Paul, Minnesota, Johnson Division, 1089 p.

Dubiel, R.F., 1989, Sedimentology and Revised Nomenclature for the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation and the Lower Jurassic Wingate Sandstone, Northwestern New Mexico and Northeastern Arizona, in Anderson, 0.J., Lucas, S.G., Love, D.W., and Cather, S.M., eds., Southeastern Colorado Plateau: New Mexico Geological Society Fortieth Annual Field Conference, September 28-October 1, 1989, p.213-223.

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