THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY April 15, 1961 Sanskritisation A P Barnabas

As both the processes of sanskritisation and westernisation are going on at the same time, there is a conflicting, or more correctly, a confusing situation. On the one hand, there are the lower castes trying to take on the traditional values and customs of the upper castes, to raise their status. On the other hand, the upper castes are discarding some of these customs. Westernisation may be characterised as a movement from the. sacred to the secular. It is difficult to characterise Sanskritisation in a 'toe red-secular' of 'folk-urban frame of reference. In any case, from the view point of culture content the more important aspect to be noted is that these processes are likely to result in having a common set of cultural elements in all of Hindu society. At the same time, there is an element of "conflict" between westernisation and Sanskritisation. Most of the castes are faced with a dilemma of making a choice. With increased industrialisation, greater communication, new occupations, greater education, it seems likely that westernisation will be the more dominant process.

THE form of 'Sanskritisation' was The word "Sanskritisation" is "There was another suggestion first used by Prof M N Srinivas rather difficult to understand. The made that we should discard a in his book Religion and Society immediate reaction on seeing the local term like Sanskrilisation for Among the Coorgs of India. This word is that it must be related to acculturation. I think this should book is a study of the Coorgs—a caste "Sanskrit", the classical and sacred be rejected for the reason that like group of people in India occupy­ languages of the Hindus. acculturation takes a particular ing the area called Coorg, located The Word Itself form in Hindu society and we on the south west coast. The Coorgs want to characterize this particular are divided into two sections, one The other word that could have form of acculturation of which is "highly Brahminised in been used is "Brahminisation" but Generalizations about acculturation their customs and ritual'' Srinivas Srinivas rejects this for the following all over the world are a bit too says that these Coorgs "exemplify a reasons: premature." tendency which has always been pre­ (1 ) Brahminisation is sub-assum­ Red field, who was at the conference, sent in the caste system; a small ed in the wider process of Sanskriti­ commented as follows: group of people break off from a sation: larger whole, of which they are a ''I entirely agree with the sug­ part. Sanskritise their customs and (2) the customs and habits of gestion that the process of accu­ ritual and achieve a higher status Brahmins changed after they settled lturation that is going on in India than their parent body in the course in India; and should be indicated by a special term because the process itself is of a few decades'". (3) the agents of Sanskritisation special. In acculturation general­ were not, and are not always Brah­ Sanskritisation is defined by Srini­ ly, a group takes over elements of mins. vas as follows: culture not practised by that Another factor involved is that "The caste system is far from a group. Sanskritisation is a pro­ the word "Brahminisation" evokes rigid system in which the position cess whereby elements of tradition the connotation of Vedic traditions, of each component caste is fixed more nearly universal and more but 'not all aspects of sanskritisation reflectively cultivated are commu­ for all time. Movement has always are Vedic. been possible and especially so in nicated to. and some often con­ the middle regions of hierarchy. At one of the conferences where sciously assumed by a group whose local folk culture has long contri­ A low caste was able, in a gene­ the concept was discussed, the word buted and drawn from reflective ration or two to rise to higher "Hinduisation' was suggested —but culture. The process is taking position in the hierarchy by adopt­ as it smacked of proselytization, it place within a civilized community ing vegetarianism and teetotal ism was not accepted. Further the word not only characterized by a high ami by Sanskritizing its ritual suggests that many of the lower castes are not Hindus which is not tradition but also by a more local ami pantheon. In short, it look and uureflective tradition. There over as far as possible the customs, true. Also Hinduism includes many non-Sanskrit elements. Another sug­ are levels or stages of culture and rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins the arrangements of the stages are and the adoption of the Brahminic gestion was "imitation'' but the pro­ cess of Sanskritization involves more affected and altered by the process way of life by a low caste seems to than mere imitation. of sanskritisation. This is quite have been frequent though theore­ different from the process which tically forbidden. This process has To the suggestion that "accultu- occurred when the red Indians met been called Sanskritisation in this ration" be used, Srinivas gave the European traders who came into 8 book." following reply: contact with them. Therefore in 613 April 15, 1961 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY April 15, 1061 my view it is good we find a spe­ preference for virginity in brides, "The pantheistic bias in Hinduism cial term to express this process."6 chastity in wives, and continence in also contributes to Sanskritisation of Srinivas himself said the word was widows. This is especially marked the deities and beliefs of the low "ugly", but at the end of the dis­ among the highest castes. The lower castes and outlying communities. The cussion he felt that nothing that had have not been very rigid in their sex doctrine that everything in the uni­ been said had convinced him that he code, but as the castes rise in the verse is animated by God; that all should change the word. hierarchy, it becomes more and more the various deities are only forms The Process Sanskritised and, in sex and mar­ assumed by the same Brahma makes riage, the code of the Brahmins is the process of absorption easier.1'10 "The structural basis of Hindu taken over. Widow remarriage and 'The stratification of the Hindu society is caste and it is not possible divorce are restricted. Srinivas him­ society into castes has in a sense to understand sanskritisation without self says, "Sanskritization results in 8 helped Sanskritisation because in any reference to the structural frame­ harshnness towards women." In hierarchial system, there is a tenden­ work in which it occurs. the sphere of kinship, the patrilineal lineage is stressed among the Brah­ cy to imitate the customs, habits, "Speaking generally the castes 11 mins, hence the importance of the manners of the top group.'' occupying the top positions in the sons. The most important factor in the hierarchy are more sanskritised than hindrance for the process is the re­ the castes in the lower and middle Sanskritisation also means the sentment of other castes against any ranges of the hierarchy and this has adoption of new ideas and values caste that tries to raise its status. been responsible for the sanskritisa­ which have been expounded in Sans- Often political and economic pres­ tion of the lower castes as well as the kritic literature. Such the6logicaI sures are put. At times even physi­ outlying tribes. The lower castes terms as Karma (predestination and cal force is used to prevent the lower seem to have always tried to take rebirth), dharma (duty), papa (shih castes' taking on the customs and the over the customs and ways of life of punya (merit and deliverance) rituals of higher castes. Cohn men­ the higher castes. The theoretical maya (illusory nature of the world), tions the fact that Thakurs used existence of a ban on their adoption samsara (universal), and moksha political and economic pressure and of Brahmanical customs and rites (liberation) are used frequently. also physical violence to keep the was not very effective and this is These were essentially related to Chamars in place. In my own study clear when we consider the fact that Vedas and the discussion confined of North Indian Village, one of the many non-Brahmanical castes prac­ mostly to Brahmins. more educated Brahmins said, "If the tise many Brahmanical customs and Helps and Hinderances lower castes attempted to disobey rires"7 What has been said go far may Brahmins they would ask them not As this process was common to all seem to suggest that the process of to walk on their fields. If they do, the castes except the highest, it meant Sanskritisation goes on without hin­ we can manhandle them physically." that the Brahmanic customs and way drances. This is not true. The very As the houses of the lower castes of life spread among the Hindus. fact that it takes decades and decades were located in the midst of the However, the immediate group that for a caste to raise its status is indi­ fields of the Brahmins, the lower was imitated by the lower castes was cative of the slowness of the process castes would not be able to move out the locally dominant group. As the and slowness is an indication of the of the houses at all. As the upper dominant caste began to take on opposition. "Once inside Sanskritic castes hold most of the land, are more of the Brahminical customs and Hinduism, the local rites and beliefs better educated, hence have the eco­ rites, the latter slowly seeped down undergo Sanskritisation rapidly in a nomic and the political power to to the lower castes as well and, hence, thoroughgoing manner." In the subdue them . . ." A more effective to the entire society. Among the recent past, the process of Sans- barrier to the taking over of the cus­ customs taken over are clothing, kritisation seems to have been toms and the rites of the higher jewellery, cooking, vegetarianism, acclerated, castes by the lower castes, was the teetotalism and at times the changing Among the factors that have helped hostile attitude of the locally domi­ of the name of the caste. the process along are the "legal fic­ nant caste or of the king of the re- tions'' that have been already men­ gion."12 According to Srinivas, two legal tioned. The second factor is west­ fictions helped the process of sans­ ern technology — railways, press, Functions of Sanskritisation kritisation of the ritual aspects. The radio, internal combustion engine, ban is restricted not to the ritual A second factor that hinders the and plane. Communication is easier itself but to the recital of magic process of Sanskritisation is westerni­ and ideas spread more quickly be­ chants (mantras) from the Vedas. zation—this is in view of the fact cause of it. Parliamentary demo­ This was circumvented by the lower that there is a conflict between the cracy also contributed to it. Some castes by using Sanskrit verses from Sanskritic and western values—the of the values of the higher castes the Post-Vedic period. This substi­ conflict between "the world view dis­ were written into the Constitution— tution in itself was the second legal closed by the systematic application such as prohibition and mono­ fiction. of scientific method to the various gamy. spheres of knowledge and the view The non-Brahmins not only adopt "It is possible that the very ban of traditional religions."13 At pre­ the Brahminical riles and customs, on the adoption of the Brahminical sent this conflict is implicit, rather but also the institutions. Srinivas way of life by the lower castes, than explicit as it is not fully rea­ corroborates this by referring to had exactly the opposite effect. The lized. marriage, position of women, and forbidden fruit was the tastier It could be said that there are kinship. Among Hindus, there is One" three major functions of the process. 615 April 15, 1961

In the first place, as the process the initiating village or villages. Ulti­ 'Therefore, the picture is of the was common to all castes except the mately the initiating Chamars deter­ changing caste moving up in the highest, the Brahminical customs and mine that they will no longer give Sanskritic caste status hierarchy, as the way of life spread among all the daughters to or accept daughters-in- the higher more advantaged castes Hindus. law from the Chamars who do not move out of the hierarchy into a conform to the change. non-Sanskritic milieu. In Srikanda From this arises the second func­ the picture is of the entire, Pahari tion, namely that because of the "Consistent with efforts to raise community attempting to move up spread of one particular way, a com- their caste status to gain power, the from the low status to higher status mon "culture" was developing Chamars of Modhopur in recent in terms of Sanskritic values while throughout the whole Hindu society. years also made conscious efforts to castes within that community retain "The presence of completely sans- suppress their distinctive traditional kritised worship of rivers, trees, and religion, to Sanskritise their rituals their relative status positions mountains in Hinduism, and then in­ still further and emulate the specific It is however an assertion that the corporation in vast mythology of religious forms of the higher castes. dominant trend is' towards society- Although they continue to propitiate wide movement upward in the tradi­ Hinduism, makes easier the assimi­ 17 lation of the ritual beliefs of the the Goddess Bhagoti jointly of the tional Sanskritic context." lower castes and of communities re­ whole hamlet and although they In Srikanda there is little evidence maining outside Hinduism." continue to worship the other deities, of any one caste making an organi­ as do members of the higher castes, zed effort to raise its status in the A third function is to provide for yet they have made many changes social mobility within a rigid social system. This does not mean that the in the rest of their religious prac­ low castes would not like to rise in structure. Too often the caste sys­ tice''15 tem and Hindu society are described status, but they see no way to do it. as non-mobile, This does not pro­ Case Studies They feel that they are subject to vide a total description of the Hindu Domestic ceremonies of the Cha­ the will of high castes who would never tolerate impingement upon society. The reform movements, the mars have been modelled increasing­ 18 revolts of the lower castes and Sans­ ly upto leaders and devotees of the their superior status. kritisation all indicate that the Hindu Siva Narayan sect. The sacrifice of Cohn mentions in his study of the society is dynamic. Sanskritisation a pig which began the Chamar wed­ attempt by "Noniyas"° to raise provides the means of vertical so­ ding ceremony has now been given their status. Roweb made a study cial mobility. up and replaced by the cutting of a of this caste in the same villagec. nutmeg?10 The concept of sanskritisation is According to him, there is not much one of the most widely discussed and Dowry is beginning to replace of a process of sanskritisation. There used concepts in recent studies. How­ bride price. A Brahmin conducts the are possibly two reasons for this. ever, I shall confine myself to citing wedding ceremony. Horoscopes are One may be due to the failure to raise four studies and indicating the find­ cast at birth ceremonies. Changes the status through the process of ings on the subject, have been made in the death rituals. Sanskritisation. The second reason Pilgrimage is emphasized. " may be that they feel that westerni­ Cohn studied a village in U P recent changes have moved Chamar zation (discussed later) is a better He states "For the last thirty years religion directly toward the main way of catching up with the upper the Chamars of Modhopur have stream of the great tradition of or­ castes. Rowe feels that there is a struggled consciously to raise their thodox Hinduism." greater process of westernization than status on another related front— Sanskritisation. The reaction to­ Berreman studied a village in the that of caste hierarchy. At least two wards Sanskritisation is characterised Himalayan regions. He states "In­ generations ago, in the vicinity of by the following statement. "What creasing contact with Brahmins edu­ Modhopur, began to outlaw eating of is the use of calling oneself a Singh cated in traditional Hinduism has beef and the carting of manure in (the reference to changing of 'name been sufficient to impel the whole what proved to be a futile attempt to to a higher caste) if you can't be a 14 society including all castes towards gain greater respect for the caste." Singh?" increasing acceptance of Sanskritic Such attempts to raise their caste values and aspirations, or at least In my own study of a village in status are not individual in character superficial adherence to these. Where U. P. there was not too much evi­ or effect. Nor are they 'necessarily new reference groups have been ac­ dence of Sanskritisation among the legislated by large formal gather­ quired, they have been largely those lower castes. There was some indi­ ings. Rather a leader or a group of within the traditional Hindu culture cation of Sanskritisation among the leaders in the caste in one village with which the people have long had middle range caste groups, particu­ feels that some traditional behaviour some acquaintance. Status improve­ larly in matters of food and to should be changed and the changes ment here as among the low castes a are talked over in the village. Rela­ of the plains is perceived as achie­ A higher caste than Chamars studied tives and others who are visiting hear vable through adoption of Sanskritic by Cohn about the proposed change and carry practices. That it occurs among all b Information based on personal dis­ the news to their home villages. If castes almost uniformly is due in cussion a local group of Chamars decides to part to the relative absence of differ­ initiate the change, it decrees that ential beliefs and practices among c Rowe W, Social & Economic Mobility any Chamar who fails to conform to castes in this area which in turn is in a low caste North India Community, the new pattern will be outcasted. largely attributed to lack of caste Ph D thesis (Unpublished), Cornwell Active propagandizing follows from community isolation in these hills. University, 1960

616 THE ECONOMIC W EEKLY April 15. 1961 some extent in rituals. The middle castes to do the same would have Westernization may be character­ range caste groups seemed to be been ridiculed. ised as a movement from the sacred observing nil the rituals that the Aspects Westernized to the secular. In the sacred society, Brahmins observed, the difference the characteristics are folk and pres­ was in the degree of elaboration. As stated earlier, not all aspects cribed, particularistic, collective of ''westernization" were accepted. In the village studied by me, it is oriented, diffuse, quality-oriented This is in keeping with process of possible to explain the lack of Sans­ (ascription! and affective. In the acculturation in which there is kritisation by using another concept secular. the factors involved are always selection and adaptation. developed by Srinivas—"dominant principles, and normless, universi- Some of the changes which Srinivas easte."20 According to this concept, tistic, ego-oriented. specific. per­ mentions are changes in appear­ each village has a dominant caste-- formance - oriented (achievement), ance and dress. Crop haircut be- dominance may be based on ritual and affective-neurality. It is diffi­ came normal. The wearing of "power" economic power, political cult to characterise sanskritisalion shirts, and suits became common. power, or a combination of them. In in a "sacred-secular of folk-urban" The change in dress led to change the village studied, the dominance frame of reference. in certain ideas with particular re­ of the dominant caste- Brahmins— ference to rituals connected with Trends was too complete to allow any at­ 'pure robes'" for eating. The diet tempt by the lower caste to try to Some trends have already been changed. Onion, carrot, potato, raise their status. Brahmins wielded implicitly indicated. However, other radish, beet-root became part of power with regard to rituals. They aspects need to be made explicit. the menu. Formerly they were for­ were the land-holders and the lower The fact that the lower castes are bidden. New occupations were castes were engaged by them labour­ trying to "sanskritise" ie. 1o adopt taken. Medical profession (which ers. Numerically, they were the the traditions and customs of the involved touching the corpses, treat­ largest. The village council was do­ Brahmins. The Brahmins, on the ing untouchables) became popular. minated by the Brahmins- only three other band, are becoming more An indirect effect was the spread out of thirteen being non-Brahmins. westernized. The lower castes are of dowry. The demand for educated The lower castes were too much faced with a dilemma. As members boys with good jobs brought in under subjugation to try to raise of the lower castes they have certain "dowry" in place of "bride price". themselves. privileges which the government has Certainly many ideas of western accorded to them (free tuition, pre­ Westernization origin were accepted. "The syste­ ference in selective jobs, scholar­ matic application of scientific me- ships, etc) so as to bring them in Reference has already been made thod" had already been mentioned. line with the rest of the society. to westernization. Western influence The legal and political system was The lower castes do want these came to India through the British. accepted. privileges, but they also want to There was an attempt by Indians to The process of westernization took raise their status. It is a case of accept, adopt, or imitate the British place because: wanting to have the cake and eat customs and habits. '"The form and it too. pace of westernization in India 1. British rule and the imposition varied from one region to another of legal and political system Among middle range castes, west­ and from one section of the popula­ 2 Increased social value on edu­ ernization seems to be gaining tion to another. For instance, one cation which was mostly in rapidly. As indicated in Rowe's group of people became westernized English and the functional study, the attempt seems not to in their dress, diet, manner, speech, necessity of studying English— Sanskritise. This is possibly due to sports, and the gadgets they used, to be able to secure jobs two reasons. The upper castes are while another acquired western westernizing and naturally if the 3 Increased communication and immediately lower castes are going science, knowledge and literature transport system while remaining relatively free from to imitate them, then naturally there 21 1 The desire of the upper castes westernization in externals." will be westernizing/Secondly, to move nearer to the ruling caste names and rituals do not now The process of westernization was class and also to increase the account entirely for the status. more relevant to the upper castes. social distance with the lower Education, occupation, and wealth Brahmins. Kshathryas and Vaish had castes are beginning to be considered. a literary tradition which gave them Present Situation Most occupations outside the caste an initial advantage in taking to As both the processes of sans- hierarchy do have a high value, e.g., western education. In most parts of kritisation and Westernization arc lawyer, teacher, doctor, government the country Brahmins were the first going on at the same time, it would service, factory worker, etc. to take to English. This resulted in be said that there is a conflicting, In brief, the lower castes are increasing (a) the social distance be­ or more correctly, a confusing situa­ still trying to give up the traditions tween them and other castes and (h) tion. Cohn refers to this condition and customs which gave them lower brought them closer to the rulers in his article. On the one hand there status and are trying to adopt cus­ which in turn enabled them to acquire are the lower castes trying to take toms and traditions of the upper political and economic advantages. on the traditional values and cus­ castes. The upper castes are over­ As the Brahmins were at the top of toms of the upper castes, to raise looking their rituals, customs, and social hierarchy, it was easy for them their status. On the other hand, the traditions and taking to westerniza­ to do things without being subject to upper castes are discarding some of tion. The middle range castes tend ridicule. Any attempt by the lower these customs. to imitate the upper castes, hence 617 April 15, 1961 THE ECONOMIC WEEKLY

undergoing "westernization." It is 8. Srinivas, M. N. Religion and possible that the lower castes will, Society Among Coorgs of in the near future, take to westerni­ South India, zation, (Oxford, Claredon Press, 1952.) Implication for Culture Content 9. American Anthropologist, Feb­ In both Sanskritisation and west­ ruary, 1959. ernization, there is culture accumu­ 10. Rowe W.L. "Social and Econo­ lation as well as culture depletion. mic Mobility in a Low Caste In Sanskritisation, the lower castes North Indian Village". are giving up their own rituals, (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, customs, folkways, and values. Cornell University 1960) Hence, there is culture depletion. On the other hand, there is culture accumulation in view of the fact Life Insurance Business that they are taking over new THE Life Insurance Corporation values, traditions, and customs from - secured peak business during the upper castes. In westernization Bibliography 1960. The new business amounted the new elements which have come to Rs 460 crores, according to pro­ into being have been mentioned. 1. Aiyappan and Balaratnam. Society in India(Madras, visional figures. The upper castes seem to be giving 1956.) up the rituals and customs of the The amount of new business com­ past. Hence there is both accumu­ 2. Berreman G. D. "kin, Caste pleted during 1955, the year im­ lation as well as depletion. and Community in a Himala­ mediately preceding the year of yan Hill Village' 1959 nationalisation, was Rs 260,84 From the present trends, it would (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. crores. seem that the process of westerni­ Cornell University) zation is likely to become the more The Corporation will examine in dominant process. In any case, from 3. Becker, Howard. Man in Reci­ due course whether in view of the the viewpoint of culture content the procity. (New York 1956.) high profits earned the premium more important aspect to be noted 4. Barnabas A. P. "Social Change rates could be reduced. is that these processes are likely to in a North Indian Village" This information was given by result in having a common set of 1960 the Minister of Revenue and Civil cultural elements in all of Hindu (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Expenditure, Dr B Copala Reddi society. At present there is great Cornell University) in Lok Sabha. diversity. Both sanskritisation and 5. Cohn B. Chamars of Sena pur. Replying to another question Dr westernization are a trend towards 1954. Copala Reddi informed the House decreasing the diversity and of that foreign business completed by (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. unifying the Hindu society from the the Life Insurance Corporation of Cornell University) point of view of culture content. India during 1960 was Rs 9.70 cro­ 6. Mariott, Maekin, ed. Village At the same time there is an ele­ res. Foreign business in 1957 was India, (Chicago Press, 1955.) ment of "conflict" between westerni­ Rs 5.40 crores; in 1958 it was Rs zation and sanskritisation. Most of 7. Redfield, R. Folk Culture of 5.62 crores; in 1959, Rs 9.47 the castes are faced with a dilemma Yucatan. {Chicago Press, 1941) crores. of making a choice. A§ not many studies have been made. it is not easy to predict which process is likely to be more dominant. With increased industrialization, greater communication, new occupations, greater education, it seems likely that westernization will be the more dominant process. Footnotes Rook of Publication Page 1. Religion Among the Coorgs 34 2. „ „ „ „ 35 3. „ „ „ . 31 Also "Socity in India" 73 4. Society in India 73 5. „ „ ,, 113 6. „ „ „ 114 7 75 8 „ ,, ,, ,, 78 9. „ ,. „ 76