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Master's Theses Graduate College

4-1986

A Statistical Analysis of the Lithic Material from the Zemaitis Site (200T68), Ottawa County, Michigan

Michael L. Murphy

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Recommended Citation Murphy, Michael L., "A Statistical Analysis of the Lithic Material from the Zemaitis Site (200T68), Ottawa County, Michigan" (1986). Master's Theses. 1322. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/masters_theses/1322

This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LITHIC MATERIAL FROM THE ZEMAITIS SITE (200T68), OTTAWA COUNTY, MICHIGAN

by Michael L. Murphy

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology

Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan April 1986

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LITHIC MATERIAL FROM THE ZEMAITIS SITE (200T68), OTTAWA COUNTY, MICHIGAN

Michael L. Murphy, M.A. Western Michigan University, 1986

An analysis of the lith ic tools and a representative sample of debitage from the Zemaitis site is presented. The methodology employed in lith ic analysis is described with the goal of compara­

b ility with other studies. Based upon this comparison i t is suggested that the major occupation of the site was during the Middle Woodland Period and the site appears to have been occupied year-round. Because the Zemaitis site was undisturbed by modern agricultural techniques, special attention is given to the artifact distributions both verti­

cally and horizontally across the site. With the aid of various statistical models the artifact a ttri­ butes were correlated. These correlations allowed the identification

of artifact patterns, identification of flin t knapping activity across the site, and made possible some meaningful statements about chert procurement and tool fabrication characterizing the Middle Woodland Period at Zemaitis, and more generally, in the area of western

Michigan.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support and assistance of many individuals. The comments and suggestions provided by the members of my thesis committee, consisting of Dr. William Cremin (Major Advisor), Dr. Elizabeth Garland, and Dr. Richard Flanders were very helpful. A special thanks must be given to Dr. Richard Flanders of Grand Valley State College who introduced me to archaeology, and made the collection on

which this analysis is based available. Very helpful during the in itia l stages of this thesis was Mr. Caven Clark. Caven helped me acquire chert samples and instructed me in the fine points of lith ic analysis. Mrs. M iller of the computer center at Western Michigan University was extremely helpful in pro­

viding advice on statistical procedures as well as entering the data.

Mr. James Marek deserves special mention for photographing and developing the plates presented herein, and Jim also made some hard to get publications available. Also, thanks to my brother, Chad Murphy, for the use of his dark room equipment for the developing of

the plates for this manuscript. I would also like to express thanks to The Graduate College of Western Michigan University for funding the radiocarbon dates utilized for this analysis through their Graduate Research Fund. Furthermore,

I would like to give special recognition to my parents and in-laws for the encouragement they offered when I needed i t most. Finally,

ii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I would like to thank my wife, Lark, for typing many drafts of this thesis and offering helpful suggestions and support throughout the analysis and preparation of this manuscript. I firmly believe that its completion could not have been accomplished without her. While this thesis could not have been completed without the help of the aforementioned individuals, the full responsibility for what appears in this manuscript is mine alone.

Michael L. Murphy

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Murphy, Michael L.

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LITHIC MATERIAL FROM THE ZEMAITIS SITE (200T68), OTTAWA COUNTY, MICHIGAN

Western Michigan University M.A. 1986

University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii LIST OF TABLES ...... vi LIST OF MAPS...... vi i i

LIST OF PLATES...... ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 The Problem ...... 1 Site Description and Historyof Excavations .... 2

General Remarks Concerning Previous Work ...... 6

I I . ANALYTICAL METHODS ...... 11 Bifacial Tool Classification ...... 12 Debitage Classification ...... 13

Site Sampling Procedure ...... 15 Coding Data for Computer Analysis ...... 18 Statistical Tests ...... 19 Radiocarbon Date Associations ...... 22 I I I . UNITS OF ANALYSIS...... 29

Bi fa c e s ...... 29 Biface Typology ...... 58 Results of Statistical Tests ...... 67 Blades ...... 71

Unifacial Artifacts ...... 74 C o re s ...... 78

iv

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CHAPTER Bipolar Artifacts ...... 82

Quartzite Choppers ...... 84

Utilized Flakes ...... 88

Non-Chipped Lithics ...... 89

Lithic Raw Materials ...... 96

Raw Materials and Tool Types ...... 104

Bipolar Cores and Debitage ...... I l l

Flake Selection for Unifaces and Utilized Flakes . . 113

IV. DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS ...... 118

Spatial Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts ...... 119

Vertical Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts .... 126

Uni face and Utilized Flake D is trib u tio n ...... 131

Spatial Distribution of Debitage ...... 136

Vertical Distribution of Debitage ...... 139

V. ZEMAITIS PHASES...... 148

VI. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 158

APPENDICES...... 167

A. Hafted Biface Variables ...... 167

B. Summary of Metrical Attributes of Bifacial Artifacts ...... 178

C. Summary of Bifacial Artifacts Hafting Element Non-Metrical Attributes ...... 181

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 187

v

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES

1. Lithics from Sample 1 ...... 24 2. Summary of Debitage Raw Material Selection from Dated F eatu res ...... 25 3. Lithics from Sample 2 ...... 27 4. Summary of Raw Material Selection for Biface Categories ...... 36 5. Comparison of Corner Notched Point Attributes from Regional Middle Woodland Sites ...... 60 6. Comparison of Expanding Stemmed Point Attributes from Regional Middle Woodland Sites ...... 63 7. Metrical and Non-Metrical Attributes of the Levanna-Madison Points ...... 66 8. Pearson Correlation Coefficients ...... 69 9. Raw Material Breakdown for Zemaitis Blades ...... 74

10. Summary of Core Attributes from Random and Judgement Units ...... 81 11. Summary of Identified Chert Types in Random Units: Debitage ...... 98 12. Summary of Raw Material Selection for Bifacial Artifacts ...... 105 13. Raw Material Breakdown for Uni faces and Utilized Flakes from the Random Sample ...... 106 14. Summary of Bipolar Core Attributes from Random and Judgement Units ...... I l l 15. Summary of Bipolar Debitage Attributes from Random and Judgement Units ...... 112 16. Flake Type Selection for Unifaces and Utilized Flakes from the Random Sample ...... 114

17. Summary of Random Unit Uni facial Tool Type Edge and Spine Angles ...... 116 vi

' • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. L is t o f Tables—Continued

18. Spatial Distribution of Bifacial Artifact Types from All Provenience Units ...... 121 19. Statistical Tests of Spatial Distribution of Bifacial Artifact Classes from Provenience Units ...... 123 20. Vertical Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts from All Provenience Units ...... 128 21. Spatial Distribution of Uni facial Tool Classes from Random U n it s ...... 132 22. Spatial Distribution of Utilized Flakes Not Separated by Class ...... 132

23. Vertical Distribution of Unifacial Tools and Utilized Flakes from Random Units ...... 134 24. Random Unit Debitage Totals by Level ...... 139 25. Summary of Random Unit Debitage Types and Raw Material Breakdown by Level ...... 141 26. Summary of Random Unit Debitage Platform Condition by L evel ...... 146

vii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF MAPS

1. Cross Section of the Zemaitis S i t e ...... 4 2. Excavation Units ...... 5 3. Distribution of Debitage: All Classes ...... 16 4. Location of Random and Judgement Units ...... 17

5. Location of Dated Features ...... 23 6. Area Utilized for Distribution Studies ...... 120 7. Lithic Density ...... 137

v iii

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF PLATES

1. Corner Notched Projectile Points ...... 30 2. Corner Notched Projectile Points ...... 31

3. Corner Notched Projectile Points ...... 32 4. Corner Notched Projectile Points ...... 33 5. Corner Notched Projectile Points ...... 34 6. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points ...... 37 7. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points ...... 38 8. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points ...... 39

9. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points ...... 40

10. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points ...... 41 11. Triangular Projectile Points ...... 43 12. Miscellaneous Bifaces ...... 45 13. Miscellaneous Projectile Points ...... 46 14. Triangular Knives ...... 49 15. Triangular Knives ...... 50 16. Triangular Knives and Preforms ...... 51 17. Preforms ...... 52

18. Preforms ...... 53 19. D r ills ...... 55 20. Bifacial Tools ...... 56 21. Blades ...... 72

22. Blades ...... 73 23. Side Modified Uni faces ...... 76

ix

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. L is t o f Plates—Continued

24. Uni faces ...... 77 25. Upper Mercer Block and Plano-Convex Cores ...... 79

26. Block and Plano-Convex Cores ...... 80 27. Bipolar C o re s ...... 83 28. Bipolar Wedges ...... 85 29. Quartzite Choppers ...... 86 30. Quartzite Choppers ...... 87 31. Hammerstones ...... 91 32. Pitted Cobbles...... 92 33. Miscellaneous Artifacts ...... 94

34. Celts and Celt Preform s ...... 95

x

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Problem

The Middle Woodland Period in western Michigan is primarily known from the cultural artifacts associated with mound burials (Flanders 1965, 1977; G riffin, Flanders, and Titterington 1970; Prahl 1970; Quimby 1941). More recently, attention has been focused on locating and excavating Middle Woodland habitation sites, with the

goal of assessing the subsistence and settlement patterns of the people who built the mounds. The Zemaitis site is one of these rare Middle Woodland villages. Beyond having a large Middle Woodland component, the site's special

importance is derived from its relatively undisturbed nature. The cultural materials recovered from the site represent a wide variety of prehistoric cultural activities. This thesis examines the lith ic assemblage recovered from the Zemaitis excavations. The analysis proceeds with the study of all the complete bifaces and a representative sample of other stone tools and debitage. The bifacial tools are subjected to a series of stand­ ard measurements and then codified to facilitate computer statistical

examination.

Utilizing lith ic data from radiocarbon dated contexts, two major hypotheses are tested. The firs t posits that the raw materials used

1

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in stone tool production changed from non-local to locally available chert as the Middle Woodland Period came to a close (Fitting 1975; Griffin et a l. 1970; Luedtke 1976). The second hypothesis addressed is that while chert procurement changed through time, the tool types created remained similar in form and manufacturing technique through­ out the Middle Woodland Period. Data analysis, in light of the aforementioned hypotheses, allows the analyst to examine changes in flin t knapping behavior and raw material preference through time. Also addressed is the placement

of the Zemaitis assemblage temporally and in relationship to other known regional artifact types. Once defined, these artifacts are examined for use wear. The results of this study, combined with that of tool morphology, are used to extrapolate function of the various

tool categories. To examine the problem of artifact distribution, the site's lithic material is analyzed both vertically and horizontally. This information will then be correlated to enable the analyst to delineate areas of flin t knapping and other activities at the site and make some meaningful statements about changes in chert procurement and tool fabrication characterizing the Middle Woodland Period at Zemaitis

and, more generally, in the area of western Michigan.

Site Description and History of Excavations

The Zemaitis site is situated on a natural levee paralleling the

east bank of the Grand River, approximately 15 miles upstream from Lake Michigan in the N h of Section 32, Tallmadge Township, T7N R13W,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ottawa County, Michigan. The site extends over an area of slightly more than four acres. I t is bounded on the east by an annually inundated, low marshy area which parallels the site at an average distance of 69 feet. On the west, Zemaitis is bounded by the Grand

River, at an average distance of 167 feet. The site is located in an advantageous position to exploit the economic resources of riverine, marsh, and deciduous forest environments, as well as transportation routes afforded by the Grand River and Lake Michigan (see Map 1). Fortunately, the northern half of the Zemaitis site has been le ft relatively undisturbed by modern agricultural techniques and excavation efforts were concentrated exclusively in this area. The remainder of the site was only systematically surface collected. The Zemaitis site has been known to area archaeologists and collectors for a number of years prior to its excavation by Grand Valley State College. Beginning in the summer of 1970, the Anthropology Department of Grand Valley, under the direction of Dr. Richard E. Flanders, initiated extensive excavations of the undisturbed areas of the site. In the six years that followed, a total of 143 ten-by-ten foot units, with the addition of 3 five-by-

ten foot units, were excavated. Including the 1976 season, a total of 14,300 square feet of the undisturbed area has been tested (see

Map 2). Excavation of the Zemaitis site began by testing two separate areas, a northern block and a southern block, with a number of iso­

lated squares located at margins of the levee to discover the limits of the site. Block excavation was pursued as i t was fe lt that the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4

11 3 .4 a MSI

rSlop«/RavlnM

UPLANDS

H a iti m l 111.1m MIL

UPLANDS Cracks

A • A*a 4km

Map and cross-sectional diagram of the Grand River valley showing envi­ ronmental associations of the Zemaitis site.

Reprinted with permission of author (Kingsley 1981:167).

Map 1. Cross Section of the Zemaitis Site.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 609.5 606.5

ZEMAITIS SITE 20 OT 69

SOFT LULLM SCALE

609.5 606.5

606.S

Map 2. Excavation Units.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. excavation of contiguous units would facilitate delineation of activity areas and the spatial distribution of artifacts. The tests indicated that the northern portion and almost all of the southern part of the site were undisturbed. Thereafter, an effort was made to excavate the area between the northern block and the southern block. This was undertaken to determine whether the areas of the two block excavations were part of the same general village midden or i f artifact densities varied enough to separate them into discrete habitation areas. In hopes of recognizing vertical stratigraphy and differential artifact density at the site, and with no readily recognizable strata to guide excavation, i t was decided to excavate each test unit in arbitrary 2 inch levels. The excavation proceeded until no cultural material was encountered for at least 4 inches. In some cases,

features were excavated in a similar manner; at other times features were treated as discrete units and excavated separately. In later years, flotation samples were also collected. All excavated material was passed through % inch mesh screen, and the material from each level was then labeled and bagged separately for future analysis.

General Remarks Concerning Previous Work

At present there are three written reports describing various

aspects of the Zemaitis site. Terrance Martin (1976) analyzed the faunal remains; Janet Brashler (1981) utilized Zemaitis ceramics in her study of the Spring Creek Tradition ceramics; and Robert Kingsley (1981) looked at the Zemaitis site's environmental setting.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. In his analysis of Zemaitis faunal material, Martin (1976) examined remains from 127 test squares. From these units, 16,881 bone and shell fragments were recovered, weighing almost 6.1 kg. Martin's tabulations of the bone and shell material by class indicate that mammals account for 65% of the fragments, turtle aggregate 27%, with the remaining 8% being fish and mollusks. He argues that the low percentage of fish was the result of sampling error due to the use of h inch screen, which resulted in the loss of all but the larger fish elements (Martin 1976:34-35). According to Martin's calculations of usable meat, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) accounted for 93.53% of the total meat

available to the prehistoric inhabitants of the Zemaitis site, while smaller mammals contributed only 6% of the estimated total meat

available (Martin 1976:35). The faunal analysis by Martin also indicates that turtle remains

were "surprisingly high numbering a total of 4573 fragments" (Martin 1976:40). Moreover, Martin now believes that some of the bone identi­ fied as turtle may in fact be sturgeon (Terrance Martin, personal communication). Regardless, Martin identified two species of turtle: the eastern spiny soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx spiniferus) and blanding's turtle (Emys blandingii) and/or the map turtle (Graptemys geographical (Martin 1976:40). Of special interest, these are the

turtle species found in abundance as burial goods in the Norton

Mounds (Flanders 1965; Griffin et a l. 1970). To study the distribution of animal remains, Martin divided the i Zemaitis site into three basic units and referred to them as

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. "northern, central, and southern test units." His results can be summarized as follows: (a) deer remains were most frequent in the northern portion of the site, almost to the exclusion of turtle and mussel; (b) turtle remains, as well as freshwater mussels, were associated with the southern and central areas of the site; and (c) fish were ubiquitous, not being restricted to any area (Martin 1976:46). Although some misidentification of turtle and sturgeon bone may have occurred, Martin's general observations regarding activity areas remain sound. Based on the faunal analysis and the assumption that Zemaitis was a village site, Martin delineates some tentative activ­ ity areas. He believes that the southern area associated with the

largest amounts of tu rtle, mussel, and perhaps sturgeon remains may have represented a women's work area. He notes that "in many

midwestern habitation sites turtle shells were utilized for bowls, dishes, rattles, and even jewelry" (Martin 1976:48). He believes

that the mussels were being used for food and their shells used as household utensils and pottery decorating implements (Martin 1976:49). Martin (1976) interprets the northern area of the site, with its

high frequency of deer bone and relative lack of other bone, as a large mammal butchering and processing area. Martin suggests that the lack of any distinctive faunal traits from the central area indi­ cated a "general area of transition related to the other task specific activity areas" (Martin 1976:50-51). Martin's data indicate that the

season during which deer were taken at Zemaitis was during the fa ll

to early winter months.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Martin interprets the presence of spiny soft-shelled turtles as representing exploitation both in the winter months and in June and July when the turtles lay their eggs on land (Parmalee 1955:31 in Martin 1976:52). In short, Martin's data indicate that the site could have been occupied year-round and that the inhabitants prac­ ticed a moderately diverse subsistence economy. Janet Brash!er (1981) also worked with Zemaitis site data. Her work involved the analysis of a minimum of 269 vessels, from which she concludes that the stylistic attributes of the ceramics and their similarity with those of the Spring Creek site indicate three occupa­ tions at Zemaitis. Brashler's analysis concludes that the Zemaitis site had a Middle Woodland component, a transitional or Early Late Woodland component, and a brief Late Woodland occupation postdating

A.D. 1000 (Brashler 1981:325). Robert Kingsley (1981) conducted an environmental analysis of the Zemaitis site, which demonstrates that i t was situated in an area where "resources necessary for an Intensive Harvest Collecting economy

were easily accessible to the occupants of the site" (Kingsley 1981: 140). He further notes that there was a tract of floodplain adjacent

to the site which was "one of the largest in this stretch of the river" (Kingsley 1981:140). Regarding seasonality, Kingsley cautions that there were prob­ lems in interpreting the Zemaitis site. He feels that since base settlements in Illinois seem to have been occupied year-round or

nearly so (Streuver 1968:307; Brown 1977:167), that a similar pattern in western Michigan would not be unexpected given the other

*.:• Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. similarities in settlement patterns. Reviewing survey work on the Grand River (Flanders 1977), Kingsley notes no evidence of seasonal or ancillary Middle Woodland sites which he believes indicates occupation of village sites throughout the year. He concludes that base settlements like Zemaitis were situated in "optimum environments for the type of economy practiced, and perhaps site locations were not shifted over time, or at least not often" (Kingsley 1981:146).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I I

ANALYTICAL METHODS

Stone tools and debitage, unlike other artifacts, are universally well preserved on archaeological sites. This quality of preservation is related to the chemical composition of chert which renders i t almost impervious to weathering and mild abrasion. Furthermore, chert materials show very lit t le chemical or physical alteration

once they have been deposited in an archaeological context. Because flin t knapping is a "reductive technology" (Rovner 1975), the process requires the incidental production of large

amounts of lith ic waste, or debitage, in the act of tool fabrication. As a result of the tool production technology, there are quantities

of chert debris on virtually every North American archaeological site.

For these reasons, the study of lith ic materials has been an impor­ tant adjunct to almost all archaeological investigations. Lithic debris, or debitage, received lit t le notice in early archaeological accounts. In the last 20 years, however, debitage analysis has been increasingly viewed as a productive source of data.

First, by its very nature, debitage is not systematically collected by relic hunters as are other artifacts such as projectile points. Thus, i t is more likely that the amounts of debitage from a partic­ ular site more closely resemble the actual aboriginal distribution

and deposition in archaeological contexts.

11

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The study of raw material is also potentially valuable. Raw materials may be categorized as locally available or non-local. In Michigan, local raw material includes both cherts and quartzites from glacial t i l l , river or stream deposits near the site. These materi­ als were obtained with minimal effort and were available year-round. Non-local cherts were obtained both directly and indirectly and in some cases were passed across territories as a commodity. Lithic source information can be an invaluable aid in determining patterns of trade and exchange. For example, Meyers (1970:5) noted "that

extensive, regular trade in raw material seems to have taken place among local Middle Woodland communities participating in the Hopewell

Interaction Sphere."

Bifacial Tool Classification

Bifacial tools were analyzed by in itia lly sorting them into gross morphological classes after Ozker (1976). These classes

include projectile points, knives, preforms, d rills , scrapers, wedges, and nondiagnostic fragments. Hafted bifaces were analyzed and

described using terminology developed by Ritchie (1971). These terms are corner notched, side notched, straight stemmed, contracting stemmed, expanding stemmed, triangular, and lanceolate (see Appendix

A; Ritchie 1971:11). All metric data from the bifaces are recorded using techniques developed by Binford (1963), White (1968), and Clark (Garland and Clark 1981; Caven Clark, personal communication). These measurements are described and quantified in Appendices A and B. I t is believed

ft- • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. that these measurements represent the minimum number of attributes that should be used in any comparative study of bifaces. These attributes, in the order in which they appear in Appendix B, are as follows: width of base, medial axis length, width of shoulder, tang width, tang length, notch width, stem width, stem length, maximum thickness, and weight. Beyond these metric attributes, each of the 314 bifaces from the Zemaitis site was examined for a number of non-metric variables. These attributes were in itia lly described by Binford (1963) and

simplified by White (1968). The non-metric attributes are quantified in Appendix C. The most important non-metric variable in the assem­ blage is raw material. The bifaces have been identified as to raw

material sources using a comparative sample from the various source areas described in Chapter I I I of this report.

The other non-metric attributes, in the order in which they

appear in Appendix C, are as follows: hafting element morphology, thermal alteration, symmetry of blade, placement of resharpening of projectile point blade, position of edge wear, type of edge wear, condition of projectile point blade, condition of projectile point

hafting element, basal outline, preparation of base, placement of grinding, degree of grinding, and implied function.

Debitage Classification

According to Clark, a lith ic assemblage represents "a continuum

of reduction processes" (Garland and Clark 1981:20). He believes that i t is the task of the analyst to identify points along the

*>■■■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14

continuum which have significance "not only to the investigator, but in the original systemic context of their manufacture and use as well" (Garland and Clark 1981:20). Clark employed a system for recording this information using terms and classes which were in itia lly devel­ oped in previous studies (Geier 1973; Wobst 1968). In hopes of main­ taining some comparability, this analysis utilized the same categories. These are decortication, primary, secondary, tertiary, blade, block, bipolar, and fragmentary categories. Platform condition was also treated in a similar manner to that utilized by Clark (Garland and

Clark 1981). For this study, the differing debitage categories were examined for the platform attributes of prepared, unprepared, ground, or absent. The condition and preparation of the platform were deemed important in identifying possible shifts in flin t knapping techniques. Platform preparation was considered when

examining the vertical distribution of debitage within the site. The analysis of utilized flakes and unifacial tools proceeded by firs t classifying them as debitage and then describing them separately, noting platform condition, shape and placement of retouch, and use wear. These artifacts were then categorized into certain

familiar types commonly noted in the archaeological literature. Edge

angles for many of the large unifaces were measured using the tech­ niques developed by Wilmsen (1968). Other types of measurements taken by Wilmsen, such as flake metrics and platform angles, were not

recorded.

' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Site Sampling Procedure

The Zemaitis site is extremely rich in cultural debris. The analysis of the lith ic material from Zemaitis began with calculating the various totals. This was accomplished by firs t taking the chert

totals from the original analysis sheets and then adding them to arrive at the maximum quantity of lith ic debris for each unit (see Map 3). These totals included flakes, cores, and finished artifacts The total number of chert items from the Zemaitis site after six years of excavation was 25,891. It was determined by plotting the unit totals on the site map

that because of the extremely large amount of chert debris at Zemaitis and the intensive lith ic analysis herein proposed, some form of sampling strategy would have to be adopted. Therefore, i t was decided to examine fully all complete or relatively complete

projectile points from the provenience units and the surface collec­ tions. This was thought appropriate because sampling of the diag­ nostic bifaces would unnecessarily lim it the u tility of any statisti

cal manipulation of the biface data. Moreover, a full analysis of the bifaces was deemed necessary for developing a projectile point

typology for the site. The second step involved performing a 30% random sample of the provenience units from Zemaitis, analyzing all lith ic material from

these units (see Map 4). The method used in selecting the random sample is as follows: (a) the total number of excavated units was determined; (b) these were numbered from 1 through 146, proceeding

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609.5 606.5 E 6 1 1 3 ZEMAITIS SITE 20 0T 68

N

E

6115 \ 6093 6063s □ □□□ □ n tn 603.5 □uZndBBBQ ET!CIC:zi3^IIEEIEiEn| 6063 a ^ a n n n in n b q 2 n n En d an m □ □ BB 609.5 □3 n u n c Eszmscn n □ B B B Q Q E I ia cusnnnnnin a □ nz o ci a e r E l

0 . 50FT 1-1 1 I I I SCALE

CONTOUR INTERVAL 3 FEET A 8 an Y°u Em

Map 3. Distribution of Debitage: All Classes.

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6125 609.5 60615

ZEMAITIS SITE 20 0T 68

L2J Random

□ Judgement

6095 6065

603.5

6065

609.5

50 FT

SCALE

CONTOUR INTERVAL 3 FEET A ON.OE DATUM Map 4. Location of Random and Judgement Units.

fa .- ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. from north to south and from west to east; and (c) using a table of random numbers, the random sample was selected (Thomas 1976:482-486). In order to determine i f the 30% random sample of the Zemaitis debitage was reasonably representative, the actual results of the

analysis were compared with the expected frequencies generated by the chi-square test of significance. The actual or observed count from the random sample was 8025 and the expected frequency was 7767. The hypothesis tested was whether the Zemaitis random sample repre­ sented a significant departure from the predicted values at the .05 level of significance. The chi-square value of 8.7730 obtained from their comparison did not fall within the realm of rejection, allowing

for the acceptance of the Zemaitis random sample as being representa­ tive of the total population.of lith ic debitage recovered during excavation.

Coding Data for Computer Analysis

Each projectile point was examined for the 32 variables presented. These data were then coded on mark-sense sheets for entry into the Western Michigan University PDP-10 computer using an optical scanner.

After the information had been entered, the raw data were printed out and inspected for errors. Once the errors were corrected, the data were analyzed using the Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) Package through Western Michigan University's Academic Computer

Center.

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Statistical Tests

The statistical analysis proceeded by firs t compiling the descriptive statistics for all of the variables. These included mean, mode, standard deviation, range, etc. Beyond these simple statistics, the independent data were analyzed using the Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient to determine the strength of the relationship between the variables within the sample. The independent variables in this case were metric hafting element attributes of projectile points. The relationship of these variables to one another is very important in any typological study. As Stoltman pointed out: When two of more independent attributes are found in association more often than could be expected by chance alone, we may logi­ cally conclude that i t was the customary behavior of the past artisans that produced the nonrandom patterns. (1973:49) I t is on the basis of nonrandom clusters of attributes that projectile

point types are recognized. According to Thomas (1976:386), the use of correlation coeffi­ cients has a number of desirable properties. These properties are as follows: (a) a value of £ = 0 (estimated by r) indicates that no linear relationship exists between the two variables; (b) the magni­

tude of £ (estimated by jr) denotes the strength of the linear rela­ tionship. Large absolute values of £ indicate a close relationship, while smaller absolute values of £ indicate that )( and Y_ are only slightly related; (c) the sign of £ (+) denotes the direction of the relationship; and (d) the maximum value of £ = +1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation (larger means larger Y), and the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. maximum negative value £ = -1.00 indicates a perfect negative correlation (larger X_ means smaller YJ. The most common statistical test for the significance of a sample correlation coefficient is to determine whether £ differs significantly from zero and, moreover, i f the two variables are correlated. This method has been utilized in this study, and i t follows that the null hypothesis (H0) can be stated:

Hjj: £ = 0 (the two variables are not correlated);

H.i: £ ^ 0 (the two variables are correlated). Extreme values of r. are relatively easy to interpret. As long as rho (r) hovers about zero, one can assume that no substantial degree of correlation exists between the and populations. That is, rho (r) is almost certainly near zero. Similarly, as r. approaches the maximum value of r = ±1.00, linear correlation seems a virtual

certainty. Whenever £ assumes an intermediate value between zero and ±1.00, the correlation coefficient is assessed for statistically significant deviations by chance. This test attempts to determine i f the observed deviation of r from zero is sufficiently large to repre­ sent a rare sampling event. The significance of r. can be calculated

or tested by utilizing distribution tables. The table used in this analysis was derived from Thomas (1976:508). Utilizing this table,

with two degrees of freedom, the critical values of r. at common levels of statistical significance are readily discernible.

According to Thomas, relatively few problems arise when correla­

tion statistics are employed in a purely descriptive fashion. The criteria that must be considered before these bivariate samples are

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. analyzed include (a) precise objective of the analysis, (b) the exact nature of the variables being sampled, and (c) the use of at least interval scales of measurement (Thomas 1976:390). These requirements have been met in the analysis of the Zemaitis biface

hafting element variables. Each variable has been compared with every other variable i f the coefficient could be computed. Note that in analyzing stemmed points, the measurements of stem width and stem length are utilized in lieu of tang width, tang length, and notch width. This has been

done in order to "pull apart" the notched and stemmed point variables for analysis. Thus, the coding method did not allow for the compari­ son of the stemmed and notched variables described above. All metric variables were subjected to this form of analysis with the exception of medial axis length and thickness. The reason these have not been included is that these measurements were taken

on both whole and fragmentary artifacts, while the other measurements were taken only on whole elements of the artifacts. Statistical examination of nominal data obtained from the Zemaitis lith ic material are tested utilizing chi-square and ;t tests.

These simple statistics are familiar to archaeologists; thus, a lengthy discussion of methodology is unwarranted. Although not as powerful as other statistical procedures, these tests provide a means of studying data that are neither ordinal nor interval. The results

of the various statistical tests will be addressed in a later section

of this report.

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Radiocarbon Date Associations

With the assistance of a grant from the Western Michigan Univer­ sity Graduate Research Fund, two radiocarbon determinations on mater­ ial recovered from the excavation at Zemaitis were obtained (see Map 5). The two samples selected represent considerations of associ­ ation, location, and the amount of wood charcoal available for analysis. Because of the cost involved, all of the samples considered for radiocarbon assays were firs t examined by Ms. Katherine Parker, who at the time was the ethnobotanist for the US-31 Berrien County

Freeway Project. Ms. Parker analyzed the specimens for type of charcoal represented, as well as to determine i f the charcoal was of recent origin. The samples were then sent to Beta Analytic Inc., Coral Gables, Florida for analysis. Sample 1 (Beta-6557) consisted of 14 g of black oak charcoal.

The sample was obtained from a fire pit feature located in the center of four contiguous excavation units in the northern area. The char­ coal was recovered from Level 5 of 200N 180W, and i t was assumed to

date the entire feature. The radiocarbon date for this feature was 1400 ± 90 years: A.D. 550. Cultural material recovered from the feature in association with the charcoal sample included both ceramic and lith ic debris (see Table 1). Debitage is also well represented in this feature with 1134 items weighing 507 g. These represent eight different identifiable

exotic raw materials (see Table 2). Upper Mercer chert is the most

frequently occurring identifiable raw material, followed by Norwood

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□ 612.5 609,5 60615

ZEMAITIS SITE 20 OT 68

6005 606uS

603.5

Sampl* 2 A.D.80 609.5

<9

5 OFT

SCALE

CONTOUR INTERVAL 3 FEET A ON.OE DATUM Map 5. Location of Dated Features.

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Table 1 Lithics from Sample 1

Lithic artifact N Raw material

Knives (N = 3) 1 Norwood 1 Bayport fragment 1 Upper Mercer distal fragment Points (N = 1) 1 Norwood distal fragment

Uni facial tools (N = 12) 5 Upper Mercer 4 Bayport 2 Norwood 1 unidentified non-local

Blades (N = 4) 2 Upper Mercer 2 Bayport Cores (N = 5) 2 Bayport 2 local 1 unidentified non-local Utilized flakes (N = 13) 5 Upper Mercer

3 local

1 Bayport 1 Norwood 1 Flint Ridge 1 chalcedony 1 unidentified non-local

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Table 2

Summary of Debitage Raw Material Selection from Dated Features

Feature I Feature II (A.D. 550) (A.D. 80) Raw material

N % N %

Upper Mercer 284 25.0 103 24.5 Norwood 143 12.6 76 18.0 Bayport 57 5.0 53 12.6 Indiana Hornstone 18 1.6 0 0.0 Burlington 14 1.2 24 5.7

Flint Ridge 1 . 0.1 0 0.0 Cobden 0 0.0 1 0.2 Chalcedony 19 1.7 0 0.0

Unidentified non-local 331 29.2 103 24.5 Local 267 23.6 61 14.5

Totals 1134 100 421 100

Total Weight 507. 1 9 188.0 9

and Bayport chert. In addition to these exotic cherts that occur in

relatively high frequencies are four exotic cherts that were rare elsewhere on the site. These manifest low frequencies and include Flint Ridge chert from Ohio, Indiana Hornstone, Burlington chert from Illin o is , and a very high quality translucent chalcedony of unknown origin.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This feature is significant for two reasons: (1) the feature contains eight identifiable exotic raw materials among the large quantity of lith ic debris; and (2) the feature produced both lith ic and ceramic artifacts. The important lith ic artifacts are three triangular knives, two identified exotic cores, and four identified exotic blades. The ceramics from this feature are not fully analyzed at this time and will be described by Lark A. Murphy in a forthcoming study of the Zemaitis ceramics. Another radiocarbon determination was secured from 5.1 g of oak

and white ash charcoal from the remains of a fire pit feature located in two contiguous units in the southern area. Sample 2 (Beta-6558) was actually recovered from 17 cm below ground surface in 100N 50W, and i t is assumed to date the entire feature. The radiocarbon assay for this material is 1870 ± 70 years: A.D. 80. The lith ic tools associated with this feature are summarized in Table 3. The non-tool lith ic debris recovered from this feature totals

421 items, weighing 188 g. As with the other dated feature, identi­

fiable exotic raw materials are well represented (see Table 2). The most frequently occurring identifiable raw material is Upper Mercer chert followed by Norwood and Bayport chert. Of special interest is the presence of 24 examples of Burlington chert from Illin o is , repre­ senting 5.7% of the feature total. The other identified piece of debris found in the feature is an example of Cobden chert from

southern Illin o is. The feature is significant for the following reasons. First, the association of three corner notched points with this early date

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Table 3 Lithics from Sample 2

Lithic artifact N Raw material

Knife (N = 1) 1 unidentified non-local Corner notched points (N = 3) 1 Upper Mercer 1 unidentified non-local

1 Norwood Unifacial tools (N = 6) 3 Upper Mercer 2 local 1 unidentified non-local Cores (N = 2) 1 Upper Mercer 1 Bayport Utilized flakes (N = 5) 2 unidentified non-local

1 Upper Mercer 1 Cobden 1 Norwood

is very important for typological interpretations. These points have affinities with Norton corner notched points, Snyders corner notched points, and Jack's Reef corner notched points. Secondly, the identi­ fiable exotic raw materials found in this feature, while aggregating less by count and weight, occur in proportions that are the same as

those presumably associated with Sample 1 dating roughly 400 years later. Although the five identified raw materials found in the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. earlier dated feature were also found in the other, the feature dated to A.D. 550 had Indiana Hornstone, Flint Ridge chert, and chalcedony, none of which occurs in the earlier feature. Also, i t is interesting that Illinois and Ohio cherts, along with Michigan

cherts, are found together in the earlier dated feature. This may indicate that trade in exotic raw materials was already well estab­ lished between Zemaitis and the regional Hopewell centers to the south and east by A.D. 80 and that this trade continued for almost five centuries given the dates derived from the features in question.

The discussion of the ceramic associations w ill be presented in Lark A. Murphy's forthcoming ceramic analysis of the Zemaitis material.

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UNITS OF ANALYSIS

Bi faces

Of the 314 bifaces and biface fragments from the Zemaitis site, 131 have been identified as projectile points. The placement of the specimens into the projectile point category is based on size and the morphology of their hafting elements. In the event that a

particular biface is intermediate between the corner notched and expanding stemmed forms, i t is placed in a separate category so as to minimize the problem of dividing hafting elements which actually reflect a continuum from one specific category or another.

Corner Notched (N = 66, Plates 1-5, Appendices A-C)

This point category represents the largest number of specimens from the site. There are 46 whole and 20 broken artifacts in this type. These are generally broad bladed, relatively thin points of medium size. Their blade outlines are ovoid or pentagonal, and the

points are fla t or nearly so in cross section. The blade is corner notched; that is, the notches angle upward from the corners of the base. This type of basal treatment produced barbs which are thin and sharp. The preparation of the base consisted, for the most part, of

bifacial thinning (61 of 66). There is also a tendency for these points to exhibit straight (42) rather than convex bases (7).

29

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Plate 1. Corner Notched Projectile Points.

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CENTIMETERS

Plate 3. Corner Notched Projectile Points.

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Plate 4. Corner Notched Projectile Points.

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Plate 5. Corner Notched Projectile Points.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Many of the bifaces show evidence of resharpening. A total of 24 have bifacial bilateral retouch, while 5 have bifacial unilateral retouch. Edge wear is encountered on 55 artifacts, and the position of edge wear is bilateral on 37 specimens and unilateral in 5 cases.

Nibbling is the dominant form of edge wear (N = 27), with rounded edges being the next most frequently encountered (N = 12). Of particular interest with regard to the corner notched points is the high percentage of exotic raw materials represented (Table 4). Upper Mercer chert is by far the most popular, with 33 of 66 speci­

mens (50%) being made on this chert. Other important identifiable materials are Bayport (N = 9), Norwood (N = 6), Indiana Hornstone (N = 3), and Burlington (N = 3).

Expanding Stemmed (N = 42, Plates 6-10, Appendices A-C)

This projectile point type is the second most frequent in occurrence at the Zemaitis site. There are a total of 30 whole and 12 broken artifacts placed in this category. The blades of these bifaces range from triangular to ovate in form and from fairly small

to quite large in size. The hafting element is formed by the removal

of flakes from the basal portion of a preform, which results in a base more narrow than the shoulder of the projectile point. More specific metric variables are given in Appendix B of this report. The cross section of these bifaces are biconvex or plano-convex, and they are relatively thick. The bases range from concave to con­

vex, with subconvex being the most frequent treatment. The majority

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CO CT> 7 8 7 42 111 314 Total 1 66 1 1 2 6 6 1.5 5.4 14.3 14.3 28.6 t i l l 24.7 Local

1 1 2 6 18 73 8.2 56 35 14.3 14.3 non­ local Unident, 1 10 1 30 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.9 27.0 Purple 1 1 6 0 0 0 0 2.4 2.4 14.3 0.0 0.0 Cobden 3 1 3 0 7.1 0.0 4.5 0.0 1.5 15.2 12.5 0.0 0.0 25.0 12.5 lington Bur­ 1 1 0 1 3 0 1 0 2.4 0.0 1.4 0.0 4.5 12.5 Ind. Horn- stone Table Table 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 6 0 1.5 1.4 0.0 0.0 7.2 5.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.3 0.0 0.0 Flint Ridge 1 2 7 9.6 9.1 12.6 12.5 0.0 31.0 28.6 Nor­ 42.9 wood 1 1 3 0 2 11 13 15 14 52 46 2 13 15 1 3 14.3 17.8 13.5 14.3 25.0 port Bay- 1 0 0 32 9 6 1 Summary of Raw Material of Raw Selection for Summary Biface Categories 0.0 26.2 0.0 0.0 91 14.3 37.0 27.9 48.5 13.6 Upper Mercer N N % % N % N 27 13 % % N % % Totals Point Point category Intermediate contracting Expanding stemmed Straight/ stemmed Side Side notched N 0 Corner notchedCorner N Undetermined N 31 Note. of = Percentage % total for category. Triangular

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Plate 6. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points.

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Plate 7. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points.

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Plate 8. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points.

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Plate 9. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points.

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Plate 10. Expanding Stemmed Projectile Points, a-e, Steuben f - j , Dustin/Lamoka

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of the bases (34 of 42) are bifacially thinned, with two specimens being uni facially thinned.

I t is noteworthy that almost half of the expanding stemmed bifaces (N = 18) have asymmetric blades. This is interpreted as

evidence of resharpening. Furthermore, an asymmetric blade may indicate that this artifact type functioned predominately as a knife. Edge wear is fairly common, with only six exhibiting no edge wear. Twenty-three have edge wear present on both lateral surfaces, while six show wear on only one edge. The dominant types of edge wear are

nibbled (N = 14) and rounded (N = 13). The selection for raw material also shows some definite trends. First, there are no expanding stemmed points manufactured on Upper Mercer chert, as compared with almost one-half of the corner notched points being fabricated on this material. The principal raw materi­

als utilized here are Norwood (N = 13) and Bayport (N = 11). Another

notable exotic raw material is Burlington chert (N = 3). Six points are produced on locally available t i l l cherts.

Triangular (N = 8, Plate 11, Appendices A-C)

This group of projectile points is distinguished from triangular knives by the relative lack of size and thickness so characteristic of Zemaitis knives. Triangular knives typically have some form of use wear visible on the lateral margins. Generally, the triangular projectile points are produced with minimal effort by only slightly

modifying a flake blank. In most cases the original flake surface is s till visible on a portion of the artifact. None of these

c ♦ ft-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 0 1 2 3 4 5

CENTIMETERS

Plate 11. Triangular Projectile Points.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. artifacts have visible edge wear. Some have straight sides, while others exhibit somewhat concave lateral margins. The bases are usually straight, but there are at least two examples of concave bases and one specimen has a convex base. Beyond basal thinning, no other steps were taken to facilitate hafting. Seven of the eight artifacts in this category are produced on locally available t i l l chert.

Side Notched (N = 8, Plates 12 and 13, Appendices A-C)

This group of projectile points consists of five whole and three fragmentary specimens. All are characterized by notches which are oriented perpendicular to the point axis. The blades usually are symmetrical and their cross section biconvex. Four of the bifaces show some form of resharpening and four have edge wear which indi­

cates their use as knives. The bases of four of these artifacts are subconcave or concave, with one base being convex and one straight. None of the side notched points display any grinding on the hafting element. Five of the

specimens show bifacial thinning on the hafting element, while two are unifacially thinned. The side notched points are produced on a wide range of raw material. Bayport is the most frequent identifiable raw material (N = 2), with Norwood, Indiana Hornstone, and Burlington each represented by one example. One of the bifaces is produced on local raw material and the two remaining points are manufactured from

unidentified non-local raw material.

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Plate 12. Miscellaneous Bifaces. a-e, Straight stemmed/contracting stemmed projectile points f-g, Large corner notched projectile points h-k, Miscellaneous bifaces

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Plate 13. Miscellaneous Projectile Points.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Straight Stemmed/Contracting Stemmed (N=7, Plate 12, Appendices A-C)

As a group, these points display a great deal of variability in size and workmanship and are represented by six whole and one broken specimen. The majority of the artifact blades are asymmetrical, having biconvex cross sections (N = 5). As the type name suggests, these points are characterized by a straight or slightly contracting stem. The basal outlines vary: three have straight, one a convex, and one a concave basal outline. Resharpening is evident on four of the seven, which indicates their use as knives. Also, five of these points show some form of edge wear. The types of raw material selec­ ted for these bifaces vary. Norwood is the most popular with two examples. Upper Mercer, Bayport, and an unidentified non-local chert are represented by one example each. Two of the points are manufactured on local t i l l cherts.

Intermediate Notched/Expanding Stemmed (N = 7, Plate 10, Appendices A-C)

This category of biface is used for placing those points which did not readily f i t into either the corner notched or the expanding stemmed categories. I t is represented by four whole and three frag­ mentary specimens. All are basally thinned to facilitate hafting, and one is bifacially ground. Like the expanding stemmed variety, none of these are manufactured on Upper Mercer chert. Norwood chert is the most popular raw material with three examples. Bayport, Burlington, and an unidentified non-local chert are represented in

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the sample by one specimen each. One biface from this group occurs on local t i l l chert.

Triangular Knives (N = 38, Plates 14-16, Appendices A-C)

These bifaces display great diversity in size, workmanship, and raw material. As noted above, they are differentiated from triangular projectile points by their overall size and the presence of use wear on the lateral margins of the knives. Of 38 bifaces in this category, 35 specimens have definite edge wear, while the remainder had indeter­ minant edge wear. The dominant type of edge wear is rounding (N = 20), followed by nibbling (N = 12). The blade margins are usually straight to slightly concave and biconvex in cross section. Resharp­ ening is evident on at least 12 of these artifacts and may account for the asymmetrical blade outline exhibited by many of these bifaces. The bases are usually straight, but concave and convex examples do occur. Beyond basal thinning, no other preparation for hafting is apparent. However, many of these artifacts are more than likely hafted, as haft wear is present on a number of specimens. No one raw material is favored over another in the production of this biface.

Preforms (N = 25, Plates 16-18, Appendix A)

The term preform was originally introduced by Crabtree in 1964. According to White (1968:31), the term is used in reference to "bifacially retouched artifacts which have not been completed." The Zemaitis preforms are represented by 12 whole and 13 fragmentary specimens. The majority would f i t into White's "sub-triangular

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 14. Triangular Knives.

■*.- •

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Plate 15. Triangular Knives.

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' • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 17. Preforms.

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CENTIMCTERS

Plate 18. Preforms.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. variety" (1968:48), exhibiting subconvex lateral edges and a biconvex cross section. The bases are either convex or straight, and all are bifacially thinned. Many of these are fragmentary, having been broken during attempts at further modification and thin­

ning. Yet i t is interesting that there are a relatively large number of unmodified preforms (N = 25) from the site. I t appears as i f only certain raw materials.were brought to the Zemaitis site as preforms, most notably Upper Mercer chert (16 of 25, or 64%). This is not a

surprising observation, considering the very long distance to the source area in central Ohio.

Drills (N = 18, Plate 19, Appendix A)

The drills from the Zemaitis site are represented by 11 whole

and 7 fragmentary examples. The blade morphology of the d rills , when evident, is long and narrow with a steep biconvex cross section. The blade margins have been subjected to steep marginal retouch, and edge wear is usually present. The basal configuration varies with stemmed, notched, and unprepared examples in the assemblage. At

least one of the d rills from the Zemaitis site is produced on a broken notched point (Plate 19:d). No particular selection for raw

material is evident.

Bifacial Combination Tools (N = 2, Plate 20:a and b)

This grouping is retained for two unique examples of bifacial

tools from the Zemaitis site. These are believed to have been utilized for more than one purpose. They have one concave lateral

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4

0 12 3 4 5

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Plate 19. Drills.

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Plate 20. Bifacial Tools. a-b, Bifacial combination tools c -j, Bifacial scrapers k-o, Bifacial wedges

' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 margin, resembling what have been referred to as a spoke shave elsewhere. The remaining lateral margin is also bifacially retouched and utilized, but its configuration is convex. In both cases, the entire tool has been subjected to some form of bifacial modification. One of these artifacts is produced on Bayport chert while the other is on Upper Mercer chert.

Bifacial Scrapers (N = 8, Plate 20:b)

Bifacial scrapers are distinguished from other scrapers by the

presence of flake scars on both faces of the specimens. Some are more than likely reworked sections of preforms which were subsequently utilized. None of the Zemaitis examples appear to have been hafted, and basal preparation is minimal. Although some of the artifacts are utilized preform discards, others appear to have been manufactured

directly from decortication and primary flakes. No specific selec­

tion for raw material is evident.

Bifacial Wedges (N = 5, Plate 20:c)

This category of artifacts is distinguished from bipolar wedges

by the technique of manufacture, not by their implied function. They can be described as fairly large, coarsely flaked bifaces with wide, fla t, battered proximal ends that thin toward fairly sharp distal

ends. Unlike bipolar wedges, these specimens have flakes removed bifacially from the lateral margins as well as the base. In all

cases, use wear in the form of battering, nibbling, or crushing is present on the distal and proximal ends. This is an important

V. ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. criterion in distinguishing this tool form from broken preforms. Wedges have been interpreted as being used as wood or bone working implements in previous works (Ranere 1975:186-190; Sorensen 1978:40).

Biface Fragments (N = 110)

This group of bifaces came primarily from the random and judge­ ment units and therefore represents only a sample of the total excavated population of bifaces. Of this number, 47 are distal frag­ ments. I t is impossible to distinguish between fragments that were

broken during use and those broken during manufacture, except when edge wear is present. S till, the presence of these fragments is a general indicator of biface manufacture as well as use at the Zemaitis site.

Biface Typology

The comparison of the Zemaitis projectile points with other regional types shows that the site was inhabited primarily during the Middle Woodland Period, with a minor occupation in the Late Woodland Period. The most frequently occurring biface in the Zemaitis assem­

blage is the corner notched form. This point category has affinities with a number of recognized point types. The Zemaitis corner notched points are similar to the Jack's Reef corner notched points described by Ritchie (1971:26-27). Similar points are also found at the Riviere Au Vase site (Fitting 1965:PI ate XXV). Corner notched points with affinities to those found at Zemaitis have also been recovered from the Norton Mound site (White 1968), the Hacklander site (Sorensen

K;, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59

1978:Plates V III-X I), the Mushroom site (Stout 1984:Figures 8 and 9), the Spoonville site (Dr. Richard Flanders, personal communication), and the Schultz site (Fitting 1972). Beyond these, the Zemaitis corner notched points are also similar to the Illino is varieties of Snyders corner notched and Mankers corner notched points (White 1968). In order to determine how closely related the Zemaitis corner notched points are to those mentioned above, they were compared utilizing the student t statistic at the .05 level of significance. Only those measurements that are directly comparable are used (see Table 5). It is apparent that the Zemaitis corner notched points are smaller than the Norton corner notched type in every applicable meas­

urement, although their overall morphology is very similar. The same is true for the Snyders corner notched points and the Mankers corner notched points.

Similarities significant at the .05 level occur between the Zemaitis corner notched points and corner notched points from the Riviere Au Vase site in the variables of medial axis length, shoulder width, and tang length. The width of the bases of the Zemaitis corner notched points are larger than the Riviere Au Vase corner

notched points, and the Zemaitis form is thinner. The Zemaitis corner notched points are significantly related at the .05 level to the Hacklander corner notched points in the variables of width of base, width of shoulder, tang width, and tang length. The Zemaitis form is longer than that of the Hacklander corner notched

points, and the Zemaitis corner notched points are thinner.

\. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. o> o s .49 X 2.32 .32 1.88 .19 5.66 3.36 .49 Mankers s N .19 13 .47 11 .19 13 X 2.78 1.25 .25 12 1.00 .25 Snyders N 21 27 2.14 21 X

.74 2 3.70 13 6.91 1.11 11 N Schultz s .49 .34 .6 .16 10 X 1.3 Hacklander 18 2.1 27 .8 .23 33 s N .48 25.58 1.8 .46 10 1.76 .14 X .86 1.30 2.99 Table Table 5 7 7 8 .59 .12 Riviere Au Vase s N X 2.47 .27 8 1.82 .20 28 7.28 .81 Norton 29 29 .7 .14 from Regional Middle Woodland Sites Middle Woodland Regional from s N .12 Comparison of Corner Notched Point of Attributes Notched Corner Comparison X .62 .14 .85 .20 .54 1.34 .25 29 2.05 .50 29 4.14 .42 8 2.15 .31 27 2.1 .43 7 3.00 25 5.45 Zemaitis N 57 46 1.81 .33 58

to to 1 CO m .52-.56 66 Range® 1.91-2.19 57 2.60-3.04 40 2.82 .69 29 Acceptable

length Base 1.71-1.91 thickness Shoulder Tang widthTang 1.28-1.40 Notch Notch width Note: A ll 1n centimeters. measurements Medial axis Attributes Tang Tang lenqth .79-.91 60 Acceptable range 1s at the .05 level of significance. Maximum

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Finally, the Zemaitis corner notched points are significantly related to the Schultz corner notched points in the width of base variable, and i t is smaller in the remaining comparable variables. Based on these comparative data, i t appears that the Zemaitis corner notched points are most closely related to the Hacklander corner notched points and the corner notched varieties recovered from the Riviere Au Vase site. The fact that the Zemaitis corner notched points are only significantly related to the Schultz corner notched points in one variable is viewed as indicating less affinity between the Zemaitis and Schultz forms. Beyond these metrical comparisons, the Zemaitis corner notched points are found to reach their peak occurrence strati graphically below the other point types at the site (between 4"-8"), and they remain the dominant form for the entire occupation. This point type

is found in direct association with radiocarbon Sample 2, dated to A.D. 80 ± 70 years. Although the Zemaitis corner notched points are statistically related to the Hacklander and Riviere Au Vase forms, they are also stylistically similar to the Norton, Snyders, and Mankers corner

notched points. The differences in size are believed to be related to the utilitarian nature of the Zemaitis corner notched points, as compared with the mortuary contexts of the Norton, Snyders, and Mankers corner notched forms. These differences are more fully

addressed later in this report. In short, the corner notched point types most closely affiliated with the Zemaitis form date to the Middle Woodland or Early Late

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 Woodland period, an observation consistent with the radiocarbon age of this form at the Zemaitis site. The next most popular biface is the expanding stemmed point. This artifact category is represented by 47 specimens. The Zemaitis expanding stemmed point has affinities with the small variety of expanding stemmed points described by Fitting (1972:Figure 62) from the Schultz site. The Zemaitis expanding stemmed points also share affinities with some of the expanding stemmed bifaces recovered from the Mushroom site (Stout 1984:Figure 8), the Hacklander site (Soren­ sen 1978-.Plates II-V I), and the Spoonville site (Michael Higgins, personal communication). Similar points have also been recovered in

Late Hopewell contexts in Illinois at the Steuben Village and Mounds site (Morse 1963:PI ate V III, Figure 1). In order to determine how closely related the Zemaitis expanding

stemmed points and other regional types are, they were compared using

the Student's t Distribution. However, not all of the expanding stemmed points having similarities afforded comparable data (i.e .,

Steuben and Spoonville), and only those measurements which are directly applicable have been utilized for comparison (see Table 6).

The results of the comparison of the Zemaitis expanding stemmed point with those expanding stemmed points recovered from the Mushroom site indicate that the two biface forms are similar at the .05 level of significance in the variables of width of base, stem width, and maximum thickness of the artifacts. The Zemaitis expanding stemmed

points are longer in medial axis length and stem length, but have a narrower shoulder width than the Mushroom expanding stemmed points.

’ • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. cr> co s .14 X N 76 .91 s .25 76 2.45 .42 .13 small Schultz - large X 1.40 .163.25 .33 76 1.56 39 .21 5.01 .73 2.03 N

77 Schultz - 90 93 .78 s .44 .6 .18 X 1.7 1.0 .18 N 41 S .17 32 .19 X .95 .80 1.86 .30 35 1.49 .25 39 1.3 .36 3.55 .87 23 2.3 .71 Table Table 6 N 21 25 25 24 25 s 1.25 X from Regional Middle Woodland Sites Middle Woodland Regional from .77 .26 1.78 .48 1.35 .41 1.19 .23 1.93 .52 21 2.33 .51 28 2.1 .46 91 4.06 Zemaitis Mushroom Hacklander N 29 42 Comparison of Expanding Stemmed Point Attributes Stemmed of Expanding Comparison .71-.83 Range 1.60-1.96 30 3.59-4.53 Acceptable

thickness length Note. All In measurements centimeters. Acceptable range Is at the .05 level of significance. Stem Stem length 1.11-1.27 33 Base widthStem 1.21-1.49 36 Shoulder 1.75-2.11 37 Medial axis Attributes Maximum

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Analysis of the similarities between the Schultz small and large expanding stemmed points and the Zemaitis expanding form produced some interesting results. While the Zemaitis points are significantly similar to the Schultz small expanding stemmed specimens in the vari­

ables of width of shoulder and maximum thickness of the artifact, they are larger than the Schultz small expanding stemmed form in medial axis length and the width of base values. In relationship to the Schultz large expanding stemmed points, the Zemaitis form is smaller in every comparable variable at the .05 level of significance. The last group of expanding stemmed points utilized for compar­

ison with those from Zemaitis consists of expanding stemmed points recovered from the Hacklander site. The Hacklander points are significantly similar to those from Zemaitis in the width of base, shoulder, and stem width variables, but the latter are larger than

Hacklander points in medial axis length, stem length, and maximum thickness of the artifacts. Of special interest beyond these metrical comparisons is the observation that Bayport chert accounted for 26% of the expanding stemmed bifaces from Zemaitis, while the total sample of lith ic

materials contains only 6% Bayport chert. This seemed to indicate that both raw material and the manner in which i t was to be utilized were involved in the trading relationship between southeastern Michigan and Zemaitis. Another interesting fact concerning raw material is that none of the expanding stemmed points are produced on

Upper Mercer chert, while this raw material accounts for 50% of the corner notched points and aggregates 27% of the total assemblage.

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In regard to the age affiliation of the Zemaitis expanding stemmed points, none was found in direct association with the two radiocarbon samples and, therefore, age assignment is tentative. Fitting (1972) assigned similar bifaces to a Middle Woodland component at Schultz, as does Stout (1984) for the Mushroom form. Considering the strong Middle Woodland presence at Zemaitis, these bifaces are presumably Middle Woodland in age. There are two other forms of expanding stemmed points that are

morphologically different enough to warrant further comparison and

discussion. The firs t consists of fairly small, narrow, thick points similar to those described by Fitting (1972:Figure 63, A) as Dustin/ Lamoka points (see Plate 10: f - j ). According to Fitting, these points are found at the Schultz site in an exclusively Middle Woodland con­ text (1972:203). Considering the radiocarbon assays from Zemaitis and the temporal placement of these points at Schultz, I believe that

they are temporally Middle Woodland at the Zemaitis site. The other expanding stemmed points are illustrated in Plate 10:

a-e. These points are very similar to the Illinois type Steuben expanding stemmed (Morse 1963:PIate V III, Figure I) . This type is temporally Late Middle Woodland, and considering the age affiliatio n for the other projectile points recovered from the Zemaitis site, this temporal placement seems correct. Adding strength to this pro­ posed affiliatio n is the fact that three of the six specimens are

produced on Burlington chert from Illino is.

The straight stemmed and contracting stemmed points from the Zemaitis site show some similarities to those recovered from other

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sites, yet as a group they vary. One specimen (Plate 12:e) is similar to the Early Woodland Kramer point (Perino 1968:Plate XXII). This biface is manufactured on Indiana Hornstone and is heavily reworked; therefore, assignment to a type must be tentative. Another biface (Plate 12:d) is morphologically similar to what has been called the Adena point (Ritchie 1971:Plate I ) , although i t is quite a bit smaller than the majority of specimens so identified. The other artifacts in this category are questionable as to their affiliatio n . The next most frequent projectile point with analogs in the archaeological literature are eight triangular projectile points which are assigned to the Levanna and Madison types (see Table 7; Ritchie 1971:Plates XV-XVI). These points, typically considered Late Woodland, are probably associated with the two collared vessels that Brashler (1981) identified as representing a limited Late Woodland

occupation of the Zemaitis site. i

Table 7 Metrical and Non-Metrical Attributes of the Levanna-Madison Points

x Medial - Thickness N. x Base Axis Length micxness x Wt. Raw Material

8 1.76 cm 2.37 cm .47 cm 1.49 g 6 t i l l chert 2 Norwood

If-.- • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 67 Results of Statistical Tests

In his discussion of the applicability of the correlation

coefficient statistic to biface attributes, Thomas (1976:387) per­

formed the procedure on a number of biface variables similar to

those used in the Zemaitis analysis. His results displayed a rather

high correlation coefficient value, but not a perfect linear relation­

ship. From these results, Thomas determined that even though a

perfect linear relationship did not exist, the measurements were

"quite redundant and should produce quite similar results in any

typological scheme" (Thomas 1976:387).

In Thomas's case, he had attempted to examine whether certain

measurements could be eliminated or estimated from a single measure­

ment. This statistic could be used, for example, to estimate measure­

ments of broken projectile points if a high correlation coefficient

were obtained from a sample of similarly complete projectile points.

For this analysis, the redundancy Thomas refers to is viewed

as indicating a high degree of homogeneity in the Zemaitis assemblage.

That is, a significantly high degree of correlation obtained from the

comparison of all but one of the hafting element variables supports

the point typology proposed in this report. When analyzing the

Zemaitis bifaces, hafting element morphology is the primary basis for

separating the bifaces into various categories. The strong results

derived from performing this test on the hafting element attributes

of the Zemaitis specimens clearly support the proposed separation.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Pearson Product-Moment test is utilized for comparing the variables of base width and tang width (see Table 8) of 56 notched points. The resulting correlation coefficient of +0.6213 is signif­ icant beyond the .01 level, indicating a strong positive linear relationship. It is assumed from this relationship, that the notched points have lit t le variability in regard to morphology. This rela­ tionship is not based on the size of the projectile points, only that an increase or decrease in one variable is associated with a propor­ tionately similar change in the other variable.

Base width and tang length comparisons on 55 notched points yields a correlation coefficient of +0.4610. This value is also significant at the .01 level. Again, a strong positive linear relationship is indicated for the two variables. That is, the

length of the tang in relationship to basal width was an important criterion in biface manufacture at the Zemaitis site. Base width and notch width are also significantly related. Of the 53 bifaces analyzed for these data, the calculated correlation coefficient is +0.3436. Although the relationship is not quite as strong as those already discussed, the variables are significantly

related at the .02 level of significance. This would indicate that less emphasis was given the placement and size of notches in relation­ ship to the other basal elements on the Zemaitis notched bifaces.

Tang width and tang length comparison of 67 notched bifaces produces a correlation coefficient of +0.3783. This is significant at the .01 level of confidence. As with the variables mentioned above, a fa irly strong linear relationship is indicated. From these

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Table 8 Pearson Correlation Coefficients

Base Tang Tang Notch Stem Stem width length width width length

Base 1.0000a 0b

Tang width 0.6213 1.0000 56 0

Tang length 0.4610 0.3783 1.0000 55 67 0

Notch width 0.3436 0.3587 0.7724 1.0000 53 64 69 0

Stem width 0.8420 99.0000 99.0000 99.0000 1.0000 37 0 0 0 0

Stem length 0.3048 99.0000 99.0000 99.0000 0.5525 1.0000 37 0 0 0 38 0

Note. 99.0000 = coefficient cannot be computed. Coefficient

bCases

results i t appears that the proportion of base width to tang length in the configuration of the Zemaitis notched projectile points was also an important factor in the production of these bifaces. Quite similar results occur with the correlation coefficient of tang width and notch width. With a sample size of 64, the coefficient

of +0.3587 from their comparison is significant at the .01 level.

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As with other strong associations, the linear relationship is quite

clear. The attributes that display the highest correlation coefficient among the notched bifaces is tang length with notch width. The correlation coefficient resulting from the comparison of 69 specimens is +0.7724. The coefficient calculated for this sample is signifi­ cant well above the .01 level of confidence, and an extremely strong linear relationship between the variables is indicated.

The Pearson Product-Moment test is also used to compare the stemmed point attributes. The comparison of base width with stem width on 37 specimens results in the most impressive correlation coefficient in this analysis. The comparison of these two variables yields a value of +0.8420; also significant beyond the .01 level of confidence. I t appears from these results that basal width and stem

width are highly related in the morphological makeup of the Zemaitis

stemmed bi faces. The comparison of basal width and stem length from a sample of 37 stemmed bifaces exhibits the only nonsignificant correlation value calculated. Unlike the variables discussed above, the correlation

coefficient value of +0.3048 is not significant at the .05 level. The .05 level of confidence is the minimum level for rejecting the alternative hypothesis and, therefore, I conclude that these two variables are not significantly correlated. This is not to say that the two variables are totally unrelated. I f this were the case, a

value of .0000 would be expected. In fact, the two variables are related at the .10 level of significance. One could infer from these

%■ ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 71 results that the stem length and width of base porportion was less important to the tool manufacturers than other attributes discussed in this analysis. The final pair of attributes on which correlation coefficients have been run is stem length and stem width. The result of this comparison of 38 examples produces a coefficient of +0.5525. This value is significant beyond the .01 level. In relation to the other stemmed point hafting element attributes, this comparison demonstrates

a moderately strong linear relationship. With these data, i t is

concluded that the proportion of stem length to stem width was a fairly important consideration in the manufacture of these bifaces

at the Zemaitis site.

Blades

The Zemaitis site lith ic assemblage contains 44 blades (Plates

21 and 22). These blades are long, thin, parallel sided, and exhibit two or three flake scars on their dorsal surfaces. It is believed that their major use was as knives and, thus, no further modification

of the artifact was necessary. Many of the Zemaitis blades have continuous retouch on one lateral edge as well as retouch on the distal end. Platform preparation consists of various forms of fac­ eting. Of special interest is the fact that all blades are produced

on identifiable exotic and unidentified non-local raw materials (Table 9). Most of these are identifiable, but others are excep­

tionally fine-grained and translucent cherts with no known counter­ part in the literature. While blades are not restricted to Hopewell

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centimeters

Plate 21. Blades.

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CENTIMETERS

Plate 22. Blades.

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Raw Material Breakdown for Zemaitis Blades

Raw Material N %

Upper Mercer 13 29.5 Bayport 8 18.2 Norwood 7 15.9 Burlington 5 11.4 Indiana Hornstone 2 4.5 Chalcedony 3 6.8 Unidentified Nonlocal 6 13.6

Totals 44 100.0

sites in the eastern United States, they are usually considered Hopewellian, especially when produced on exotic raw materials from

prepared cores (Morse 1963:34; White 1968:93).

Uni facial Artifacts

These artifacts were defined by Crabtree as tools that were only flaked on one surface (Crabtree 1972:97). Being intentionally modi­

fied differentiates unifaces from utilized flakes. It is assumed that the modification of the uni faces was accomplished by the pressure flaking technique. Specific flake metrics, such as flake length and

width are not analyzed. Edge angles are studied using the technique

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. developed by Wilmsen (1968), and spine angles are also recorded on

the suggestion of Caven Clark (personal communication). General unifacial tool categories are defined using a simplified version of White's (1968) typology. The three utilized in this study

are side modified uni faces, end modified uni faces, and combination uni faces.

Side Modified Uni faces (N = 49, Plate 23)

This uni face category is characterized by uni facial retouch

along one or both lateral margins. They are commonly referred to as side scrapers (White 1968:87), while others may have served as crude knives. Their working edges are usually convex and parallel to the long axis of the flake. Use wear is frequently present on the a rti­ fact. The edge and spine angles average 62° and 18°, respectively.

End Modified Uni faces (N = 16, Plate 24:a-e, g, h)

This category of uni faces is well represented at the Zemaitis site. As a rule, these artifacts are characterized by very steep uni facial retouch, with most having edge angles greater than 60°.

Artifacts in this group include the so-called thumbnail scraper (see Plate 24:a-e). The relatively high frequency of this artifact in its classic form indicates its importance to the inhabitants of

Zemaitis.

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CENTIMETERS .

Plate 23. Side Modified Uni faces.

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• m

2 3 4 5

CENTIMETERS

Plate 24. Unifaces. a-e, g-h, End modified unifaces f , i-n, Combination uni faces

*?. ■ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Combination Uni faces (N = 7, Plate 2 4 :f, i-n )

These artifacts are characterized by having more than one retouched edge. Commonly their edges exhibit one concave lateral edge, with the second being either notched or convex. The edge angles also d iffer, indicating that these tools may have served a variety of functions. Usually no one retouched edge shows more use wear than the other. For this reason, edge angles for combination artifacts are not used to infer function.

Cores

According to White, the term "core refers to a block, or nodule,

from which flakes are detached" (White, Binford, and Papworth 1963:6). The Zemaitis site contains 23 cores which are divided into three categories: block cores, plano-convex cores, and core fragments.

Another core type is recognized, but because the specimens are fe lt to represent a different reduction process, they will be described below under Bipolar Cores.

Block Cores (N = 17, Plates 25 and 26)

Block cores have been described by Binford and Papworth (1963: 83) as "characterized by a relatively fla t straight face from which flakes are removed." They can be worked from two platforms, but generally are only worked from one. These are the most common core at the Zemaitis site. In most cases, thereis no natural cortex

' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 25. Upper Mercer Block and Plano-Convex Cores.

if.:- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 26. Block and Plano-Convex Cores.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. remaining on any surface of these cores. This core type is found on imported as well as local raw materials (see Table 10).

Table 10 Summary of Core Attributes from Random and Judgement Units

Raw material Units N Wt x Wt (in g) (in g) Upper Bay­ Unident, Local Nor­ Mercer port non-local t i l l wood

Random 13 148.9 11.5 3 1 1 3 5

Judgement 10 103.6 10.4 2 3 1 4 0

Plano-Convex Cores (N = 6, Plates 25 and 26)

This core is less common at the Zemaitis site. According to Fitting (1972:191), i t may have functioned as both a blade and a flake core. It is described as having one convex surface and one

relatively fla t surface. The fla t side served as the striking plat­ form for the removal of a series of flakes from the edges. Three specimens of this core type are of Upper Mercer, one is Norwood, one is Bayport, and one is unidentified non-local chert (Table 10).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Core Fragments

These core remnants are unidentifiable for various reasons. They are produced during the reduction of larger cores into nuclei which are too small for additional hand-held flaking. In some cases, platforms are totally lacking or crushed.

Bipolar Artifacts

In this study, bipolar artifacts are separated into two cate­ gories: bipolar cores and wedges. Debitage with bipolar damage is

treated separately from other lith ic debris. In general, bipolar artifacts always display battering and/or crushing on opposed ends. The platforms usually exhibit multiple step or hinge fractures. Many of these artifacts have flake scars running parallel from one plat­

form to the other.

Bipolar Cores (N = 21, Plate 27)

This core is fa irly rare at the Zemaitis site. The bipolar core has been described at length by Binford and Quimby (1963), McPherron (1966), Fitting (1968), and Sorensen (1978). The Zemaitis bipolar cores share many attributes with the six kinds of cores described by Binford and Quimby (1963). In this analysis these artifacts are not

separated into categories, inasmuch as there are no significant differences between the six. The main criterion for categorizing these artifacts is whether they are unutilized core remnants or had functioned as core tools. The bipolar cores from the Zemaitis site

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I 2 3 4 5

CENTIMCTERS

Plate 27. Bipolar Cores.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are very small in relation to the other cores described above. In most cases, the raw material utilized was local t i l l chert pebbles of fairly high quality. Some of these cores retain remnants of the original cobble cortex.

Bipolar Wedges (N = 12, Plate 28)

Bipolar wedges have been recognized for some time in the archae­ ological literature (Binford and Quimby 1963; McPherron 1966; Wright 1964). In this study, bipolar wedges are differentiated from bipolar

cores by basic morphology and the presence of use wear beyond that produced during bipolar reduction. In other words, they appear to have functioned as a tool after being exhausted as a core. Alterna­ tively, perhaps this tool form was produced by the bipolar technique for a specific purpose. For an artifact to be placed into the

bipolar wedge category, i t had to have use wear present. The most frequent type of wear on this artifact is nibbling.

Quartzite Choppers

This artifact is morphologically a very large decortication

flake (Plates 29 and 30). In all cases (N = 10), some remnant of the original cortex is present. All are produced on high-grade quartz-

ites, and there seems to be a gradation in size of the artifacts. All of the choppers have edge wear on the distal margins in the form of rounding and polishing. I t is not known what function they served,

but that they share similar morphology warranted their treatment as an artifact. I t has been suggested by Dr. Flanders (personal

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CENTIMETERS

Plate 28. Bipolar Wedges.

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Plate 29. Quartzite Choppers.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 30. Quartzite Choppers.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. communication) that these artifacts may have served in the in itia l stages of wood working. Their general form could also have proved useful in a wide range of digging and scraping activities.

Utilized Flakes

Utilized flakes are the most frequently occurring non-bifacial artifact found at the site (N = 112). Only the utilized flakes from the random and judgement units are analyzed. These specimens were in itia lly analyzed as debitage, then treated as tools, noting raw materials, type of flake, platform preparation, and type of edge wear. Utilized flakes are differentiated from uni facial artifacts

by the latter having been purposefully retouched, while the former was used without alteration. The majority of the utilized flake tools are produced on primary flakes. These flakes are larger and thicker than those produced by further reduction techniques. I t is not known how many of these flakes were produced for a specific purpose, but surely some were. The others probably reflected selec­ tion for their natural morphology. The basic methods employed to analyze unifaces are similar to

those used in analyzing utilized flakes. No flake metrics are recorded, but the artifacts are weighed. It is interesting to note that the basic categories of utilized flakes are very similar to the uniface categories, which may indicate that they served similar purposes. Indeed, many of the uni faces may be resharpened utilized

flakes.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89 Generally, the platforms of utilized flakes are unprepared. The use wear is most frequent on the lateral margins of these tools. It does appear that raw material was a criterion for selecting flakes to be utilized. Over 90% of the utilized flakes are of identifiable

exotic raw material. Furthermore, the sheer numbers in this category, in relation to others, indicate the importance of utilized flake tools to the prehistoric inhabitants of Zemaitis.

Non-Chipped Lithics

The non-chipped lithics from the Zemaitis site are analyzed using the methods and terminology developed by the author in conjunc­ tion with Lark A. Murphy for the US-31 Project (Garland 1984). The categories which apply are familiar in the archaeological literature. Non-chipped lithics from only the random and judgement units are

analyzed. The analysis proceeds by grouping all of the non-chipped lithics into three general rock types (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary).

This is done to determine i f there was any cultural selection in rock types for specific tools. As with the US-31 material, there is no apparent preference for igneous or metamorphic rocks for hammer- stones or pitted cobbles, as long as the stone was of high quality. For these artifacts, size and shape appear to have been the primary

criteria in the selection for use as tools. Artifacts which show selection for raw materials include combination tools, celts, axes,

and abraders. The combination tools are more than 70% igneous, while

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the celts, axes, and abraders are all indicative of purposeful selec­ tion for a specific raw material.

Hammerstones (N = 9, Plate 31)

The artifacts in this grouping are defined on the basis of their size and morphology. They are igneous or high-grade metamorphic stones that are small enough to be held in one hand. These tools

exhibit shallow diffuse battering on at least one surface, usually an end or edge. The function of hammerstones was highly variable,

but flin t knapping activities can be assumed by their presence. At the Zemaitis site there is a fairly large range in the size of hammerstones. Many show extensive battering on more than one surface. This seems to indicate that they have been used extensively and over a lengthy period of time.

Pitted Cobbles (N = 6, Plate 32)

These objects are igneous or high-grade metamorphic stones which exhibit extensive localized hammering producing a depression(s) on the cobble surface, usually on a face. The Zemaitis pitted cobbles are extensively utilized, sometimes showing battering on both faces as well as on the edges and ends. This indicates that in addition to being used as anvils, they also functioned as heavy-duty hammerstones. These artifacts are often referred to as nutting stones or anvils and / probably have been used for both purposes at the Zemaitis site.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 1

W

Plate 31. Hammerstones.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Plate 32. Pitted Cobbles.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 93 Abraders (N = 2, Plate 33:d, e)

This artifact is represented by one whole and one fragmentary

specimen. Both are of sandstone composition and are small enough to be held in one hand. They exhibit a grooved or striated surface on both faces. Although they could have served various abrading func­ tions in wood or bone tool production, i t is believed that the primary function of this tool was in flin t knapping. The sandstone cobble might well have been used to grind or facet the platform to facilitate

flake removal.

Celts (N = 7, Plate 34)

Tools of this kind are represented by two whole and one fragmen­ tary specimen, along with four preforms in the assemblage. These

artifacts are finely ground on all surfaces. Their lateral margins are symmetrical and they have a wedge-shaped b it. The observed wear is in the form of rounding and polishing, which increases distally; Raw material selected for manufacture of the Zemaitis celts are igneous and fine grained. The distal ends display both rounding and

polishing, and frequently the proximal end is battered, indicating

that these tools also functioned as hammerstones.

Gorget Fragments (N = 2, Plate ^3:b, c)

Gorgets are rare at the Zemaitis site. Only two small fragments

were recovered from the excavation units. Both are manufactured on a banded slate which has been finely ground to the desired form. One

;KV. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a b

Plate 33. Miscellaneous Artifacts. a, Pressure flaking tool d- c , Gorget fragments d-e, Sandstone abraders

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 95

Plate 34. Celts and Celt Preforms.

$>* Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 96

of the specimens has remnants of a drilled hole, as evidenced by con­ centric striations on the interior of the hole. I t also appears that this gorget was drilled from both sides to complete the perforation.

Other Non-Chipped Lithics (Plate 33)

This last category of non-chipped lithics includes two artifact types. The firs t one is a ground stone cylinder with a pointed tip (Plate 33:a). It is the only artifact of this kind from the site and may have functioned as a pressure flaking tool or a ceramic decorating

tool. These are merely suggestions as the actual function is unknown. The second tool type is much more tentative and consists of spec­ imens that are oval, water rounded, river cobbles of igneous and meta­ morphic composition that could have been hand held. These cobbles are not altered, and wear is only slightly visible in the form of

smoothing of one or more faces. I t is not known what purpose they served. They could have been hand milling stones, hide finishing tools, or perhaps they served some purpose in pottery manufacture. Because these rocks were firs t recognized by Jim Marek, they have been termed "Marek stones" by Grand Valley archaeologists.

Lithic Raw Materials

The Zemaitis site's lith ic complement, with 53% identifiable exotic raw material, is not typical of village sites in western Michigan. Normally, sites in this area of Michigan contain a great

variety of till cherts and quartzites. This is a reflection of the lack of chert bearing bedrock outcroppings in western Michigan. Chert

ft.-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 97 had to be gathered from t i l l deposits, stream deposits, or other eroded surfaces. Many of the identifiable cherts from Zemaitis traveled great distances. These materials are familiar in the regional literature and have been analyzed by Luedtke (1976) for their distribution in the Late Woodland Period. These exotic chert types are briefly described below. Many of the exotic cherts recovered from the Zemaitis site have distinctive colors, textures, lusters, and fossils, as well as other traits which permit tentative identification of their source. Using Ozker (1976) and Luedtke (1976) as guides, and with the aid of compar­ ative specimens obtained from Dr. Richard Flanders and Caven P. Clark, Upper Mercer, Norwood, Bayport, Indiana Hornstone, Burlington/Avon, Flint Ridge, and Cobden cherts are identified in the Zemaitis collec­

tion (see Table 11).

Upper Mercer

This chert is blue-black with a mottled variant of blues and whites. The chert is almost vitreous in luster and has good con-

choidal fracture qualities. It is semi translucent, and cavities are almost nonexistent (Stout and Schoenlaub 1945:58). The raw material occurs in outcrops of the Pottsville Formation of Pennsylvanian Age Upper Mercer limestone along hillsides and eroded stream banks throughout Holms County, Ohio. Of interest is the fact

that only in Holms and Wayne counties does the chert take on the blue mottling which is characteristic of some of the chert pieces at the

h- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98

Table 11 Summary of Identified Chert Types in Random Units: Debitage

Chert types n % of Total

Upper Mercer 2209 27.5 Norwood 1287 16.0 Bayport 602 7.5 CVI p H Indiana Hornstone 94 •

Burlington/Avon 50 <0.6 Flint Ridge 4 <0.1 Cobden 7 <0.1 Unidentified non-local 1862 23.2

Local t i l l 1909 23.8

Totals 8024 100

Zemaitis site. Therefore, i t may be that the Upper Mercer chert found at the Zemaitis site was imported from the general vicinity of Holms County, Ohio (Stout and Schoenlaub 1945:59).

Norwood

This chert is light gray to buff in color, with dark gray laminae combined into a larger banded pattern. The chert is opaque

and features a dull surface. Cavities are rare, but when present are small and oriented with the laminae. The cortex, when present, is

i

V .;* . .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99

opaque and lacks luster; surface cavities are rare. The texture is rough, almost chalky, but s till yields a mediocre conchoidal fracture. Vague banding is almost always present. Worked cortex quite often shows a pinkish tin t and a slight improvement in luster and fracture indicating possible heat treatment (Ozker 1976:358). The raw material occurs in outcrops of the Gravel Point Formation of Devonian Age Traverse limestone along the Lake Michigan shoreline in and near Norwood, Michigan (Dorr and Eschman 1970:258-259). I t also occurs, generally, as small angular nodules around the whole of Grand

Traverse Bay.

Bayport

This chert falls into two ranges in regards to color: dark gray to light gray and gray-brown to beige. Both have considerable

amounts of fossils present and often show evidence of concentric bands (due to the fact that both are found in nodular form). Cavi­ ties are often present and may be fille d with fossils or, occasion­ ally, quartz crystals. The chert is opaque, has no luster, and yields a mediocre conchoidal fracture. Generally, this chert is found in nodular form, but tabular varieties also exist. The cortex

of the nodular form is porous, soft, and almost chalky. The raw material occurs in outcrops of the Bayport Formation of Devonian Age limestone in the area of Saginaw Bay, Michigan (Dorr and

Eschman 1970:258-259). Although the chief areas of exposure are in the vicinity of Bayport in Huron County, other exposures exist on the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. islands of Saginaw Bay as well as in the vicinity of Point Au Gres in Arenac County (Dustin 1968:88). I t should also be mentioned, because of the Zemaitis site's location, that there were formerly three quarries producing Bayport chert in the Grand Rapids area, all of which have since been lost through dam construction and landfill operations (Ehlers and Humphrey 1944:117-118). While "there are no data concerning aboriginal use of this source, [this situation] does raise some important questions concerning lith ic raw materials in Michigan" (Garland and Clark 1981:18). The amount of Bayport at the Zemaitis site, aggregating only 7.5%, does not appear to indicate that the Grand River exposures constituted an important source for the inhabitants of the Zemaitis site.

Flint Ridge This is another high quality chert from central Ohio. Flint Ridge chert is geologically closely associated with Upper Mercer chert, but there are dramatic morphological differences making differ­ entiation of the two a fairly easy task. This raw material is often translucent, tinted with yellow, oranges, and reds. There are also

tan, cream, and honey colored varieties. Flint Ridge chert exhibits a waxy luster and has a good conchoidal fracture (Sorensen 1978:22).

Indiana Hornstone

This material is of very high quality, exhibiting a good con­ choidal fracture. Its color is uni formally light gray to gray-brown.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Cavities are virtually nonexistent, as are quartz crystals and fossils. This chert is opaque and exhibits a low waxy luster. The source area of this material is Harrison County, Indiana. I t is also found in nodular form in river and creek beds in southern Indiana and

Illin o is. Indiana Hornstone is often banded in concentric rings around the center of the nodule.

Burlington/Avon

These cherts are generally white, light gray, pinkish, or blue- gray in color. In many cases the material is slightly mottled and fossiliferous. Source areas for this chert are Burlington limestone

outcrops in the vicinity of Avon, Illin o is. I t also occurs in "appreciable quantities as sizeable pebbles and tabular fragments of Pleistocene terraces in the Spoon River Valley, Illinois" (Munson 1966:111). These cherts, and Burlington in particular, are fine grained, taking on a distinctive pink to red color when heat treated.

Cobden

This chert type is very similar to Indiana Hornstone. It is found in nodular form in river and creek beds in southern Illin o is. This chert is of excellent quality and exhibits a good conchoidal fracture. Colors range from dark gray to brownish green. This chert, like Indiana Hornstone, is banded in concentric rings in the

nodular form.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102 Unidentified Non-Local Chert

This chert category is reserved for samples which are believed by the analyst not to be from local river cobble or glacial t i l l deposits, after locally available chert types were examined. This category is also used for questionable chert samples which, while resembling known chert types, were conservatively placed in this category. Generally, these cherts are fine-textured with good conchoidal fracture. Colors range from grays, browns, golds, whites, and

varying shades of green. A few contain cavities of quartz, and in most specimens fossils are visibly absent. Some of the brown, gray, and white cherts are semitranslucent to translucent, while others are opaque. Banding is also present in some of these non-local samples. Some of the material placed in this category exhibits heat

treatment to such an extent that the actual morphology of the chert type has been obliterated.

T ill Chert

As the name implies, this chert is obtained from local glacial

t i l l deposits as well as stream banks and river beds. The chert in this category has a wide range of color and texture. In many cases this chert has a sugary texture, but fine-grained examples do exist. Colors range from red, white, brown, green, and even black. In some cases, this material has been reduced by some form of bipolar tech­

niques, as evidenced by the classic form of opposed damage. Also,

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a large quantity of this chert retains portions of cortex which aids in identifying specimens as being derived from local t i l l sources.

Chalcedony

This category is inserted in the analysis due to the discovery that a small minority of the debitage from Zemaitis was of superior, semi translucent, milky colored raw material that seems to have a some what localized distribution at the site. The source for this mate­

rial is unknown. Although the majority of the Zemaitis occupation took place during the Middle Woodland Period, the only regional literature of

raw material distribution in western Michigan is Luedtke's (1976) study. Therefore, while not directly applicable to the Zemaitis material, i t is compared with her data. The most important lith ic raw material utilized by the inhab­ itants of the Zemaitis site is Upper Mercer chert. I t accounts for 27.5% of the analyst's data set or sample. This percentage is notable when the distance to the source area in central Ohio is considered. In her study of Early Late Woodland raw material in western Michigan, Luedtke (1976) notes the almost total absence of this chert after A.D. 1000, and prior to that time it is still rela­ tively rare in western Michigan. Thus, Zemaitis is unique in the large percentage of Upper Mercer chert found at the site. The next most frequent identifiable raw material from the

Zemaitis site is Norwood chert (16%), the source of which is Charle­

voix County. The relatively high percentage of the material is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104 unanticipated in light of the data presented by Luedtke (1976). She states that the distribution of Norwood cherts is concentrated north of the Muskegon River drainage and falls off dramatically to the south. Bayport chert at the Zemaitis site is represented by 602 flakes, or 7.5% of the sample. This is a fairly low percentage when those of the other raw materials, discussed above, are considered. Also, the percentage of Bayport recorded at Zemaitis dramatically counters the observed homogeneity in percentages of this raw material on sites in

the eastern part of the state. In the Saginaw Valley area, Bayport chert accounts for 80%-90% of the typical lith ic assemblage (Luedtke

1976). Also, the modest amount of Bayport at the Zemaitis site seems to indicate that the Bayport.quarries near Grand Rapids, referred to above, were not an important source for the inhabitants of the

Zemaitis site. The remaining identifiable exotic raw materials are found much less frequently than those mentioned above. In most cases, they occur as finished tools, and the minor amounts of debitage present is believed to have been the result of tool maintenance rather than tool manufacture. As this appears to be the case, these identifiable exotic cherts will be discussed in the following section of this

report.

Raw Materials and Tool Types

As briefly discussed above, exotic cherts are very well repre­

sented at the Zemaitis site (see Tables 12 and 13). The most

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Table 12 Summary of Raw Material Selection for Bifacial Artifacts

Raw material category N%

Upper Mercer 91 29.0 Bayport 52 16.6 Norwood 46 14.6 Flint Ridge 2 0.6 Indiana Hornstone 13 4.1 Burlington 15 4.8

Cobden 1 0.4 Purple chert 3 1.0 Unidentified non-local 56 17.8

T ill chert 35 11.1

Totals 314 100

frequent identifiable exotic raw material, as well as the most fre­

quent chert overall, is Upper Mercer chert. This raw material alone accounts for 27.5% of all debitage analyzed. While this observation is impressive in its e lf, i t is also noteworthy that Upper Mercer chert is even more highly selected for in the production of uni facial tools and for use as utilized flakes. Upper Mercer chert constitutes

the raw material for 42% of all uni facial tools and 32% of the u ti­ lized flakes in the random sample. Furthermore, this chert type is

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Table 13

Raw Material Breakdown for Uni faces and Utilized Flakes from the Random Sample

Uni faces Uti1i zed Flakes Raw material N % N%

Upper Mercer 33 42.3 36 32.1 Norwood 5 6.4 13 11.6 Bayport 6 7.7 12 10.7 Flint Ridge 0 0.0 1 0.9 Indiana Hornstone 3 3.9 2 1.8 Burlington 4 5.1 3 2.7 Cobden 0 0.0 0 0.0 Unidentified non-local 23 29.5 36 32.2

Local t i l l 4 5.1 9 8.0

Totals 78 100 112 100

the most frequently selected raw material for the production of

bifacial tools, being represented by 91 specimens (29%) in the site's total biface assemblage. The next most popular identifiable chert type recovered from the Zemaitis site is Norwood. This raw material accounts for 16% of the

random sample total of 8,024. Although highly represented in debi- tage, Norwood chert appears to have been less important than Upper

f t - . ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 Mercer chert in the selection for use as bifaces or flake tools. From the random sample, only 6.4% of the uni faces and 11.6% of the utilized flakes are produced on Norwood chert. Bifaces produced on Norwood chert number 46, or 14.6% of the total bifaces from the site. Although this is a large quantity of Norwood chert, the percentages of tools produced from this chert type drop in relationship to the percentage i t represents of the sample debitage total (16%). This is unusual at Zemaitis as Upper Mercer chert and other identifiable exotic raw materials appear to have been selected for tools in much

higher percentages in relationship to the overall debitage counts. This suggests that Norwood chert was a less important commodity than

other identifiable exotic cherts in tool production at Zemaitis. Bayport chert is the next most frequent identifiable raw material occurring at the Zemaitis site. Although significantly less preva­

lent than Upper Mercer chert and Norwood chert, Bayport chert accounts for 7.5% of the random unit debitage totals. Bayport chert is selected proportionately more often for the production of tools. This raw material accounts for 7.7% of the random unit unifaces and 10.7% of the utilized flakes. Bayport chert is even more important in the production of bifaces, as 52 (16.6%) of the 314 bifaces in

this study are produced on this raw material. After Bayport chert, the overall percentages of identifiable exotic raw material drops substantially. Indiana Hornstone is repre­ sented by 1.2% of all random unit debitage. Again, the proportion of Indiana Hornstone increased in selection for production or use as

tools. A total of 3.9% of the unifacial tools and 1.8% of the

«»•. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 utilized flakes from the sample are of Indiana Hornstone. The importance of this material for use in the production of bifacial tools is exemplified by its being selected for the manufacture of 13 (4.1%) of the site's bifaces.

Another exotic raw material which is proportionately low in the overall random unit debitage totals, but important in the production of tools, is Burlington chert from Illin o is. This raw material accounts for only 0.6% of the random unit debitage totals, but like the other identifiable exotics its use in tool manufacture increases

substantially, representing 5.1% of the unifacial tools and 2.7% of

the utilized flakes from the random units. This chert is proportion­ ately much more valued in the production of bifacial tools, being the raw material utilized for 15 (4.8%) of the bifaces. Other identifiable raw materials are far less frequent in occur­ rence at the Zemaitis site, but deserve mention as they were being utilized. In all likelihood, these raw materials came to the site as finished tools, and the debitage present is not the result of tool manufacture but rather tool maintenance. An example of this type of exotic raw material is Flint Ridge

chert from central Ohio. Only four specimens of this chert occur in the site sample, but of this number two are bifaces and one is a utilized flake. There are also small quantities of Cobden chert and Avon chert from Illin o is. The former is represented by seven speci­ mens, one of which is a biface; whereas Avon chert has a frequency of

11, with one being a biface.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109

In addition to the identifiable exotic raw materials from the Zemaitis site, a large quantity of extremely high grade non-local unidentifiable chert occurs. This chert ranges in color from trans­ lucent brown to translucent white and every shade in between. The textures are extremely fine and the fractures very regular. It is the opinion of the analyst, after examining local glacial t i l l and river bed sources, that this raw material is not found in close prox­ imity to Zemaitis. Specimens that are marginal in the identifiable exotics are also placed in this category.

The unidentified non-local category accounts for 23.2% of the random unit debitage totals. This raw material category is second only to Upper Mercer chert in the overall random unit debitage totals. Of the random unit uni faces, 29.5% are placed in this category with 32.2% of the utilized flakes. The 56 bifaces in this category

account for 17.8% of all the bifaces from the site. It must be stressed that there is reluctance on the part of the analyst to assign specimens to a raw material category that is some­ what questionable. This conservative treatment of raw material, I believe, adds to the credibility of the analysis of data presented.

Furthermore, in the case of Zemaitis, i t takes nothing away from the impressive proportions of identifiable raw materials present at the

site. A brief summary of the overall identifiable exotic raw material

totals from the debitage and tool categories follows. Of the total 8,024 specimens from the random units, 4,253 or 53% are identifiable exotics. The unifaces are proportionately even higher in identifiable

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. exotic cherts. Of the total of 78 from the random units, 51 (65.4%) are produced on identifiable raw materials. The utilized flakes from the random sample number 112. Of these, 67 (59.8%) are produced on identifiable cherts. The bifaces show a similar selection for exotic raw material. Of the total of 314 bifaces in this analysis, 223 (71%) are produced on identifiable raw material. The amount of identifi­ able exotic raw material used at the Zemaitis site is very impressive,

especially if one considers the location of the site in relationship to the source areas. Although identifiable exotic raw material accounts for the

majority of the lith ic debris from the Zemaitis site, there are 1,909 specimens that are thought to be of local origin. These local cherts are believed;to have been acquired from glacial t i l l or river cobble

deposits. Some in itia l working of these chert cobbles probably took

place at the site of acquisition, but the majority were brought back to the site and worked there. This is inferred from the recovery of locally derived pebble cores and decortication flakes. In most cases, this raw material is fairly fine grained and has a regular fracture pattern. This is not the case for all of the local material, however. Examples of poor quality cherts are also found in the assemblage. These cherts are extremely sugary in tex­

ture and barely produce the essential conchoidal fracture when knapped.

f t - ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I ll Bipolar Cores and Debitage

Bipolar artifacts and debitage are common in their occurrence at Michigan Woodland sites. These artifacts are noticeably under­ represented at the Zemaitis site. Bipolar artifacts from the random units total 17 bipolar cores and 42 pieces of debitage, which accounts for less than 1% of all debitage from the random sample units. The bipolar lith ic data are quantified in Tables 14 and 15.

Table 14 Summary of Bipolar Core Attributes from Random and Judgement Units

Raw material Wt Uni ts N x Wt (in g) (in g) Upper Bay- Unident, Local Nor­ Mercer port non-local t i l l wood

Random 17 132.2 7.8 1 0 1 11 4

Judgement 4 46.5 11.6 0 0 0 4 0

As the tables indicate, 65% of the bipolar artifacts are pro­ duced of local cherts. There may have been some in itia l working of the raw material at the place of acquisition, however, some artifacts appear to have been reduced from complete cobbles at the site. This

V . . . ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 112

Table 15

Summary of Bipolar Debitage Attributes from Random and Judgement Units

Raw material x Wt Units N Wt (in g) (in g) Upper Bay- Uni dent. Local Nor­ Mercer port non-local t i l l wood

Random 42 95.6 2.3 2 2 8 27 3

Judgement 9 26.1 2.9 1 0 1 7 0

is indicated by the presence of cores and large decortication flakes with bipolar damage in the Zemaitis assemblage. The bipolar core was originally defined by Binford and Quimby (1963). In their study, they differentiated various types of bipolar cores. In this analysis, bipolar artifacts are not separated beyond classifying them as cores, wedges, or debitage. The morphological attributes recognized in this analysis are presented in the descrip­

tive portion of this report. Of interest in regard to the evidence for bipolar technology at the Zemaitis site is the fact that bipolar reduction is also used in the reduction of exotic raw materials. In aggregate, 18.1% of the

bipolar artifacts are fabricated on identifiable exotic cherts. This is not a surprising observation considering the overall abundance of

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 113

exotics at the Zemaitis site. From these results i t is inferred that this technique was utilized to further reduce exotic cores and pre­ forms after they had been exhausted through other reduction tech­ niques. One can assume, based on these data, that exotic raw materials were highly prized by the inhabitants of Zemaitis. That is, an attempt had been made to further reduce these raw materials after flakes were no longer removable by other techniques, rather than simply discarding the unused portion of a core.

Flake Selection for Uni faces and Utilized Flakes

Before discussing the measurements which were obtained from the unifaces and utilized flakes, I will review the types of flakes selected for retouching into unifacial tools or used as is, i.e ., utilized flake tools (see Table 16). There is a definite selection

for primary flakes in the production of uni faces, as evidenced by the fact that 47 of 78 unifaces (60%) are produced on primary flakes. The next most frequent flake type selected for the production of unifacial tools is the secondary flake, represented by 24 specimens (30%). Uni faces produced on decortication flakes and tertiary flakes

are very rare, being 5.1% and 3.8%, respectively.

The utilized flake tool category displays proportionately less selection for primary over secondary flakes. Of the total of 112 utilized flakes, 53 (47%) are primary flakes while 47 (42%) are on secondary flakes. I t appears that the unifacial tools on primary

flakes occur twice as frequently as secondary flakes, and when flakes are selected for use as is, i t mattered very lit t le whether i t is a

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 114

Table 16

Flake Type Selection for Unifaces and Utilized Flakes from the Random Sample

Uni faces Utilized Flakes Flake type N % N %

Decortication 4 5.1 3 2.7 Primary 47 60.3 53 47.3 Secondary 24 30.8 47 42.0 Tertiary 3 3.8 9 8.0

Totals 78 100 112 100

primary or secondary flake. As with the uni facial tools, only nomi­

nal quantities of decortication and tertiary flakes are used as tools

without modification. For the purpose of this study, the overall morphology of these tools is assumed to have a direct relationship to the function of the tool. The different attributes of these tools have been studied at

length in previous works (Semenov 1964; Wilmsen 1968). The most frequent attributes chosen for study include edge placement and edge angle. This study utilizes these attributes along with spine angle. This measurement was discussed earlier and is used to place the edge

angle in relationship to the flake surface. Of the attributes of unifacial artifacts typically selected for study, edge angles have

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. received the most attention. For comparison of the results obtained from the Zemaitis site uniface collection, some of Wilmsen's data derived from his analysis of eight Paleoindian sites will be sum­ marized. In his analysis of edge angles for uni facial artifacts, Wilmsen (1968) concludes that the angles peaked in three different ranges. He infers that the unifaces with the more acute angles (26° to 35°) were associated with the cutting of meat or hides. This conclusion is based on the assumption that tools of this type are structurally weak and would not hold up to use as hard cutting tools. Wilmsen found that tools with angles ranging from 46° to65° were produced on both lateral (side) and distal (end) flake edges. These are the most frequently occurring angles found in his study.

He infers the possible functions of these tools as (a) skinning and hide scraping, (b) heavy cutting of wood, bone and antler, and (c) tool backing. The steepest edge angles reported by Wilmsen peak in the 60° to

75° range. He notes that 12% of the side retouched tools and 48% of the end retouched tools fa ll into this category, with a clear prefer­

ence for steep edge angles on the end modified tools. The function attributed to this tool is wood and bone working (Wilmsen 1968:202). The unifacial tools from the Zemaitis site share similarities with Wilmsen's data, but also exhibit differences (see Table 17). There is a definite correlation between side modification and the

acute edge angles. These are probably cutting tools which served a function where a thin sharp edge was desired. Tools of this type

fe .. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116

Table 17

Summary of Random Unit Unifacial Tool Type Edge and Spine Angles

N x Edge angle x Spine angle

Side modified 49 52.3° 17.9° End modified 16 68.8° 20.3° Combination 1 60.0° 20.0° Unidentified 8 58.6° 21.3°

would serve a wide range of cutting functions involving relatively soft material. Other similar observations are a strong clustering of artifacts with angles in the 46° to 65° range. But unlike Wilmsen's results,

in this study the majority of the tools within this range are side modified. Of the total unifaces, 61.5% fa ll in the side modified uniface category. This group has a mean edge angle of 52° and a spine mean of 18°. These steep angles allow the analyst to infer the function of these tools as representing skinning and hide scrap­ ing activities and the the behaviors associated with these tools were very important to the occupants of Zemaitis. As with Wilmsen's results, steep edge angles (66° to 75° and above) are almost exclusively associated with end modified tools.

The interpretation offered for the function of these tools is princi­ pally wood and bone working. I believe that this interpretation is

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. too restricted. Tools of this type may have served these functions and many others as well. Many of the so-called thumbnail scrapers have edge angles in this range and, therefore, hide scrapers should perhaps be. included in the range of activities. According to Semenov (1964:85-89), convex edged tools with steep edge angles would s till be useful for hide scraping. Also included in this category are the side modified concave tools referred to as spokeshave in the archaeological literature. Thus, from this analysis, at least at

Zemaitis, the steep edge tools probably served many tasks including hide scraping, carving, and shaping wood, bone, or antler.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV

DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS

Thus far, this discussion has focused on description and methods of analysis. The research has been presented in this manner based upon the rationale that description must precede interpretation. This section will examine biface and flake tool distributions both vertically and horizontally over the Zemaitis site. The spatial

analysis will then be considered together with an examination of the raw materials and projectile points. These data, combined with the radiocarbon assays, allow the placement of Zemaitis components temporally. Finally, the discussion will turn to more general aspects of the site's structure and the relationship of Zemaitis to other prehistoric sites in the Great Lakes-Riverine area and beyond. The presence of large amounts of cores, decortication flakes, bifaces, bifacial thinning flakes, and unifaces indicates that all

stages of the reduction process were carried out at the Zemaitis site. Furthermore, the quantities of lith ic debris present are consistent with the number of finished stone tools recovered from the excavation

units. I t appears that the manufacture and maintenance of bifaces was the primary objective of the flin t knapping activity at the site. This is based on the recovery of large amounts of bifacial chipping debris, preforms, biface fragments, and finished bifaces. The production of bifaces is not the only aspect of flin t knapping

118

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119

activity evident here, however, as suggested by the large quantities of blades, unifacial tools, and utilized flakes found at the site.

Spatial Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts

The distribution of the biface classes vertically and in rela­ tionship to the three areas utilized for the comparison of other tool classes has been examined. The three areas used for this spatial analysis are not of the same size. The northern area contains 36.1% of the provenience units; the central area has 21.5% of the proveni­

ence units; and the southern area contains 42.4% of the provenience units (see Map 6). The results of this analysis are summarized in Table 18. In order to determine i f the observed distribution of Zemaitis bifaces differs significantly from the expected frequencies, chi-

square statistics were calculated for the complete bifaces with sufficient sample sizes. In all cases, the hypothesis tested is whether the observed frequency of a particular biface category is significantly different from the expected frequency at the .05 level of significance. The results of this examination are presented in

Table 19. The chi-square results from all three areas indicate that only in the category of triangular knives is there a significant departure from the expected values at the .05 level of significance. In order

to ascertain i f any further relationships are present in the sample, coefficient of contingency statistics were also calculated. For this study, the coefficient of contingency value is considered low i f the

ffe- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 609,5 606.5

ZEMAITIS SITE 20 0T 68

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fcsssassfc ss sss CONTOUR INTERVAL 3 FEET

MaD 6. Area Utilized for Distribution Studies.

[f*-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission l\ J 3 0 4 4 66 33 22 — Total 1 1 2 4 0 Other 6 0 0 0 0 ment Judge­ Southern 1 3 2 3 6 0 6 9 14 0 0 ———

Random sample 1 — Other 0 0 Central Random sample Table Table 18 1 6 1 7 0 0 0 11 1 9 Other 1 0 0 0 2 4 0 1 ——— from Allfrom Units Provenience ment Judge­ Northern 1 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 — Random sample Spatial Distribution of Bifacial Artifact Types ; ; 13 3

Tool Tool class Intermediate 0 0 Expanding stemmedExpanding 4 Straight/contracting 1 Total Total - Projectile points Corner notched Corner Side Side notched Triangular Projectile points:

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ro ro 9 44 152 Total 6 24 0 13 Other 3 0 1 12 23 9 32 23 218 ment Judge­ 5 10 1 30 3 2 6 1 0 20 8 7 1 Random sample 0 12 40 Other 2 0 3 0 0 5 0 2 27 3 0 00 1 6 19 3 34 20 Central Southern Random sample 2 3 0 2 Other Table Table 18—Continued 11 2 3 14 20 ment Judge­ Northern 3 1 0 7 1 0 6 8 1 57 44 11 9 Random sample Tool Tool class Total Total - Other bifaces Total Total Bifaces Preforms 5 0 Proximal fragments Proximal DrillsDistal fragments 15 0 6 0 Scrapers Miscellaneous bifaces Miscellaneous Triangular knives

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ro co

y2 A 1.0120245 3.7817359 2.3281285 0.18635

Exp. Assoc. 15 10.2 +0.362 7.4589269 11 9.3 +0.165 Obs. -1.000 -0.863 Assoc. 5.2 7.1 +0.119 13 14.0 -0.074 Central Southern Table Table 19 0 Obs. Exp. Artifact Units Provenience from Classes Statistical Tests of Spatial Distribution of Bifacial 4.3 -0.072 4 2.6 +0.398 4 5.1 -0.237 Northern 9 8.7 +0.003 4 10 7.9 +0.230 1 4.7 Obs. Exp. Assoc. Tool Tool class (Coefficient of Contingency): ±0.0-0.30 = low; ±0.31-0.60 ±0.61-1.0 = medium; = high. knives Preforms 7 4.7 +0.372 1 2.8 -0.732 5 5.5 -0.095 Level Level of significance .05 with of 2 = degrees 5.99147. freedom of of degree Measure association Drills Note. frequency; Exp. = = Obs. = of frequency; Assoc. observed degree expected association. Expanding stemmed Triangular Corner notchedCorner 12 11.9 +0.008 8

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124

value falls between ±0-0.30; moderate i f the value is between ±0.31-0.60; and high i f between ±0.61-1.00. In regard to the northern area, the statistical examination of the biface categories recovered indicates no significant departure from the expected frequencies. All of the coefficient of contingency values fall within the low range with the exception of preforms. The coefficient value of +0.37217 obtained for preforms indicates a moderate degree of positive association for this artifact in the northern area. All other biface categories were recovered in approx­

imately the expected number for the area. The central area appears quite different in relationship to the

other areas in the distribution of bifacial artifacts. Of the five categories of bifaces analyzed, this area has produced a high nega­ tive degree of association for three of them (expanding stemmed

points, triangular knives, and preforms). Another interesting result is a moderate degree of positive association for d rills in this area. The low degree of positive association for corner notched points in this area, as well as the other two areas, indicates no real differ­ ences among the three in regard to the presence of this point

category. It should be noted that this area totally lacked triangular knives. It is believed that this was the decisive factor in the only

significant chi-square value obtained in this analysis. The coefficient of contingency values calculated for the southern area are less conclusive than for the central area. The only degree of association value above the low range is +0.3617725

%•. ’ • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. obtained for triangular knives, which indicates a moderate positive association for this tool type. Generally speaking, the distribution of bifaces across the site shows that the northern area contains approximately the expected frequencies of corner notched projectile points, expanding stemmed points, triangular knives, and d rills . Moreover, this area has a greater than expected frequency of preforms. Finally, the northern area does not have fewer than the expected number of any of the biface classes utilized in this study.

The central area, in contrast to the northern and southern areas, has several types of bifaces that are totally lacking. The area contains less than the expected frequencies of expanding stemmed points, triangular knives, and preforms. The area, however, yielded approximately the expected frequency of corner notched points, and a

higher than expected frequency of d rills . The southern area contains approximately the expected frequencies of corner notched projectile points, expanding stemmed projectile points, d rills , and preforms. The area has a higher than expected

frequency of triangular knives. The results of the spatial analysis of bifacial tools appears to confirm Martin's (1976) interpretation of the northern area of the site, which contained a high frequency of deer bone and generally lacked other bone, as representing a large mammal butchering and

processing area. The bifacial tool distribution for the central area also

strongly supports Martin's conclusions. He interprets the central

*?' * * Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. block as a general area of transition related to other task specific activities, based on the absence of any distinctive faunal traits. In the central area, bifacial tools are noticeably underrepresented or totally absent. In regard to the southern area of the site, Martin (1976) interprets i t as a women's work area. He notes the high concentra­ tions of turtle and mussel shell remains, concluding that they were used as household utensils and pottery decorating implements. Martin now believes that some of the bone previously identified as turtle

was in fact sturgeon. This matter is taken into consideration when his results are compared with the present lith ic analysis. The lith ic material from this area indicates more generalized activities than the northern and central areas. This is evidenced by the wide variety of tool categories found here. The area contained at or

above the expected frequencies in all but two tool classes.

Vertical Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts

As stated in the introductory section of this manuscript, the excavated portion of the site was undisturbed by modern agricultural techniques and, thus, the vertical distribution of cultural material

or stratigraphy of the site was largely intact. With no visible soil differences to guide them, Grand Valley field crews excavated the site in arbitrary 2-inch levels. As variability occurred in these measurements, this analysis uses a five-fold division of depth below

surface in an attempt to eliminate problems associated with level designations.

f t . ‘ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The stratigraphic analysis of bifacial artifacts considers possible differences in the vertical distribution of the Zemaitis bifaces. The data upon which the following discussion is based are summarized in Table 20. Before proceeding further, the reader is

asked to examine the far right column of Table 20, noting that in some cases the bifaces assigned to specific provenience units lack level designations. These have been excluded from the following discussion for lack of more precise provenience information. The firs t observation regarding the vertical distribution of

the bifaces is that none was recovered from below 28 inches in depth. The majority, more than 94% of the specimens, occur at or above 12 inches. Of relevance to this analysis is the fact that in itial and peak occurrences for different bifaces are associated with different depths. These differences are used to infer changes in the popular­

ity of different biface styles through time. Of the total of 35 corner notched points from the provenience units, 28 have depth designations. They have their in itia l occur­ rence in the 0-4 inch zone (6 of 28, or 21.4%) and their peak

occurrence in the 8-12 inch zone (13 of 28, or 46.4%). These are

the only bifaces with their peak occurrence in this zone, and, furthermore, this is the deepest peak occurrence for all bifaces analyzed. It is also noteworthy that no corner notched points occur

below 12 inches. The vertical distribution of expanding stemmed points has

similarities as well as differences with that of the corner notched specimens. As with the corner notched points, the expanding stemmed

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 4 35 21 219 Totals 20 48 127 nation provenience unit. provenience i, i, desig­ No 0 1 0 0 33.3 total from 1 0 9 2 0 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 89 102 4 1 1 1 1 13 0 0 7 7.1 7.1 8.3 8.3 Table Table 20 25.0 4.3 1.1 25.0 33.3 1 1 1 9 2 17 2 32.1 46.4 4"-8" 8"-12" 12M-16" 16"-28' 50.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 66.7 47.8 33.3 60.7 46.1 30.8 points points for level in relation to 2 8 1 3 6 4 7 0 21.4 0"-4" 21.7 50.0 25.0 projectile N N N % % % N 2 % 16.7 * % 23.1 % Vertical Distribution of Bifacial Artifacts All from Units Provenience % of = Number % Zone Zone Totals 20 44 23 Biface Biface class Intermedi ate Intermedi Expanding stemmed Expanding Corner notchedCorner N 6 Undetermined Note. Note. Straight stemmed Side Side notched N 0 Triangular N

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 129

points have their in itia l occurrence in the uppermost zone. The differences arise between the two categories in their zone of peak occurrence and maximum depth. Expanding stemmed points have their peak occurrence between 4 and 8 inches, with eight or 66.7% being

found there. Unlike the corner notched points, expanding stemmed points are poorly represented in the 8-12 inch zone, with only one example from this depth. These artifacts also occur deeper than the corner notched specimens, with one point being recovered from between 12 and 16 inches.

The in itia l occurrence of the triangular specimens is in the 0-4 inch zone (7 of 28, or 25.0%). As with the majority of the other

bifaces, these artifacts reach their peak occurrence in the 4-8 inch zone, with 60.7% (17 of 28) being found here. The greatest depth at which this biface category is represented is the 12-16 inch soil

zone. The remaining biface categories were recovered in relatively low numbers, thus observations concerning vertical distribution must be

tentative. The in itia l and peak occurrences of side notched points coincide with the 4-8 inch zone. The greatest depth at which this

artifact was found is between 12 and 16 inches. Also occurring in low percentages are the straight/contracting stemmed points. Of the four from provenience units, three have level designations. There is no real peak occurrence for this group of bifaces, but of special interest is the fact that one of them came

from between 24 and 28 inches below the surface. This is the greatest depth at which bifacial artifacts are found at Zemaitis.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 The final group of bifaces used in the vertical distribution

analysis is the intermediate category. These bifaces did not readily f i t into either the expanding stemmed or corner notched categories. Only four were recovered from provenience units, and all have level

designations. Although consisting of a relatively small sample, i t is interesting to note that this group of tools is the only one to have its peak occurrence in the uppermost zone. Generally, the following observations can be offered regarding the vertical distribution of the various bifaces. First, it appears that the corner notched points have their peak occurrence at a greater depth than all other bifaces analyzed. This zone of peak

occurrence is also the maximum depth at which the artifact is encountered. The corner notched points appear in the in itia l zone of the excavations and increase in number through the 8-12 inch soil

zone. The expanding stemmed points are found consistently less often than the corner notched specimens, yet they are found at a greater

depth. Although found in deeper levels, their greatest occurrence is in the 4-8 inch zone where they are found in approximately the same

numbers as corner notched points. One can infer from this observa­ tion that these points were of equal popularity during the time period represented by this soil zone at the site. The triangular bifaces also have sufficient numbers to draw some

conclusions regarding their vertical distribution. The triangular bifaces have their in itia l occurrence in the uppermost soil zone, and

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 131

increase in number through the 4-8 inch zone. Below 8 inches in

depth, their frequency diminishes. The remaining bifaces are recovered too infrequently to permit

inferences regarding their importance through time to the inhabitants

of the Zemaitis site.

Uniface and Utilized Flake Distribution

The distribution of the utilized flakes is based on the 30%

random sample. I t appears that these tools are concentrated in the

areas of highest debitage counts. In all cases, the percentage of

tools increases with the percentage of debitage.

The results of the uni face and utilized flake distribution

analysis is summarized in Tables 21 and 22. The site is divided into

the same three areas utilized earlier in this study and by Martin

(1976) for his distribution analysis of faunal material from the

Zemaitis site (see Map 6).

These three areas are not equal in size, nor was the number of

random units the same in each. The northern area has 20 random units,

or 45.5% of all random units. The central area has 10 random units,

or 22.7% of the total. The southern area has 14 random units, which

represent 31.8% of the random unit total. The difference in sample

size is considered when comparing the three areas.

I t appears that with respect to uni facial tools, the percentages

in each area roughly equal the actual percentages each area repre­

sents in the random unit total. One could conclude from these results that in regard to uni facial tool density, the three areas

' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132

Table 21 Spatial Distribution of Unifacial Tool Classes from Random Units

Northern Central Southern Class N % of class N % of class N % of class

Side modified 21 26.9 8 10.3 20 25.6 End modified 6 7.7 5 6.4 5 6.4

Unidentified 6 7.7 3 3.8 3 3.8 Combination 0 0.0 1 1.3 0 0.0

Totals 33 42.3 17 21.8 28 35.8

Table 22 Spatial Distribution of Utilized Flakes Not Separated by Class

Northern Central Southern Total N % of total N % of total N % of total

43 38.4 14 12.5 55 49.1 112

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 differ lit t le from the expected frequency. In order to determine i f there were any differences between the three areas in regard to uni- facial tool types, the analyst again compensated for the differences in excavated area. The results indicate that side modified unifaces are most frequently recorded for the southern area, followed by the northern and central areas, in that order. End modified uni faces are most frequent in the central area, closely followed by the southern and northern areas. For this study, utilized flakes are not examined for placement

of wear; however, in relationship to their spatial distribution some observations are possible. Utilized flakes are found less frequently than expected in the northern and central areas. The situation is exactly the reverse for the southern area, which contains approxi­ mately 50% of the utilized flakes. Combining all flake tools, the following comments are warranted. First, none of the areas is totally devoid of uni facial tools and utilized flakes. Second, the distribution of uni facial tools and utilized flakes is somewhat different for the three areas, suggesting that more work involving side modified uni faces and unmodified flake

tools took place in the southern area, while tasks requiring end modified unifaces were more typical of the central area. The north­ ern area is consistently moderate in the frequency of different utilized flake categories and unifacial tools, which seems to indi­

cate less specific activities than the other two areas. The vertical distribution of utilized flakes and uni facial tools

is summarized in Table 23. An examination of these data indicate

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ) a ( -P»

% 3.6 3.6 0.0 0.0 100 29.1 2 0 0 12 21.8 55 Southern N % 3.6 2 3.6 0.0 0.0 17.9 100 28.6 23 41.8 1 0 N N .. .. -r Unifaces Flakes Utilized 28

7.1 8 % 7.1 0 0.0 100 35.7 5 21.4 1 28.6 13 46.4 16 4 14 Utilized Central N % 0.0 0 0.0 29.4 Urn faces faces Urn Flakes N N 17 100 Table Table 23

2.42.4 0 0.0 0 0 100 28.6 5 1 1 5 11.9 1 5.9 3 3 7.1 2 11.8 1 12 42 Northern 3.0 0.0 0.0 18.2 6 14.4 3 17.6 5 27.3 .. .. -x Utilized Urn faces faces Urn Rakes 9 N N % N % 15 45.5 14 33.3 6 35.3 1 Vertical Distribution of Unifacial Units Tools Utilized and Random Flakes from Depth 2"_4" 10"-12" 1 Totals 33 100 1 0"-2" 2 6.1 3 4"-6" 5 8"-10" 0 6 7 12"-14" 0 2 4 6"-8" 6 Level

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. certain trends to the analyst. In all three areas, flake tools commence just below the surface at relatively low frequencies, increase in subsequent levels to achieve a peak, and then ta il off. However, there seem to be some differences between the three areas

with reference to the depth at which peak tool percentages occur. Before continuing this discussion, some clarification is neces­ sary. In the biface section of this report, the analyst used 4 inch levels in studying vertical distribution. For the analysis of the uni facial tools and utilized flakes, 2 inch levels are used. The

reason for this is that in the analysis of the bifacial artifacts, all of the artifacts from the site were considered, and the variabil­ ity in depth for the bifaces allpwed only for vertical placement according to 4 inch levels. However, inasmuch as uni facial tools and utilized flakes are analyzed only i f they were recovered from the

random and judgement units, which afford better overall provenience,

the analyst elected to refine the provenience (i.e ., depth dimensions for the uni face and utilized flake tool categories. The vertical distribution of flake tools in the northern area is fairly easy to interpret, with the peak frequency for both uni facial tools and utilized flakes occurring in Level 2 (2"-4"). This indi­ cates to the analyst that this level represents the heaviest occupa­

tion in the northern area. The interpretations of the central and southern areas are less precise.

In the central area, the peak frequency for uni facial tools is

encountered in Level 2 (2"-4"), and the peak frequency for utilized flakes is found in Level 4 (6"-8"). This could be interpreted as

fs > . * Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 136

showing a shift in the proportion and, thus, importance of the two tool types over time. But, this interpretation must be very tenta­ tive, as i t is based on a sample size of 14. The southern area has peaks for uni face and utilized flake frequencies at different levels, also. Here, a significantly higher percentage (46.4%) of unifacial tools is associated with Level 3 (4"-6"). The peak frequency for utilized flakes is recorded for Level 2 (2"-4"). This is the reverse of the situation found in the central area, where the peak frequency of utilized flakes occurs

below that of uni facial tools. As this is the case, conclusions about shifts in tool use through time based on flake tools must

remain tentative.

Spatial Distribution of Debitage

As previously noted, excavation units at the Zemaitis site contain almost 26,000 pieces of chert debris. While plotting the unit totals on the site map, i t became apparent that the lith ic debris at Zemaitis is not uniformally distributed over the site (see Map 7). None of the excavation units at the site is devoid of

lith ic material, but in some cases i t is minimal. In others, the debris is encountered so frequently that i t is believed that these

areas functioned as the loci of stone tool manufacture on the site. From the observed lith ic densities, three areas of concentra­ tion are delineated. All three contain units with 500 or more pieces

of chert. These units contain a minimum of nearly three times the site mean of 180 chert specimens per unit. Of possible interest is

' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137

609.5 60615

ZEMAITIS SITE 20 0T 68

0-200

2 0 1 -5 0 0

Above 500

603.5 ■ I I I

609.5 IIIIIIM

50 FT SCALE

CONTOUR INTERVAL 3 FEET A ONiOE DATUM Map 7. Lithic Density.

T .

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the observation that the three areas are approximately equidistant from one another, trending northwest along the levee formation. Furthermore, the excavation units which surround these areas show a dramatic drop in lith ic debris densities, suggesting that the areas of lith ic concentration are restricted in size to approximately 30 feet in diameter. Within the three areas, large samples of debris representing all stages of lith ic reduction and various tool types were encountered. The artifacts include hammerstones, cores, preforms, bifaces, uni- faces, blades, utilized flakes, and large quantities of debitage consistent with the number of finished stone tools encountered in

each area. When the 11 units in the three areas are combined, they contain

8,926 pieces of debitage, or 34% of the entire site total of 25,891. This is especially impressive when one considers that the 11 units

aggregated a mere 13% of the total excavated area. Most interesting is the dense concentration observed in the southern area. Here, from six contiguous units, a total of 5,139 pieces of chert debris were encountered, representing 20% of the

lith ic debris from the entire excavated portion of the site. This observation, along with the results of statistical tests, lead the

analyst to believe that the three aforementioned areas represent

lith ic workshops at the Zemaitis site.

f t - . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 139 Vertical Distribution of Debitage

Some definite patterns are found in the vertical distribution of debitage at the site. These conclusions are based solely on informa­ tion from the random units, as the remainder of the excavated units were totaled only for comparison. The totals for the random units by level are summarized in Table 24.

Table 24 Random Unit Debitage Totals by Level

Level Depth N Wt. (in g) % of Total

1 0"-2" • 640 311.1 8.4 2 2"-4" 2007 975.9 26.4

3 4"-6" 2386 1248.8 31.3 4 6"-8" 1588 781.1 20.8 l _ H 5 00 O 610 299.7 8.0

6 10"-12" 284 135.9 3.7

7 12"-14" 82 37.9 1.1

8 14"-16" 15 12.7 0.2 9 16"-18" 6 4.9 0.1 i

Totals 7618 3808.0 100.0

As is apparent from these totals, the majority of the lith ic debris is concentrated in Levels 2 and 3, particularly Level 3 which

' • Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140

contains 2,386 or 31.3% of the random unit total. From this observa­ tion i t appears that the most intensive occupation zone at Zemaitis is covered by perhaps 4 to 6 inches of soil. Even though this is not a substantial amount of soil deposition over the site area, i t seems

important when judged against the numerous plow zone sites in western Michigan. Furthermore, the site is not totally restricted to a shallow occupation, as there are portions of the Zemaitis site where non-bifacial material is encountered at depths up to 40 inches below the modern surface. Early on, i t was hypothesized that a change in both bifacial manufacturing techniques and chert procurement could be demonstrated by comparing the percentages of the debitage classes, the raw mate­ rial types, and platform preparation present in different strati- graphic levels at the site. To the surprise of the analyst, this

proved not to be the case (see Tables 25 and 26). After examining the data presented in Table 25, i t became apparent that there is a definite increase in overall debitage counts

as one descends from Level 1 to Level 3 (0"-6"), and then the debi­ tage densities slowly dropped off. This is interpreted as indicating

a peak occupation encompassing Levels 2 and 3 (2"-6"), with the occupation densities then tailing off. However, when the percentages of the different debitage classes, raw material types, and platform preparation of the debitage from all levels are compared strati graph­

ically, the differences are nominal.

If the site had been multicomponent, the percentages of raw material and debitage classes might well be anticipated to differ

ft- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - - - - - 2 3 . <1 Avon 1 1 1 1 _3 Bur­ lington 1 3 --_ - - 8 6 15 1.4 <1 - 18 2.3 <1 27 12 Ind. stone Horn- 12 38 90 15 3 145 Nor­ 14.1 wood 32 37 7258 13 56 25 47 141170 126 t i l l 20.2 Local •

5 25 3 14 62 non­ 20.9 22.2 17.1 221 415 441 340 local Uni dent, Uni 5 7 19 - 19 47 35 6.5 42 133 63 8.6 22.7 129 Bay- port Table Table 25 7 4 199 55 145 129 31.1 31.4 Upper Mercer

10.8 5 51.9 411 100.0 % of % Level N 631 31.7 175 214 10.8 30 639 1987 100.0 623 Summary of Random Unit Debitage Types and Raw Material Breakdown by Level Material Raw Unit and Breakdown Types Debitage of Random Summary Debitage Primary 69 category Decort. 37 5.8 Secondary Primary % Secondary 202 31.6 59 13 59 Decort. 111 5.6 Tertiary 1031 Tertiary 331 51.8 131 Level Level % Totals Totals 2"-4" Depth 0"-2" Level Level 1 Level Level 2

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. no •p. - - 2 2 - 2 <1 <1 Avon 1 1 4 -- <1 _5 Bur­ lington Ind. 1..4 <1 <1 21 J_ Horn- stone 14 35 1 2 15.5 112 2 Nor­ 366 33 10 wood 6963 11 107 129 t i l l 240 131 579 24.6 389 260 10 3 2 26.5 17.7 Local

12 55 74 78 3 183 158 143 9 302 561 non­ 23.8 local Unident, 2 21 85 86 199 128 102 6.4 132 277 port Bay- 3 7 1 13 Table 25—Continued 39 20 20 8 53 164 43 656 150 27.8 26.8 9.0 18.9 Upper Mercer

12.4 25.7 85 37 of 100.0 393 Level % N 147 6.2 704 29.9 270 11.5 806 55.0 281 1236 52.4 450

Primary Debi tage Debi Decort. 101 6.9 Primary 182 Secondary % Secondary 377 % category Tertiary Tertiary Level Level Totals 2357 100.0 Totals 1466 Depth 4"-6" 6"-8" Level Level 3 Decort. Level Level 4

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. U) - - - 1 1 - - - <1 Avon 1 1 - - 2 -- - - - <1 Bur­ lington 1 1 1 - - 1 - Ind. <1 <1 Horn- stone 12 12 45 42 2 Nor­ 19.0 wood 1116 2 33 44 46 t i l l 22.1 Local

3 29 7 5 15 28 17 38 58 32 15 non­ local Unident, 1 1 1 3 8 30 38 69 68 26 13.4 24.4 24.0 14.8 Bay- port Table 25--Continued 1 3 6 56 16 63 187 53 114 134 115 128 30.9 8.7 18.8 22.3 Upper Mercer

6.6 11.6 14.1 33.1 19 8 24 26 16 31.0 45.8 42 100.0 100.0 Level % o% f N 70 94 2040 7.0 1 40 188 129 606 Debitage category Primary Primary Decort. Secondary Decort. Secondary % % Tertiary Tertiary 308 50.8 Level Level Totals Totals 283 Depth 8"-10" 10"-12" Level Level 5 Level Level 6

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. * -p» 4 - 1 - 1 - - - - 6.7 Avon 1 1 ------<1 Bur­ lington ------Ind. stone Horn- 1 9 - 14 _3 16.9 Nor­ wood 5 1 1 1 3 9 4 17 20.5 t i l l 60.0 6.7 Local

1 3 10 _8 22 non­ 20.0 local Unident, 5 8 1 2 1 - _ 11 6.7 _3 Bay- port 6 - - - - Table 25--Continued - 18 _9 21.7 13.3 26.5 Upper Mercer

2.4 2 39.8 20.0 41.0 of 46.7 100.0 % Level 2 N 15 83 100.0 Primary 14 16.9 3 3 4 2 2 Primary 3 20.0 Secondary 33 Debitage category Decort. Secondary 7 Decort. 3 % Tertiary _2 13.3 Tertiary 34 • Level % Level Totals Totals Depth 12"-14" 14"-16" Level Level 7 Level Level 8

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 145

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16.7 13.3 34.1 39.2 37.5 37.4 37.8 36.7 37.9 37.0 of Level % 1 2 Absent N 248 884 231 2832

1.2 28 3.1 585 0.0 2.5 105 0.0 % of % Level Ground 7 0 0 19 3.0 N 50 69 2.9

of Level % Platform Platform Condition 0 0.0 N 104 16.4 357 15.2 Table 26

42.9 334 16.7 59 3.0 748 44.3 1163 15.4 219 2.9 73.3 2 13.3 of 46.2 222 13.9 47.2 38 13.4 Level % 5 83.3 11 N 38 46.3 15 18.3 1 134 Unprepared Prepared 264 41.7 735 856 1032 44.1 Summary of Random Unit Platform Debitage Condition by Level of Random Summary 2"-4" 0"-2" 6"-8" 4".6" 12"-14" 14"-16" 16"-18" 10".12" 1 2 3 5 8"-10" 274 44.9 91 14.9 14 2.3 7 8 9 4 Totals 3349 6 Level Depth

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 147 strati graphically, thus enabling the analyst to recognize different components at the site. Since this is not the case, the alternate hypothesis, that the site was not multicomponent should perhaps be accepted. I t follows, based on these results, that the biface manu­

facturing technique did not change markedly during the time that the Zemaitis site was inhabited. Furthermore, i t appears that the chert procurement activities remained essentially similar throughout the

Zemaitis occupation as well. These conclusions are based on the lith ic data alone. Since

other aspects of the site assemblage are not the focus of this analysis, i t is not known whether the occupants of Zemaitis might have continued similar lith ic manufacturing techniques and resource procurement while other aspects of the system underwent considerable change. These questions will remain unanswered until the unanalyzed archaeological material recovered from the Zemaitis site is completed

and compared with the lith ic data.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V

ZEMAITIS PHASES

The phases proposed for the Zemaitis site occupation were origi­

nally defined by Flanders (1977) on the basis of various biface types,

raw materials, pottery types, faunal associations, and their correla­

tion with radiocarbon assays. The phases suggested by Flanders

(1977) are related to the Illin o is Valley sequence proposed by

Griffin et al. (1970). The discussion which follows compares the

Zemaitis Middle Woodland, occupation with Flanders's chronology.

According to Flanders, the advent of the Hopewellian manifesta­

tion in western Michigan is revealed by the material recovered from

Mound C at the Norton Mounds site. The radiocarbon date of 10 B.C.

± 120 years obtained for this mound is the earliest date for Hopewell

in the area. From this early date to approximately A.D. 200,

Flanders proposes the term Norton phase, which is equivalent to the

Bedford and Ogden phases in Illin o is . The western Michigan sites

that are attributed to the Morton phase include the Norton Mounds

M, H, C, I , and Goodall Mound 21. The pottery that characterizes the phase as described by

Flanders (1977) is decorated and resembles Quimby's (1941) category

of Goodall Dentate Stamped and the Naples type of Havana ware. The

non-ceramic artifacts attributed to this phase are Norton corner

notched projectile points produced on Illin o is , Indiana, and western

148

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Michigan cherts, exotic blades, effigy pipes, Busycon shells,

engraved turtle carapace containers, and ground slate gorgets (Flanders 1977).

The Norton phase occupation at Zemaitis, as evidenced by the

artifactual material recovered from strati graphic and radiocarbon

dated contexts, has sim ilarities as well as differences with the

material Flanders attributes to this phase. The sim ilarities between

the artifacts associated with the Norton phase at Zemaitis and

Flanders's tra it lis t are strongest with respect to projectile points

with Norton corner notched affiliations in the feature dated to

A.D. 80 ± 70 years (Sample 2). These corner notched points are believed to be the principal

point style for the Norton phase and have the earliest peak occur­

rence in terms of depth of all the points analyzed. Furthermore, i t

remains the dominant style for the remainder of the Zemaitis occupa­

tion (see Table 20). The majority of the Zemaitis corner notched

points are significantly smaller than the Norton corner notched

varieties; this is believed due to the fact that the Norton varieties

were produced specifically for burial and were deposited in pristine

condition, while the Zemaitis forms were manufactured for everyday

use. Also, the majority of the Zemaitis corner notched bifaces are

heavily utilized and resharpened. When these data are considered,

the overall morphology of the two forms is very similar.

Additional sim ilarities between Zemaitis and the Norton phase

include the presence of ground slate gorget fragments and id e n tifi­

able exotic blades, cores, and debitage. Many of the raw materials

If,:-. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 150 present at Zemaitis were also identified at the Norton Mounds site. Also present in this assemblage are fairly large amounts of turtle shell which, although not engraved, are believed to be the product of utilization as bowls. The most obvious difference between the Norton phase as previous­ ly defined and Zemaitis is the total absence of burials at the latter. Other differences include no evidence of Busycon shell containers, copper, Classic Hopewell Goodall Dentate and Naples Stamped vessels, or effigy pipes. It is believed that the absence of these items in

the Zemaitis assemblage does not necessarily preclude the earlier occupation from being assigned to the Norton phase. Rather, i t is thought that these items were reserved for burial and, therefore, not typically associated with habitation sites such as Zemaitis. The Norton phase at Zemaitis is viewed as representing the firs t

major occupation of the site. The radiocarbon date of A.D. 80 ± 70 years obtained for Sample 2 is believed to date this in itia l occupa­ tion. Of importance to this analysis, the lith ic materials associ­ ated with the Norton phase feature at Zemaitis includes three points with Norton corner notched and Snyders corner notched affinities; a triangular knife; and a wide range of unifacial tools and utilized flakes. No blades were found in the Norton phase feature, However, they are believed by the analyst to be associated with the Norton

phase occupation of the site. Five different identifiable exotic raw materials are assignable

to the earlier phase. These materials are Upper Mercer, Norwood,

Bayport, Burlington, and Cobden cherts. Although these raw materials

’ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. are associated with the Norton phase occupation, four of these cherts are found in the more recent Converse phase feature dated to A.D. 550. Inasmuch as the biface types and other lith ic and non-lithic materials used in defining the phases at Zemaitis are fairly evenly distributed across the site, only the stratigraphic information proved useful in defining differences between the Norton and Converse phases at Zemaitis. The Norton phase is believed to be the earliest occupation of the site, as well as the most intensive occupation. The stratigraphic units assignable to this phase are 6" and below.

These strata contain the zone of peak occurrence of the corner notched points (see Table 20) as well as peak debitage densities (see Table 24). The transition between the Norton phase and the subsequent Converse phase is fairly hard to define in the stratigraphic column,

as no cultural disconformity is recognizable. In fact, this research has been designed in part to permit separation of the different occupations through an analysis of the products of biface manufacture, raw materials, and biface types recorded strati graphically and from radiocarbon dated contexts. In short, although the actual counts of

lith ic material varied from level to level, the percentages of raw material and the products of lith ic reduction show minimal change through time. This being the case, other data from this and other

analyses are used in describing the Converse phase occupation of

Zemaitis. From approximately A.D. 200 to roughly A.D. 500-600, Flanders (1977) proposes the term Converse phase. This phase is equivalent

»?•. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 152 to the Pike, Steuben, and Long Port phases in Illinois during the earlier portion of the sequence, and the Fox Creek and Weaver phases during the latter part. During the Converse phase, Flanders (1977: 88) notes a "period of consolidation and continued contact with the Illinois center as evidenced by the presence of trade items (Busycon conch shells, mica, and Illinois and Indiana flin t) in amounts com­ parable to the Illinois center." The ceramic decorative motifs that Flanders attributes to this phase are cordmarked, everted rim vessels, Flanders calls Crockery ware, along with the locally made copies of Classic Hopewell burial vessels. The western Michigan sites that Flanders attributes to the Converse phase are the Converse Mounds near Grand Rapids; the Spoonville Village and Mounds, dated to A.D. 110 ± 120 years (M-1428) and A.D. 215 ± 110 years (M-1427); and Mallon Mound B on the Muskegon River (Prahl 1970).

The Converse phase occupation is believed to be the last major occupation of the Zemaitis site, other than as a camp site during the Late Woodland Period. The radiocarbon date of A.D. 550 ± 90 years (Beta-6657) documents this occupation. The artifactual evidence for this phase includes both lith ic and ceramic associations. The lith ic materials show some interesting similarities as well as differences

with the preceding Norton phase. The similarities with the feature dated by Sample 2 (A.D. 80 ± 70) includes the presence of triangular knives, similar identifi­ able raw material types, and cordmarked and other forms of decorated

ceramics. In addition to the five identified chert types found in the Norton phase feature, three other exotic chert types (Indiana

■r •

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 Hornstone, Flint Ridge from Ohio, and a very fine chalcedony of unknown origin) are found in the Converse phase feature dated to A.D. 550 ± 90. This sheds light on the lith ic procurement practices of the inhabitants at Zemaitis over time. The observation of addi­ tional raw material types is critical to this analysis, as i t indi­ cates that rather than turning to more local sources of raw materials toward the end of the Middle Woodland Period, the inhabitants of Zemaitis maintained trade networks and even expanded the quest for exotic raw materials for use in the production of tools.

Another major similarity between the Norton and Converse phases at Zemaitis is the continued presence of blades. Four blades are directly associated with the feature dating the Converse phase. Although Flanders (1977) notes the occurrence of copper and mica

during the Converse phase in southwestern Michigan, these artifact categories are not represented at Zemaitis. I t is believed that these specific kinds of artifacts are restricted in their use to burial complex contexts (i.e ., Spoonville and Norton). Generally speaking, during the Converse phase at Zemaitis, corner notched points remained the dominant biface type, but there

is a notable increase in the presence of expanding stemmed points. Also of importance to the definition of this phase is the presence of triangular knives (see Table 20). Unifacial tools and utilized flakes remain predominant in the assemblage. The non-lithic materials associated with the later phase are

decorated and cordmarked ceramics and other nonvessel clay artifacts. Associations with the Converse phase include clay pipes, miniature

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 154

vessels, and what have been identified as clay "marbles" (L. Murphy, personal communi cati on). As mentioned above, the transition between the earlier and later phases is d ifficu lt to pinpoint in the stratigraphic column. In fact, i f i t were not for the wide range of the radiocarbon dates, the lith ic material could be interpreted as being from the same people. Thus, i t is with some reservation that I assign the upper 4 inches of the Zemaitis stratigraphic column to the Converse phase. The Dustin/Lamoka, Steuben, and Schultz expanding stemmed points reach

their peak frequency here, but the corner notched points with Norton and Snyders affinities continue to be the dominant biface type throughout the Middle Woodland occupation (see Table 20). The possibility exists that the latter occupation at Zemaitis had ties to the Wayne Mortuary complex described by Halsey (1968,

1976, 1981). The Wayne Mortuary complex is defined on the basis of burials, pottery, bifaces, and other tools produced on exotic raw materials. Although not restricted to Wayne County, the type site, the Fort Wayne Mound of the Springwells Mound Group (Halsey 1968)

is located here. According to Halsey (1981), the Wayne Mortuary complex ^pre­ sents the very beginning of the Late Woodland Period, spanning the time between A.D. 500-1000. Further, he views the Wayne complex people as maintaining a number of the characteristics of the earlier

Hopewell period. Among these are the continuance of the extensive

trade network present in the Middle Woodland Period. This trade brought copper, exotic raw materials, marine shells, mica, quartz

V... ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. crystals, as well as other perishable goods to the Wayne people. Also showing continuity with the Hopewell is the placement of these articles in the graves of honored dead, and the interment of these individuals in mounds, whether of their construction or intruding these individuals into the mounds of earlier cultures (Halsey 1981). The pottery that characterizes this complex are decorated ceramics termed Wayne ware by Halsey. The non-ceramic artifacts attributed to the Wayne complex are corner notched projectile points, flin t blanks of central Ohio cherts, cache blades, antler harpoons,

celts, d rills , shell and copper beads, ground slate pendants, sheet mica, turtle shell rattles, elbow pipes, and quartz crystals. The latter occupation of the Zemaitis site, previously termed

the Converse phase, shares similarities as well as differences with the Wayne Mortuary complex as described by Halsey. General similar­

ities are noted in the mainly u tilitarian nature of the tools represented in the assemblages. More specific similarities include the presence of large quantities of central Ohio chert (mainly Upper Mercer) at the Wayne complex sites and at Zemaitis. The overall morphology of the corner notched points described for the Wayne Mortuary complex are similar to those recovered from Zemaitis. The

Zemaitis form is significantly related to the Springwells corner notched points in the metrical variables of medial axis length, shoulder width, and tang length. Further similarities between the Wayne Mortuary complex and the latter occupation at Zemaitis are the

presence of celts, blades, ground slate gorgets, and d rills in sig­ nificant numbers. This may reflect a similar environmental

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 156 adaptation or cultural contact between Zemaitis and the sites in eastern Michigan assigned to the Wayne Mortuary complex. It is not known at this time what quantity of the Zemaitis ceramics share attributes with Wayne ware. This is unfortunate; however, the current analysis of the Zemaitis ceramics by Lark A. Murphy addresses these specific problems and w ill certainly broaden the data base for comparison with the Wayne complex. As was the case when attempting to compare Zemaitis with the Norton and Converse phases as defined by Flanders (1977), problems

arise when a village site is compared with a phase or complex based principally on burial contexts. However, the analyst believes that the similarities noted above warrant this discussion. As previously

noted, the site contains no evidence of burials. Other materials considered diagnostic of the Wayne Mortuary complex are also lacking

from the Zemaitis collection. The Zemaitis site assemblage contains no evidence of shell or copper beads, sheet mica, or quartz crystals. This could be due to the fact that these artifacts were reserved for burial as were the earlier Hopewell burial artifacts. .Other Wayne Complex artifact classes representing everyday activities are lacking

in the Zemaitis collection. These include antler harpoons, disk­

shaped scrapers, turtle shell rattles, and elbow pipes. The last two artifact classes deserve further comment. A fairly large amount of turtle shell was recovered from Zemaitis, and some of

it may have been the result of utilization as rattles, but this is

not known. Also, the Zemaitis assemblage does contain evidence of

v,. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. pipes, but none of those recovered are elbow pipes similar to those

assigned to the Wayne complex. The other differences noted by the analyst when comparing

Zemaitis's latter occupation and the Wayne materials are the increased

occurrence of expanding stemmed points in the upper levels of the

Zemaitis site. These point types are rare in the Wayne Mortuary

complex, yet at Zemaitis they are found in almost the same numbers

as the corner notched variety in the upper levels (see Table 20).

Again, these data may reflect the differences between village refuse

and the materials included with the dead at burial.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI

INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS

The data presented herein document that the principal occupation of the Zemaitis site was during the Middle Woodland Period, with a minor occupation during the Late Woodland Period. This interpreta­ tion is based upon the two radiocarbon assays of A.D. 80 ±70 and A.D. 550 ± 90, along with the presence of numerous artifacts diagnos­

tic of the Middle Woodland Period. The hafted biface assemblage at Zemaitis is made up predominantly

of corner notched points and expanding stemmed points having Middle Woodland affinities. Further evidence of the site's temporal place­ ment is seen in the presence of numerous blades produced on identi­ fiable exotic raw material in the lith ic assemblage. In this area, exotic blades are exclusively Middle Woodland in age (Fitting 1972, 1975; Flanders 1965; Griffin et al. 1970; Stout 1984). Although the most intensive occupation of the site was during the Middle Woodland Period, a small number of artifacts diagnostic

of the Late Woodland Period were also recovered. These include a small number of Late Woodland triangular points and two collared ceramic vessels (Brashler 1981). In comparison to the Middle Woodland occupation, use of the site in Late Woodland times was

minimal. There is clear evidence that the Zemaitis site served as a semi­

permanent village during the Middle Woodland Period. This is

158

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 159 revealed by artifacts representing all aspects of village activity.

The sheer density of lith ic and ceramic debris and the variability encountered within these materials indicate an intensive long-term occupation. The lith ic artifacts demonstrate that flin t knapping, hunting, food preparation, skinning and hide preparation, along with wood and bone working, were all undertaken on or near the site. Although beyond the scope of this analysis, there are substantial non-lithic data that confirm this interpretation. The faunal remains from Zemaitis have been interpreted by Martin (1976) as representing village refuse, with mammal and aquatic species being utilized throughout the year. The ceramics also show a broad range of decora­

tion and vessel morphology, indicating various food preparation and storage activities. The nonvessel clay artifacts, including pipes and marbles, add strength to the argument that Zemaitis was a

permanent village (L. Murphy, personal communication). When this study began, two major hypotheses were set forth to be addressed in the analysis of the Zemaitis lith ic material. The firs t posits that the raw materials used in stone tool production changed from non-local to local chert as the Middle Woodland Period progressed. The second is tied to the firs t, positing that while chert procurement changed through time, the tool types created remained similar in form and manufacturing technique throughout the Middle Woodland Period. The testing of these hypotheses produced

some interesting results.

Testing of the firs t hypothesis proceeded with the examination of the raw material utilized for tool production from radiocarbon

V.;. ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 160

dated contexts and the raw material and tool distributions in terms of their stratigraphic position. The combined results of the analy­ sis does not permit acceptance of the firs t hypothesis. Rather, the data indicate that the preference for exotic raw material in the production of tools continued throughout the Middle Woodland occupa­ tion at Zemaitis. In fact, all of the exotic raw materials recovered from the feature dated to A.D. 80 ± 70 are also found in the feature dated to A.D. 550 ± 90, with the addition of three other exotic cherts. These observations are also reflected in the stratigraphic sequence determined for the general area of the site, with exotic cherts predominating in every level of the excavations. Thus, rather than indicating a reduction in the use of exotic cherts for the production of tools as the Middle Woodland progressed, the results obtained indicate that preference for exotics remained strong through­

out the occupation of Zemaitis, perhaps with some increase over time in the varieties of exotic material utilized. The second hypothesis, that the tool types created remained similar in form and manufacturing technique throughout the Middle Woodland Period is strongly supported by the Zemaitis data. The biface hafting element attributes that were compared statistically indicate close morphological similarities between the bifaces within each category. The only possible exception is the stem width and stem length variables, which when compared produced the only non­ significant comparison in this analysis. As hafting element morphol­

ogy is the basis for separation of various biface categories, the results prove that variability among the hafted bifaces at Zemaitis

V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 161 is minimal. From the study of raw material and tool types i t is evident that exotic cherts remained the norm throughout the Zemaitis

occupation. In order to determine i f the manufacturing techniques changed during the Middle Woodland Period at Zemaitis, the percentages of lith ic debris from biface manufacture were examined strati graphically. The results suggest that although the overall counts vary by level, the percentages of decortication, primary, secondary, and tertiary flakes are nearly identical in each level. This is important, as the results indicate very lit t le change in the process of biface reduction during the whole of the Middle Woodland occupation of the

site. Of special interest in regard to the predominant biface types at Zemaitis is a definite selection for particular raw material for

certain biface categories. More than one-half of the corner notched bifaces are produced on Upper Mercer chert, while none of the expand­

ing stemmed points is of this chert type. The vertical distribution of these bifaces indicates that the corner notched points are the dominant form at the site. The zone

of peak occurrence is deeper than that of the expanding stemmed points and, once they appear, they remain the dominant style through­ out the occupation, although expanding stemmed points continue to occur. These data are viewed as indicating that the activity repre­ sented by the corner notched bifaces is earlier and more important to the inhabitants of Zemaitis, than the activity which involved the

expanding stemmed points.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The spatial distribution of the lith ic material at Zemaitis allows for the delineation of three areas of intensive flin t knapping activity. The recognition of these areas is based on the concentra­ tion of lith ic debris far in excess of the site's expected frequency. The belief that these areas are restricted in size is supported by a substantial drop in lith ic artifact and debris densities in areas surrounding the localized concentrations. Occurring within these areas are debris representing all phases of lith ic reduction as well as tool maintenance. Also found here were substantial numbers of projectile points, preforms, cores, hammerstones, and flake tools. Close to each of these three areas are restricted concentrations of non-lithic debris, which indicate other task specific activities.

As this is the case in all three areas, the interpretation offered here is that the lith ic activities at Zemaitis are very localized.

Around these lith ic workshops gathered individuals who performed other village tasks including food preparation, pottery production, and wood and bone working. The reason for the restriction of chert

knapping activities is perhaps that i t would have been advantageous to keep the sharp lith ic debris out of paths commonly used by the site's inhabitants. Perhaps the reason for the concentration of arti facts and debris representing various other tasks in close proximity to these workshop areas is that family members gathered nearby to perform everyday activities. The Zemaitis site's lith ic assemblage is unusual for its large

quantity of exotic cherts imported from great distances. This testi­

fies to the Zemaitis inhabitants' intensive participation in the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 163 trade network termed the Hopewell Interaction Sphere (Caldwell 1964; Struever 1964, 1968). According to this interpretation, the archae­ ological expression termed Hopewell is made up of a number of regionally distinct cultural systems. Further, these regional expressions shared in common a number of artifact styles and exotic raw materials. Struever (1964:88) notes that "detailed formal com­ parison of Hopewell artifacts in various regions show that primarily raw materials and stylistic concepts, not finished goods, were moving through the network." His conclusions are based on consider­ able reinterpretation of diagnostic Hopewellian artifacts found in different areas.

In reference to the above, Flanders (1965, 1977) examines the relationship between western Michigan and the Illinois center. His data suggest a continued contact with Illinois as evidenced by Hope­

wellian artifacts in amounts comparable to other Hopewellian sites in Illin o is. Flanders concludes that many of the Hopewell artifacts found in western Michigan are locally made. Of interest to this study, Flanders believes that many of the projectile points of the Norton type are different enough from the Illinois examples to establish that they are produced locally (Flanders 1965). Considering the relative lack of exotic raw materials at other western Michigan Middle Woodland village sites, Zemaitis is unique (Garland 1984; Prahl 1970; Stout 1984). The site may have functioned

as a chert distribution center for much of the surrounding area.

This is suggested because the inhabitants of Zemaitis, rather than utilizing the easily accessible local cherts for utilitarian stone

V... Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. tools, used exotic cherts for all types of tools, thus indicating easy access to these usually rare raw materials. Perhaps Zemaitis had unique access to the raw materials as a result of controlling one of the main routes along which much of the chert and other exotic materials were transported into western Michigan. In reviewing western Michigan sites with Middle Woodland compo­ nents, i t is evident that there is a general lack of known Middle Woodland village sites. This is important because, until recently, excavation of Hopewell sites in western Michigan has dealt exclusively

with burial mound contexts yielding a somewhat biased sample. The recently reported Mushroom site on the Kalamazoo River (Stout 1984), Wymer on the St. Joseph River (Garland 1984), and the Spoonville (Dr. Richard Flanders, personal communication) and Zemaitis sites on the Grand River w ill hopefully shed some light on the daily lives

of the people who produced the mounds. This represents an important shift in the focus of excavations away from mortuary sites of the Middle Woodland people in western Michigan. With more emphasis placed on habitation sites, some of the previous conclusions concerning the subsistence and settlement patterns of these Middle Woodland people may be changed. Indeed, in

the Saginaw Valley, where mound groups are much less frequent, work has concentrated on village sites and, as a result, we know much more regarding the daily life of the Middle Woodland peoples of that

area. With the new information provided by the Zemaitis site and other recently reported Middle Woodland habitation sites, i t may be time to

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 165

reexamine current theories concerning the origins of the western Michigan Middle Woodland and the direction(s) from which influences entered this region. I f Zemaitis is any indication of the direction of Hopewell influences, Ohio Hopewell had as much influence on the inhabitants of Zemaitis, at least with reference to lith ic procure­ ment and stylistic attributes, as did the Illinois Hopewell. At Zemaitis, Ohio and Michigan cherts are more frequent in occurrence than any of the Illinois examples. It will be interesting to compare the results of the Zemaitis ceramic analysis currently being undertaken by Lark A. Murphy with the lith ic information provided here. Future work should be focused on examining the settlement and subsistence patterns of the known

Middle Woodland sites and seeking the locations of new ones. Partic­ ularly deserving of immediate attention, due to similar artifacts

and close radiocarbon dates (A.D. 110 ± 120, A.D. 215 ± 110), is the Zemaitis site's closest neighbor, the Spoonville site (200T1). Recently, the excavations at Spoonville have been reopened by Grand Valley State archaeologists. These new data w ill add to information already available from this important site and further clarify the

interpretation of the Zemaitis site as offered here. Finally, i t must be said that the Hopewell manifestation in

western Michigan will be subject to debate until more evidence, especially from village sites like Zemaitis, are located and the results made available. I t is my hope that this analysis has shed

some light on the Middle Woodland Period in Michigan and may serve

%- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. as a starting point for other studies of this most interesting time

in Great Lakes prehistory.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. •APPENDIX A

HAFTED BIFACE VARIABLES

167

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 168

RAFTED BIFACE VARIABLES

Metrical

Width of Base

This measurement is taken between the two defining points of juncture for the base.

Medial Axis Length

This measurement is taken on the longitudinal axis of the

specimen between the tip and the basal edge.

Width of Shoulder

This measurement is taken between the two distal points of

juncture of the haft element. In cases where there is no definable haft element, this measurement is not applicable.

Tang Width

This measurement is taken between the two symmetrically opposing

points of the haft element. These are the two medial points closest to the longitudinal axis of the specimen. In cases where medial points are not present, this measurement is not applicable.

V ' Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tang Length

This measurement is taken on the longitudinal axis of the

specimen. I t is made between the point where the longitudinal axis crosses the most proximal transverse edge of the specimen and a constructed line between the two most distal points of the haft element regardless of whether the points mentioned corresponded to a point of juncture or not.

Notch Width

This measurement is taken between the proximal and distal points of juncture and the haft element.

Stem Width

This measurement is reserved for stemmed points to differentiate them from notched points. This measurement is taken at the juncture of the stem and the shoulders (White 1968:50-51).

Stem Length

This measurement is reserved for stemmed points to differentiate

them from notched points. This measurement is taken on the longi­ tudinal axis between the base and an arbitrary line drawn at the points where the stem width is taken (White 1968:50-51).

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Maximum Thickness

This measurement is taken at the point of maximum thickness (Binford 1963:219).

Weight

This measurement is taken in grams.

Non-Metrical

Thermal Alteration

This variable is analyzed to determine how much of the raw material used in the production of bifaces is heat treated to fa c ili­ tate chipping. This category is further refined by separating those bifaces which were incidentally heat altered ( i.e ., uncontrolled)

from those that exhibited controlled or intentional heat treatment.

Hafting Element Morphology

In this study the hafting element is defined as a modified segment of a projectile point which has been prepared to facilitate hafting to some form of shaft. According to White (1968:50): The shape and size of the stem (haft) has long been recognized to be a valid sorting criteria for projectile points. The importance given to the tang classification is based largely on the assumption that its shape and size are directly related to the kind of shaft on which the point was to be hafted. The following hafting element forms are recognized in this analysis.

1. Corner notched - The corner notched varieties of bifaces are characterized by narrow notches oriented diagonally toward the

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. long axis of the blade. The notching flakes are detached from the corner of the base. The stems are expanding and the barbs long and well marked (White 1968:67, 71). 2. Side notched - Side notched varieties of bifaces are characterized by notches oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the blade. The notching flakes are detached from the lateral portion

of the blade. 3. Straight stemmed/contracting stemmed - For this analysis these two varieties of stemmed points are combined based upon their

low occurrence in the Zemaitis assemblage. Straight stemmed points are characterized by a tang whose edge is uninterrupted and extends proximally paralleling the longitudinal axis of the specimen. Contracting stemmed points are characterized by a tang which is wide

at the shoulders and tapered toward the base (Binford 1963:217;

White 1968:50). 4. Expanding stemmed - These points have a tang that expands proximally away from the longitudinal axis of the specimen (Binford

1963:217; White 1968:50). 5. Intermediate (notched/expanding stemmed) - These points have

a tang which is intermediate between a truly corner notched variety and an expanding stemmed variety. In order not to lump these points into one or the other varieties, this category is retained. 6. Triangular - The points classified as triangular in hafting

morphology lack notches, but in all likelihood were hafted. Points included under this variety are Levanna/Madison projectile points

and triangular knives. For coding purposes preforms are also

’ Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. included under this heading, but are differentiated under implied or

alternate function in the coding system. 7. Undetermined - This category is used for bifaces which lack the hafting element or not enough remains for positive identification.

Symmetry of Blade

1. Symmetric - Both of the lateral edges are geometrically complementary. 2. Asymmetric - The two lateral edges are not geometrically

complementary. 3. Indeterminate - The blade is not complete enough for posi­ tive identification.

Resharpening of Projectile Point Blade

1. Absent - No resharpening is present on the lateral margins of the blade. 2. Bifacial-bilateral - Resharpening is apparent on both faces

of both lateral edges. 3. Bifacial-unilateral - Resharpening is present on both faces

of one lateral edge, and absent completely from either face of the

opposing lateral edge. 4. Uni facial-bilateral (bevel) - Resharpening is present on

opposite faces at opposite edges. 5. Uni facial-bilateral (non-bevel) - Resharpening is present on

both lateral edges of a single face.

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4. Medial portion - The specimen lacks the proximal portion of

the blade as well as the biface tip. 5. Unilateral edge - Only one lateral edge of the biface blade is present. Usually the tip is also present.

Condition of Point - Hafting Element

1. Unbroken - The entire hafting element of the biface is

present. 2. Transverse - The biface has a proximal transverse break which removed the extreme basal portion of the biface. 3. One basal corner - The biface lacks one of the basal corner hafting elements. 4. Both basal corners - The entire hafting element is missing.

Basal Outline

1. Straight base - An edge which renders a straight line between the two defining points of the base. 2. Subconvex base - An edge which renders a subconvex line

between the two defining points of the base.

3. Convex base - An edge which renders a convex line between the two defining points of the base. 4. Subconcave base - An edge which renders a subconcave line

between the two defining points of the base. 5. Concave base - An edge which renders a concave line between

the two defining points of the base.

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6. Indeterminate - This category is retained for bifaces which

lack a base or did not retain enough of the basal element for accu­ rate identification (Binford 1963:207-208).

Preparation of Base

1. Bifacially thinned - Flakes have been removed from both faces of the basal element to facilitate hafting. 2. Uni facially thinned - Flakes have been removed from one face of the basal element to facilitate hafting. 3. Unprepared - The basal element lacks preparation beyond the attributes of the flake from which the projectile point was made. 4. Absent - The specimen lacks a base.

Placement of Grinding (Haft Element)

1. Unground - The artifact is not ground to facilitate hafting. 2. Basal - Grinding is only present on the basal element. 3. Base and ears - Grinding is present on the base and ears of

the hafting element. 4. Bilateral hafting element - Grinding is only present on the

two lateral surfaces of the hafting element. 5. Entire hafting element - The entire hafting element is

ground to facilitate hafting. 6. Ears only - Grinding is only present on the ears of the

hafting element.

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Degree o f Grinding

This is a somewhat subjective measure of the extent to which the hafting element is ground. 1. Unground - The specimen lacks grinding.

2. Light - The specimen is lightly ground but not totally smooth. 3. Heavy - The specimen is heavily ground producing a very smooth and rounded surface.

Implied or Alternate Function

This is a subjective gross morphological classification using terms familiar in archaeological literature which is utilized to facilitate computer analysis. 1. Projectile point

2. Knife 3. Scraper 4. Drill/perforator

5. Wedge 6. Indeterminate 7. Preform

Debitage Classification

The Zemaitis debitage is classified utilizing the system described by Caven P. Clark (Garland and Clark 1981).

K • £- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Decortication Flakes

Decortication flakes are those which retain cortex on the dorsal surface, representing the in itia l of reduction of a core. Only items with greater than 30% cortex remaining on the dorsal surface were included. The decortication group would serve as an index to the amount of in itia l reduction and local chert procurement practiced at a given site. Cortex would not be expected in any significant quantity i f the material had been obtained at a distance. Flake platforms of this class are usually unmodified cortex or fla t. (Garland and Clark 1981:22)

Block Flakes

Block flakes are angular items without discernible platforms or orientation. This can be derived from a variety of processes including frost cracking and heat crazing. Some are pieces of shatter which occur along natural planes, especially in cherts which have been exposed to weathering. (Garland and Clark 1981:22)

Flat Flakes

Flat flakes were divided into three categories after Geier (1973:10). The groupings into which the fla t flakes were placed was based on overall size, cross section, and the nature of flake scars on the dorsal surface. When possible, fragmen­ tary flakes were placed into a category i f i t was fe lt by the analysts that enough of the flake remained for appropriate determination. (Garland and Clark 1981:23) For this analysis of flat flakes, bifacial retouch flakes are grouped with tertiary flakes because i t is fe lt by the author that i t is not possible to distinguish between the two categories with any consistency. 1. Primary flakes are produced as a result of "heavy percussion techniques applied during the process of remov­ ing flakes from a core, or in the manufacture of a preform. The dorsal surface has relatively few flake scars and the ridges are generally more pronounced and thicker than

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 177 in secondary flakes. Platform condition may include all categories but is usually cortical or fla t." (Geier 1973:10 cited in Garland and Clark 1981:23) 2. Secondary flakes are the products of "percussion flaking techniques involved in shaping, thinning, and otherwise modifying a preform." (Geier 1973:10 cited in Garland and Clark 1981:23) Dorsal scars are more numerous and the thickness intermedi­ ate between primary and tertiary. Flat unmodified platforms are common but the use of faceting increases in this and subsequent categories of reduction. (Garland and Clark 1981:23) 3. Tertiary flakes are small and thin with superimposed dorsal scars. Geier (1973:10) attributes this class of debitage to "low intensity percussion, or pressure flaking techniques used in the modification and further thinning of the edge of a chipped stone tool." Faceting becomes more frequent and so does abrasion. (Garland and Clark 1981:23)

Bipolar Debitage

"Bipolar debitage was also treated in a very conservative manner,

involving only flakes with battered platforms and scars indicative

of bipolar damage" (Garland and Clark 1981:24).

Blades

Blades, as a specialized type of flake removed from a prepared core, are distinguished as "long parallel-sided flakes with one or two longitudinal dorsal ridges" (Garland and Clark 1981:24).

Fragments

Fragments are nondiagnostic items which could not be placed in

any of the above categories.

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SUMMARY OF METRICAL ATTRIBUTES OF BIFACIAL ARTIFACTS

178

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. VO s .20 .26 .95 X 1.10 .39 Tang length Tang s N .25 60 .85 .21 5 X 1.20 .49 7 1.34 Tang width Tang 8 58

LO s N .52 • .70 5 1.44 .32 X 1.76 1.93 7 N 12 57 2.05 .50 s .69 1.00 1.25 37 1.93 1.88 1.10 7 1.97 .50 4 1.07 1.58 X 3.34 .81 7 2.07 .53 2.82 5 11 3.05 29 4.06

0 0 0 0

s N LO

.33 40 • • X 1.81 Base Medial axis Shoulder 1.78 Summary of Metrical Attributes Summary of Bifacial Artifacts 1.73 6 1.16 .25 N 10 30 Point Point type Intermediate 6 1.61 .37 4 3.08 Expanding stemmed Expanding Note. Measurements in Note. centimeters. Measurements Side Side notched 5 1.86 .22 5 2.98 Corner notchedCorner 46 Straight/ contracting stemmed ned Undetermi Triangular 63 2.28 .65 40 3.72

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CM s CM .12 .17 • .26

X LO .55 .77 .26 • .76 .26 thickness 7 8 N 73 .64 111 .53 .20 s .60 .06 7 .68 .23 42 .00 X 1.23 1.00 1.23 2 6 Stem lengthStem Max. N

H s CO

• .23 1 X 1.27 1.40 .09 Stem width Stem 7 N s X .51 .13 5 .70 .25 2 6 N Notch width Notch 57 .62 .14 66 Summary of Metrical Attributes Summary of Bifacial Artifacts Point Point type Intermediate Expanding stemmedExpanding 36 1.35 .41 33 1.19 contracting contracting stemmed Corner notched Corner Note. Measurements in Note. centimeters. Measurements Side Side notched Straight/ Undetermined 4 1.06 Triangular

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SUMMARY OF BIFACIAL ARTIFACTS HAFTING ELEMENT NON-METRICAL VARIABLES

181

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95 102 Totals (N= (N= 314)

6 52 89 100 121 mi ned mi (N= (N= 111) Undeter- 1 1 9 5 2 56 15 151 Tri­ (N = 73) = (N angular

1 14 2 8 1 31 6 2 35 5 0 4 9 0 26 (N = 7) = (N Inter- medi ate medi 7 4 10 (N = 42) = (N stemmed Expanding 3 2 1 APPENDIX C APPENDIX 0 1 4 26 0 3 3 11 0 18 (N = 7) = (N Straight/ contracting 3 3 0 1 5 0 2 2 2 6 6 0 1 10 1 5 5 23 (N = 8) = (N Side notched 1 5 73 3 1 4 42 1 (N = 66) = (N Corner notched Summary of Bifacial Summary Artifacts Hafting Non-Metrical Variables Element

Indeterminate 6 Both corners Both SubconvexConvex 7 1 0 12 Unbroken 41 Strai ght Strai Subconcave One cornerOne 16 Concave Transverse Condition ofCondition base Basal outlineBasal

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1 6 15 16 105 186 297 297 Totals (N = 314) = (N

1 8 9 0 0 90 mi ned mi (N= (N= 111) Undeter- 5 3 1 0 3 1 2 0 0 00 0 8 72 111 63 11 72 111 Tri­ (N = 73) = (N angular 1 6 0 6 (N = 7) = (N Inter­ mediate 3 1 6 0 39 (N = 42) = (N stemmed Expanding 1 0 0 5 39 5 2 (N = 7) = (N Straight/ contracting 5 5 34 7 0 2 2 0 8 0 8 (N = 8) = (N Side notched 1 0 0 1 0 5 1 1 5 00 0 0 0 0 0 4 10 0 61 (N = 66) = (N Corner notched

Light Ears only Ears Unground 56 Unifac. Unifac. thinned 0 2Basal 0 2 0 Hafting Hafting element Heavy Unprepared 0 Bifac. thinned Unground 56 Absent Preparation Preparation of base Appendix Appendix C—Continued Placement of grinding Placement Degree of Degree grinding

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12 59 76 83 28 66 124 Totals (N = 314) = (N

8 62 0 2 13 27 38 mi ned mi (N = 111) = (N Undeter- 1 6 46 74 2 6 19 36 12 32 8 Tri­ (N = 73) = (N angular

1 2 2 20 25 2 0 Inter- 7) = (N mediate 0 1 1 6 4 (N = 42) = (N stemmed Expanding 2 6 2 32 0 2 (N = 7) = (N Straight/ contracting 1 2 2 5 2 (N = 8) = (N Side notched 3 5 0 0 6 115 15 42 8 6 1 12 2 0 6 (N= 66) (N= Corner notched Indeterminate 10 3 0 7 Indeterminate Distal-bilateral No wearNo 11 1 Pristine NibbledSteppedRounded 27 1 12 1 0 2 1 0 2 14 0 13 1 0 Crushed Unilateral Bilateral 37 3 5 23 Position Position of wear edge Appendix Appendix C--Continued Type of wear Type edge

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3 4 75 Totals (N= (N= 314) 9 3 25 147 13 32 45 47 25 38 mined (N= (N= 111) Undeter­ 1 7 1 5 3 0 8 59 89 25 53 24 136 Tri­ (N = 73) = (N angular 0 0 03 2 7 3 7 12 50 0 Inter­ (N= 7) mediate 0 0 4 0 28 4 40 24 (N = 42) = (N stemmed Expanding 6 3 1 7 0 0 0 7 2 0 0 0 (N = 7) = (N Straight/ contracting 2 Side (N = 8) = (N notched 1 0 5 1 12 1 (N = 66) = (N Corner notched Proximal portionProximal 22 3 1 12 3 Indeterminate Unbroken 39 5 Distal portion Unilateral edge 4 0 0 2 0 Bifacial bilateral 24 Bifacial unilateral Absent 25 4 3 Uni facial Uni bilateralfacial Uni unilateral 0 0 0 0 0 Absent 0 0 0 Appendix Appendix C—Continued Condition ofCondition blade Resharpening

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94 Totals (N = 314) = (N 52 89 31 131 28 mined (N =(N 111) Undeter­ 23 Tri­ (N = 73) = (N angular 2 2 13 3 37 (N = 7) = (N Inter­ mediate 17 (N = 42) = (N stemmed Expanding (N = 7) = (N Straight/ contracting 2 0 7 5 2 Side (N = 8) = (N notched 17 1 5 18

Indeterminate 13 Symmetric 36 Asymmetric Symmetry of blade Symmetry Appendix Appendix C—Continued

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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