toekomstige onsekerhede te bekamp. Met behulp van die kwalitatiewe sekondêre databenadering, evalueer hierdie artikel of kwesbare gemeenskappe in Published by the UFS uMkhanyakude-distriksmunisipaliteit http://journals.ufs.ac.za/index.php/trp veerkragtig kan raak teen die gevolge van © Creative Commons With Attribution (CC-BY) How to cite: Mthembu, A. & Hlophe, S. 2020. Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities: klimaatsverandering. UMkhanyakude- A case study of uMkhanyakude district municipality. Town and Regional Planning, no.77, pp. 42-56. distriksmunisipaliteit is oorwegend landelik en een van die armste distrikte in KwaZulu-Natal, met ’n meerderheid Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable sosiale en ekonomies gemarginaliseerde individue en huishoudings wat baie communities: A case study of uMkhanyakude district erger gevolge ervaar as gevolg van municipality klimaatsverandering in vergelyking met dié in stedelike gebiede. Data is met behulp van inhoudsanalise geanaliseer Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe en ’n bondige opsomming van die biofisiese en sosio-ekonomiese aspekte is aangebied. Hierdie navorsing dui daarop dat die bou van veerkragtigheid DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/2415-0495/trp77i1.4 teenoor klimaatsverandering moontlik Peer reviewed and revised October 2020 is as gevolg van onder, proaktiewe en Published December 2020 stelselmatige maatreëls om kwesbare gebiede soos dié in uMkhanyakude- *The authors declared no conflict of interest for this title or article distriksmunisipaliteit te bestuur. Die artikel beveel aan dat maatskaplike Abstract impakstudies (SIA) gedoen word om te help met die beoordeling van Climate change in South Africa remains an issue of socio-economic and environ maatskaplike gevolge wat waarskynlik mental concern. An increase in frequency and intensity of climatic events pose uit beleidsaksies kan volg. significant threats to biophysical and socio-economic aspects, namely food security, water resources, agriculture, biodiversity, tourism, and poverty. In order to counteract Sleutelwoorde: Aanpassing, klimaatsver the socio-economic and environmental concerns pertaining to issues of climate andering, kwesbaarheid, veerkragtigheid change, emergent insights on climate change strategies suggest that building resilience in human and environmental systems is an ideal way of combating HO AHA MAMELLO EA PHETOHO dynamic environmental conditions and future uncertainties. Using the qualitative secondary data approach, this article evaluates whether vulnerable communities EA MAEMO A LEHOLIMO in uMkhanyakude District Municipality can become resilient to the implications of METSENG E TLOKOTSING: climate change. UMkhanyakude District Municipality is predominantly rural and one PHUPUTSO EA MASEPALA OA of the most impoverished districts in KwaZulu-Natal, with the majority of socially and SETEREKE SA UMKHANYAKUDE economically marginalised individuals and households experiencing more severe impacts as a result of climate change compared to those in urban areas. Data was Phetoho ea maemo a leholimo Afrika analysed using content analysis and a concise summary of the biophysical and Boroa e ntse e le taba ea ngongoreho socio-economic aspects is presented. This research suggests that building resilience ea sechaba, moruo le tikoloho. Ho to climate change is possible when bottom-up, proactive and systematic measures nyoloha hoa maqhubu le matla a are taken to manage vulnerable areas such as those in uMkhanyakude District liketsahalo tsa maemo a leholimo li Municipality. It recommends that social impact assessments (SIA) be conducted tlisa tlokotsi likarolong tsa tikoloho, to assist in terms of assessing social consequences that are likely to follow from sechaba le moruo, e leng ts’ireletso policy actions. ea lijo, lisebelisoa tsa metsi, temo, mefuta-futa ea bochaba, bohahlauli le Keywords: Adaptation, climate change, resilience, vulnerability bofuma. Bakeng sa ho loants’a mathata a sechaba, moruo le tikoloho mabapi le BOU VEERKRAGTIGHEID TEEN KLIMAATSVERANDERING litaba tsa phetoho ea maemo a leholimo, leseli le hlahang mabapi le maano a IN KWESBARE GEMEENSKAPPE: ‘N GEVALLESTUDIE VAN phetoho ea maemo a leholimo le fana UMKHANYAKUDE-DISTRIKSMUNISIPALITEIT ka maikutlo a hore, ho aha botsitso Klimaatsverandering in Suid-Afrika bly ’n kwessie van maatskaplike ekonomiese litsing tsa batho le tsa tikoloho ke tsela en omgewingsbelang. Terwyl daar ’n toename is in frekwensie en intensiteit van e nepahetseng ea ho loants’a maemo klimaatsgebeurtenisse, is daar steeds beduidende bedreigings vir biofisiese en a tikoloho le phapang e ka tlisoang ke sosio-ekonomiese aspekte, naamlik voedselsekerheid, waterbronne, landbou, bokamoso. Ka ts’ebeliso ea mokhoa oa biodiversiteit, toerisme en armoede. Ten einde die sosio-ekonomiese en boleng bo holimo oa lipatlisiso, sengoloa omgewingskwessies rakende klimaatsverandering teë te werk, dui opkomende sena se lekola hore na sechaba se insigte oor klimaatsveranderingstrategieë daarop dat veerkragtigheid in menslike tlokotsing seterekeng sa Mmasepala sa en omgewingstelsels ’n ideale manier is om dinamiese omgewingstoestande en uMkhanyakude se ka khona ho mamella
Miss Anele Mthembu, eThekwini Municipality, Candidate Planner, P.O. Box 680, Durban, 4001. Phone: 0837756749, email:
SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77):42-56 | ISSN 1012-280 | e-ISSN 2415-0495
42 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities litlamorao tsa phetoho ea maemo a across generations, classes, regions, Following these mitigation plans, leholimo. Masepala oa Setereke oa income groups, and gender (Mbow, South Africa experienced a massive UMkhanyakude o mahaeng haholo ‘me Rosenzweig, Barioni, Benton, Herrero reduction in crop production as a setereke sena ke seseng sa litereke tse & Krishnapilla et al., 2019: 464). result of these droughts. The drought futsanehileng ka ho fetisisa KwaZulu- severity in the country has been Natal, ka bongata ba batho le malapa Climate change has been considered increasing to a point where, on 4 a sotlehileng sechabeng le moruong, the most prevalent environmental moo ho bileng ho nang le litlamorao tse March 2020, the Minister of Co- concern in South Africa, as the country’s mpe ka lebaka la phetoho ea maemo a Operative Governance and Traditional mean annual temperatures have leholimo ha a bapisoa le a libakeng tsa Affairs declared a state of drought increased at least 1.5 time compared litoropo. Linthla Ii ile tsa hlahlojoa ho disaster in the country (De Wet, 2020). sebelisoa tlhaiso-leseling le kakaretso to the observed global average of ea likarolo tsa tlhaho ea bophelo le 0.65ºC over the past fifty years, with an According to Adams, Álvarez-Romero, moruo. Phuputso ena e fana ka maikutlo increase in frequency and intensity, due Capon, Crowley, Dale, Kennard, a hore ho aha boits’oaro ba phetoho to extreme climatic events (Ziervogel, Douglas & Pressey (2017: 57), to ea maemo a leholimo ho a khonahala New, Archer Van Garderen, Midgley, counteract the country’s vulnerability ha mehato e nkuoang ho laola libaka tse tlokotsing joalo ka tse Masepaleng Taylor & Hamann et al., 2014: 605). to climate change, emergent insights oa Setereke sa uMkhanyakude, ele Catastrophic events such as droughts, on climate change strategies suggest e hlophisehileng e bile e kenyeletsa floods, tropical cyclones, and urban heat that building resilience in human maikutlo a sechaba. E khothaletsa hore islands pose a significant threat to food and environmental systems is an litekolo tsa sekhahla sa kahisano (SIA) security, water resources, infrastructure, ideal way of dealing with dynamic di etsoe ho thusa mabapi le ho lekola tourism, ecosystem services, and environmental conditions and future litlamorao tsa kahisano tse ka bang teng ho latela liketso tsa maano. biodiversity (Huq, Hugè, Boon & Gain, uncertainties. Therefore, this article 2015: 8438; Ziervogel et al., 2014: 606). evaluates whether communities in uMkhanyakude District Municipality The threat of climate change on food 1. INTRODUCTION could become resilient to climate security, water resources, tourism, change implications, given their Climate change is defined as any ecosystem services and biodiversity vulnerability. The purpose of using changes in climate over time, due challenges national development, due uMkhanyakude District Municipality to natural variability or human to South Africa’s high levels of poverty as a case study is due to the geo- activities (IPCC, 2007: 6). Although and inequality (Ziervogel et al., 2014: economic setting of the area being climate naturally changes, there is a 606). Climate change projections in predominantly rural and regarded growing concern about the changes South Africa suggest a substantial as the poorest district municipality in in climate due to anthropogenic warming of 5ºC-8ºC in the interior, KwaZulu-Natal. Studies have noted activities (Henderson, Storeygard wetter conditions along the eastern that such communities are vulnerable & Deichmann, 2017: 60). Climate portion of the country, and drier and lack the ability to adapt to change is now a scientifically proven conditions to the west and south of the climate change impacts, due to poor issue and poses life-threatening country (DoEA, 2013). As an outcome, impacts on human beings and technical, financial and institutional south-western parts of the country are ecosystems. While the impacts of capacity (Schilling et al., 2020: 3). As projected to become drier, especially climate change in Africa are more a result, this article focuses on climate during the winter months, and a severe, the continent continues to be change impacts, and its cascading shortened winter rainfall is expected. more vulnerable to climate change consequences and the livelihood The northern and eastern parts of the as a result of high exposure and low impacts on vulnerable communities country are expected to experience adaptive capacity (Conway, 2009: 11; especially in rural areas, in order to an increase in rainfall during the Gbetibouo, Ringler & Hassan, inform a bottom-up, systematic and summer months that may potentially 2010: 177). According to Schilling, proactive way of becoming resilient. cause flooding. Furthermore, drought Hertig, Tramblay & Scheffran (2020: incidents are also expected to 3), South Africa is more implicated proliferate throughout the country. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW with climate change, due to the high dependence on rain-fed agriculture, Studies show that South Africa 2.1 Climate change policies and coupled with poor technical, financial is susceptible to droughts and El programmes and institutional capacity. Agriculture is Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO), considered one of the main economic which sometimes causes extreme South Africa is committed to activities in South Africa, with over droughts (Baudoin, Vogel, Nortje addressing climate change issues, 60% of the population in this field, & Naik, 2017: 128). In 2015 and as it is a signatory to both the and it contributes approximately 2016, the country experienced an El United Framework Convention on 50% to the Gross Domestic Product Nino-induced drought, the severity of Climate Change (UNFCCC) and (GDP). Although climate change which resulted in the implementation the Kyoto Protocol in terms of its is regarded as a global issue, its of water restrictions in several cities efforts in reducing greenhouse implications are not anticipated such as Johannesburg and Cape gases. In addition, South Africa to be homogeneous, but different Town (Enqvist & Ziervogel, 2019: 7). has also adopted the Sustainable
43 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77)
Development Goals (SDGs), with municipal level (Averchenkova et 2.2. Vulnerability Goal 1 seeking, to “end poverty in al., 2019: 2). Studies suggest that, Vulnerability is a concept that has a all its forms everywhere”. Target even if South Africa is committed wide range of research contexts. Its 1.5 states that by 2030, the world to implementing those climate roots are found in natural hazards must “build the resilience of the poor change policies, the country is still and those in vulnerable situations grappling with development issues and geographic research, but a and reduce their exposure and such as poverty, lack of access number of researchers use the vulnerability to climate related to basic services, and the high concept in disaster management, extreme events and other economic, unemployment rate (Segal & Cloete, climate change, adaptation, and social, and environmental shocks 2012: Greenpeace Africa, 2015). development (Füssel, 2005: 1; and disasters”. Furthermore, Goal Zarafashani, Sharafi, Azadi & Van 13 focuses purely on climate Chapter 5 of the National Passel, 2016: 3). The cross-cutting change, calling on “urgent action Development Plan (NDP) details the nature of the climate change transition to a low-carbon economy to combat climate change and its problem requires collaboration as a response to climate change. impacts”. Target 13.1 states that from various disciplines such as The NDP acknowledges that the we must “strengthen resilience and disaster management, economics, country is vulnerable to the impacts adaptive capacity to climate-related policy, and risk assessment. The of climate change, with additional hazards and natural disasters Intergovernmental Panel on Climate threats to livelihoods, health, water, in all countries” (UN, 2016). Change (IPCC) links climate change and food, especially for the poor, Nationally, the overall policy women and children (NDP, 2012: with vulnerability and mentions that framework for climate change 33). While this is the case, there the vulnerability of a specific area is is the National Climate Change is an inherent vulnerability of poor reliant on its economic resources, Response Policy (NCCRP), which communities to environmental and it is based on the idea that was set out in the National Climate threats and pressures of a resource- poverty limits an area’s coping Change Response White Paper based economy (NDP, 2012: capacity (Niang, Osman-Elasha, (NCCRWP) enacted in 2011. The 198).2 Unfortunately, South Africa’s Githeko, Yanda, Medany & Vogel, NCCRWP is informed by the South capacity to effectively respond to 2008: 6; Patnaik & Narayanan, African Constitution 1996, Section climate change is compromised by 2009: 3). Using Raemaekers and 241, the Bill of Rights, the National factors such as social vulnerability, Sowman’s (2015: 5) vulnerability Environmental Management Act (No. dispersed and poorly planned components, Figure 1 represents 107 of 1998), the agreements made development, as well as lack of vulnerability, which is the function at the UNFCCC, and the Millennium infrastructure, instead of systematic of the character, magnitude, rate Agreement. During June 2018, there climate-specific interventions (NDP, of climate change and variation was a public participation process 2012: 200). This has resulted in the to which a system is exposed, its on a draft Climate Change Bill that NDP having limited success in terms sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity would have specific objectives of addressing climate change. and laws for climate change (Brooks, 2003: 3; Cuevas, 2011: (Averchenkova, Gannon & Curran, The KwaZulu-Natal Provincial Growth 35; Giordano, 2014). Vulnerability 2019: 12). The Disaster Management and Development Strategy (PGDS) consists of three elements, 3 4 Amended Act (No. 16 of 2015) aims is a notable response document to namely exposure, sensitivity, and 5 to provide measures for the disaster climate change for the Province. The adaptive capacity (see Figure 1). risk reduction through adaptation to PGDS (2016: 30) argues that the 3 Exposure denotes the “presence of species, climate change and development of environmental sustainability of the ecosystems, environmental functions, early warning systems. In addition, Province is challenged, due to erratic livelihoods, resources, social, economic or cultural assets that could be adversely a draft National Climate Change and severe weather conditions such affected by a climate-induced hazard” (IPCC, Adaptation (NCCA) strategy was as droughts, flooding, severe storms, 2018: 5). released in 2017, but Cabinet has not and poor land-use practices. This 4 Sensitivity refers to the degree to which adopted it. While South Africa has requires a great deal of attention to a system or species is affected either beneficially or adversely by climate change or progressive climate change policies, enhance the resilience of ecosystem variability (IPCC, 2007: 6). implementation has been hindered services, expand the application 5 Adaptive capacity is defined as the “potential, by various issues such as the lack of green technologies, as well as capability, or ability of a system to adapt of policy alignment, coherence and to climate change stimuli or their effects adapt and respond to climate change of impacts (IPCC, 2001a: 6). It is the coordination; policy complexity and (PGDS, 1016: 37). However, one capacity of communities using resources, continuity; issues with public-private would argue that the expansion of skills, information technology, services and engagement and consultation; gaps institutions to cope with climate-related green technologies is ignorant of the hazards and adapt to climate change, in order and constraints in information and varying realities of communities. to anticipate, cope with, prepare and recover data, and limited staff capacity at the from climatic hazards (Smit & Pilifosova, 2 This includes coal mining, which challenges 2001: 893; Grothmann, Grecksch, Winges 1 “Everyone has a right to a healthy and safe mitigation strategies to reduce the implications & Siebenhüner, 2013: 3371; Shah, Dulal & environment”. of climate change. Awojobi, 2020: 221).
44 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities daptive capacity7 (see Figure 1). their distribution, spatial shift in ideal Exposure Sensitivity growing regions and reduced yield (DoEA, 2013). The under-resourced, small-scale and subsistence farmers are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, Potential which leads to food insecurity and higher levels of poverty. Maize, a Impact Adaptive capacity major subsistence crop, could see the yields being reduced as much as 10% to 20% and most of the areas will become unsuitable for maize production (DoEA, 2013). Vulnerability The socio-economic aspects will evaluate climate change impacts Figure 1: Vulnerability components and vulnerability in two sectors, Source: Author’s own, 2020 namely tourism and poverty. Climate change is expected to have Vulnerability is categorised into (Hoffman, Rymer, Byrne, Ruthrof, significant implications on tourism biophysical and socio-economic Whinam & McGeoch et al., 2019: 5). that will have associated impacts on categories. The biophysical is rooted Consequently, the grassland biome livelihoods in terms of employment, in the physical state of people is under severe threat of significant incomes, and an increase in the and in those categories that are at structural change, and could face cost of living (SDF, 2019: 48). This risk; these include infrastructure, significant encroachment by woody is a concern, especially in areas proximity, and location (Salami, Von vegetation, due to the increase in such as uMkhanyakude that are Meding & Giggins, 2017: 3; Mavhura, temperature and rising atmospheric dependent on the tourism sector to 2019: 73). The socio-economic is carbon dioxide (Hoffman et al., economically uplift communities. The based on the specific population that 2019:5). In addition, climate change impoverished would become more will be affected by climate change significantly threatens the Nama vulnerable as they would require and variability (Esperón-Rodríguez, Karoo, Forest and Fynbos biome as making means to survive below the Bonifacio-Bautista & Barradas, well as the Indian Ocean coastal belt. poverty line. South Africa’s adaptive 2016: 147). The socio-economic Water availability is a key climate capacity is predisposed by social status of people determines the change-related vulnerability that factors such as unemployment, and intensity of the impact. The following negatively affects people, the poverty and by housing typology vulnerable sectors have been economy, and ecosystems. As such as informal settlements, which evaluated to determine the impacts an outcome, climate change has are highly susceptible to extreme of climate change. These will be considerable additional risks for weather events. Vulnerability is, discussed in terms of the biophysical water security, with adverse effects therefore, not static, as institutions, and socio-economic aspects. on sectors that are highly dependent individuals and communities including economic sectors are affected The biophysical aspects will on water sources such as agriculture differently, irrespective of previously evaluate climate change impacts (NCCRWP, 2011: 17). The decline mentioned social factors (Mambo, and vulnerability in four sectors, in rainfall and the increase in 2017: 2). Hence, vulnerability is namely biodiversity, water, temperature result in the increase content and location specific and agriculture, and food security. of droughts, which contribute to should be assessed, taking account Changes in temperature, rising the decline in ground and surface of the natural and socio-economic carbon dioxide levels, and the water and reduce the water table factors of that specific location. changing rainfall patterns result in levels for dams that serve as a shift of the country’s biomes, and sources of water supply, irrigation, 2.3 Adaptation this has implications for species and hydropower generation. diversity, ecosystem processes, Agriculture remains one of the Adaptation refers to the adjustment and services (Ziervogel et al., 2014: largest consumer of water (through in natural or human systems in 608; NCCRWP, 2011: 20). This irrigation) and it is highly vulnerable response to actual or expected includes shifting habitat ranges to changes in water availability climatic stimuli or their effects, and species distribution, altering and soil erosion from the intense which moderates harm or exploits life cycles, changes in migration rainfall events and the increased beneficial opportunities. Various patterns, changes in abundance, evapotranspiration (Gitz, Meybeck, types of adaptation can be changes in frequency, and severity Lipper, Young & Braatz, 2016: 4). distinguished, including anticipatory of pests and diseases outbreaks This is coupled with a change in and reactive adaptation, private 7 Adaptive capacity is defined as the “potential, capability, or ability of a system to adapt to climate change stimuli or their effects of impacts (IPCC, 2001a: 6). It is the capacity of communities using resources, skills, information technology, services and institutions to cope with climate-related hazards and adapt to climate change, in order45 to anticipate, cope with, prepare and recover from climatic hazards (Smit & Pilifosova, 2001: 893; Grothmann, Grecksch, Winges & Siebenhüner, 2013: 3371; Shah, Dulal & Awojobi, 2020: 221). SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) and public adaptation, as well as in demographics and economic ratio of 81.2%. This municipality is autonomous and planned adaptation complexities (Kihila, 2018: 3). In regarded as the poorest municipality (IPCC, 2001b: 6). Further, it also addition, this indicates geographical in KwaZulu-Natal and one of the refers to actions that countries and limits in the pertinence of some of poorest district municipalities in communities implement to adjust to these strategies. Consequently, South Africa (Patrick, 2020: 4). social and environmental impacts the adaptation strategies created According to Patrick (2020: 4), such as climate change. Adaptation in relation to climate change the district is one of the most has three objectives, namely to impacts are defined in their socio-economically deprived reduce exposure to the risk of own contexts (see Table 1). district municipality in South Africa, damage; to develop the capacity ranking 51 of the 55 most deprived. to cope with unavoidable damage, 3. STUDY AREA UMkhanyakude District Municipality and to take advantage of new is characterised by poor economic opportunities (Akinnagbe & Irohibe, UMkhanyakude District Municipality development, limited infrastructure, 2014: 408). Although there are is the northernmost of the 11 district and experiences of poor service noted efforts to create an adaptation municipalities in KwaZulu-Natal delivery (Dlamini, 2018: 51; Mulopo, 2 planning framework by IPCC, (see Figure 2). At 12,818km and Kalinda & Chimbari, 2020: 2). Most of there is no internationally agreed with a population of 689,090, the services in this district are located methodology for creating adaptation uMkhanyakude District Municipality and distributed in the district’s urban strategies. Most of the adaptation is the second largest district in areas and this contributes to the strategies that have been created the Province, in terms of size inability of the local municipalities6 and characterised by adjustments after its neighbouring district, to provide the economic stimuli for have been done by communities Zululand District Municipality (IDP, the district municipality, in order (Ziervogel & Zermoglio, 2009: 134; 2018/2019: 18). It is located around to break the poverty cycle that is Antwi-Agyei, Dougill & Stringer, 2013: latitude -27.622S and longitude affecting its economic growth and 12). This has been due to the fact 32.014E (IDP, 2018/2019: 18). It prosperity (Dlamini, 2018: 51). that the impacts of climate change is a peri-urban and predominantly Poverty has been exacerbated by are localised, due to variances rural district with a dependency high illiteracy and lack of growth opportunities within uMkhanyakude. The poverty rate for the district Table 1: Adaptation responses to climate change municipality ranges between 72.1% Sector Adaptation strategies and 88.6% of the total population. Strengthen institutional arrangements to further develop expanded public works programmes (EPWP) for building ecosystem and community resilience through According to Patrick (2020: 5), Biodiversity the restoration of wetlands, controlling wildfires, removing alien plants and over 70% of the population in other sustainability programmes. These approaches can be included at local uMkhanyakude survives on less government (DoEA, 2016: 58) than R800 per month and over 83% Adopt a low or no-regrets approach concerning decisions about water Water infrastructure, in the context of climate change, to balance socio-economic of the total households live below considerations with ecological considerations (DoEA, 2016: 50) the poverty line. Approximately Agriculture 14% of the unemployed population Crop diversification, intercropping, crop rotation, increase of farm size, use of within the district has not received organic/chemical fertiliser, drought-tolerant/early maturing varieties, change timing Crop management of land preparation/planting, crop irrigation, grain storage, sharecropping. Climate- formal schooling and a further 17% smart agriculture, extension support (Kihila, 2018: 4-5; Wiederkehr, Beckmann & only has an elementary level of Hermans, 2018: 7) education (Patrick, 2020: 5). It is Erosion control, terracing, drainage ditches, ridges, micro-catchments, ploughing, Soil and water noted that the largest percentage stone bunds, mulching, digging of boreholes and wells, construction of small management dams, water storage, drinking water treatment (Wiederkehr et al., 2018: 7) of the unemployed population has Provision of seasonal forecast or community weather monitoring station (DoEA, completed Grade 12 education Early warning system 2018: 24) and a further 30% have some Ensure provision of clean sanitation and freshwater services to reduce water- form of secondary education (IDP, borne diseases. Continuous water quality tests should be done frequently to Human health monitor and manage the spread of water-borne diseases. Manage the incidence 2018/2019: 76). Only a small and spread of climate-related water-borne disease vectors (DoEA, 2016: 61) percentage of the unemployed Indigenous Encourage the local people to practise and share their indigenous knowledge population has completed any form information (Kihila, 2018: 2) knowledge of tertiary education. The extent Other adaptation strategies Rely on support from friends or relatives, receive remittances (Wiederkehr et al., of poverty in the rural areas in Social networks 2018: 7) uMkhanyakude has forced 95% of Trading, pottery, tourism, local wage labour, sell bush plants (Wiederkehr et al., Income diversification the inhabitants to survive through 2018: 7) subsistence farming, grants from the Work for food, eat wild fruits, change diet, reduce food consumption, seek food Food provision aid, buy food, sell assets to buy food, harvest to obtain food, plant food trees, store 6 UMhlabuyalingana Municipality (KZ 271), food (Wiederkehr et al., 2018: 7) Jozini Municipality (KZ 272), Mtubatuba Municipality (KZ 275) and the Big Five Hlabisa Source: DoEA (2016; 2018; 2019); Kihila (2018); Wiederkehr et al. (2018) Municipality (KZ 276).
46 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities government as well as remittances journal articles that were accessed socio-economic aspects (agriculture, from family members working outside through Google Scholar, Scopus water, food security, biodiversity, the municipality (Dlamini, 2018: 53; and Science Direct. The search tourism and poverty) evaluates SDF, 2019/2020: 45). The main criteria included “climate change”, whether vulnerable communities economic sectors in uMkhanyakude “vulnerability”, “adaptation”, “food within the District Municipality are agriculture, tourism, and trade. security”, “agriculture”, “water”, could become resilient. However, all these sectors have “biodiversity”, “tourism”, “poverty” experienced adverse effects, due in the topic field of literature, in 5. FINDINGS to the impacts of climate change. order to determine the impacts of climate change and their cascading 5.1 Biophysical aspects 4. METHODOLOGY consequences on the biophysical and socio-economic aspects. 5.1.1 Biodiversity A qualitative secondary data approach was used to evaluate The gathered data used content According to Hoffman et al. whether vulnerable communities in analysis, whereby related climate (2019: 5), the main implication of uMkhanyakude District Municipality change data was evaluated to climate change on biodiversity is could become resilient to the reflect on key aspects such as the the decrease in the availability and implications of climate change biophysical and socio-economic quantity of suitable habitats, and (Ruggiano & Perry, 2019: 83). The that have been used to determine some ecosystems may expand gathered data included the strategic whether uMkhanyakude could into new areas, while others may framework, integrated development become resilient (Bengtsson, decrease. Consistent with biophysical plan and related climate change 2016: 8). Therefore, a concise conditions in uMkhanyakude District plans from uMkhanyakude District summary of key findings, categorised Municipality, there has been a loss Municipality, as well as relevant according to the biophysical and of high-priority biomes such as
FigureFigure 2: 2:Locality Locality map of map uMkhanyakude of uMkhanyakude District Municipality District Municipality Source:Source Author’s own (2020)
47 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) grasslands and coastal belts. There catchment area that is shared with The Jozini Dam was primarily built has also been an increase in the neighbouring countries Swaziland for controlling flooding and storing proliferation of invasive alien species, and Mozambique, and the bordering water for irrigation of agriculture. which outcompete indigenous plants municipalities. The transboundary While this is one of the largest dams (see Table 2) (IDP, 2018/2019: 44). nature of the catchment area and in the country, it also has the potential the diverse aquatic and wetland Table 2: Invasive alien to assist in terms of supplying inhabitants of the water system species contained water to the District (see Figure 3). rely on sustainable management in uMkhanyakude Unfortunately, due to the historical of the system’s resources (Dlamini, District Municipality development of this dam and private 2018: 57). These features have Condensed ownership rights, it has contributed Invasive alien species contributed significantly towards hectares (Ha) less to the inhabitants who need the main economic sectors; Chromolaena odorata 31,522 water for subsistence farming and Eucalyptus spp. 4,314 however, the unstable supply of consumption (Dlamini, 2018: 58). Lantana camara 1,538 water has compromised most Psidium guajava 872 if not all of these sectors. Over the years, other water sources Pinus spp. 315 within the District have experienced a Melia azedarach 176 Jozini Local Municipality is home to Solanum mauritianum 149 one of the largest dams in KwaZulu- considerable decline in water quality, Natal, the Jozini Dam, which was as a result of sugarcane farming Source: IDP, 2018/2019: 44 recognised, near the town of Jozini and the seepage of sulphate from in 1973, as part of the Pongolapoort- adjacent mines (Dlamini, 2018: 61). It is worth noting that a total of Makhathini flats Government Water Other factors include the Mfolozi 19 invasive alien species were Scheme (GWS) (Dlamini, 2018: 58). River which has less water during singled out for eradication, of which five were identified as priority species for immediate attention and eradication, namely Ipomoea carnea subsp., Fistulosa, Pereskia aculeate, Chromolaena odorata, and the Lantana camara (IDP, 2018/2019: 44). According to the IDP (2018/2019: 44), some work is done within the District regarding alien plant control through programmes by the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, iSimangaliso Wetland Park, and the Department of Water and Sanitation.
5.1.2 Water According to the IDP (2018/2019: 82), access to basic water infrastructure remains one of the key challenges within the District. This is supported by the proportion of households that have access to water through regional and local water schemes, being 42% compared to the provincial figure of 72% (IDP, 2018/2019: 82). Approximately 30% of the households utilise untreated sources of water directly from dams, springs or rivers, and this is alarming as the provincial total is only 13%.
According to Dlamini (2018: 58), the District falls within the Mfolozi/ Figure 3: Pongolapoort/Jozini Dam Pongolo primary catchment area, one of the District’s main Source: Dlamini, 2018: 59
48 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities dry seasons. This has contributed the highest rainfall in 1996 with 1 by the Council in 2017. It revealed to the high silt abstraction levels. millimetre and the lowest rainfall that most of the existing infrastructure in 2015 with -2.5 millimetres. is in a state of disrepair, due to years Furthermore, the deterioration of The Riverview river experienced of poor maintenance and negligence water quality has led to a lack of its highest rainfall in 2000 with 2 drinkable water and water cleanliness (IDP, 2018/2019: 125). The lack in the District, as per the water- millimetres and the lowest in 2016 of maintenance of the existing quality standards. The increase with -3 millimetres. The Pongolapoort infrastructure has given rise to high in water-related natural disasters Dam experienced its highest rainfall maintenance backlogs, resulting in means that less water is available in 2000 with 2 millimetres and the limited water supplies for most of to dilute wastewater discharges and lowest in 2003 with 1.5 millimetres. the communities. The Plan identifies irrigation return flows to rivers, and The Ingwavuma Manguzi river the maintenance and upgrade the uMfolozi and Phongolo rivers experienced its highest rainfall in requirements for the district, which are dry (SDF, 2019: 48). In terms of 2000 with 1.5 millimetres and its compete for limited fiscal resources availability, less water is available lowest in 2016 with -4 millimetres with new infrastructure meant for first for drinking and irrigation, and the (Gwala, 2018: 49). SPI drought time access to water resources. increase in drought events results categories indicate that between 0 in less water being available for to -0.99 of the drought category is 5.1.3 Agriculture mild drought; -1 to -1.49 is moderate domestic use. The Jozini, Hluhluwe Agriculture is considered to be one drought; -1.5 to -1.99 is severe and uMfolozi rivers have low of the cornerstones of the District’s drought, and -2.00 or less is extreme water levels (Gwala, 2018: 48). economic development. A substantial drought. Figure 4 shows that the Figure 4 highlights the average portion of land in the District, which is extreme drought years were between rainfall over a period of time in predominantly located on the eastern 2015 and 2016 for Mbhuzana and uMkhanyakude, in accordance part of uMkhanyakude consists Ingwavuma Manguzi, respectively. with 4 water features, using the of high agricultural potential (see Standardised Precipitation Index To address water quality, water- Figure 5). Approximately 20% of the (SPI) measured in millimetres. related infrastructure and climate District is considered to have high According to Gwala (2018: 48), change, uMkhanyakude developed a potential agricultural activities, with the Mbhuzana river experienced Water Master Plan that was adopted 52% considered as having medium low water levels (Gwala, 2018: 48).
FigureFigure 4: The 4: Theseverity severity of drought of for drought Mbhuzana for river, Mbhuzana Riverview river,river, Pongolapoort Riverview Dam river, and Pongolapoort Dam andIngwavuma Ingwavuma Manguzi Manguziriver using theriver Standardised using the Precipitation Standardised Index (Gwala, Precipit 2018:ation 50) Index (Gwala, 2018: 50) 49 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) potential (IDP, 2018/2019: 67). According to the IDP (2018/2019: 41), covering most of the area. The It is noted that land with high nearly 95% of the uMkhanyakude’s Big Five False Bay Municipality is population are rural dwellers, of characterised by both commercial agricultural potential is under threat whom most of the households rely at and subsistence agriculture around from unsustainable land uses, poor least partly on subsistence agriculture Hluhluwe (SDF, 2019: 45). agricultural practices, and land to meet their food requirements. Big Five Hlabisa is characterised UMhlabuyalingana is bordered by reform. This land requires suitable by commercial and subsistence the Pongola River in the west, which protection for potential commercial agriculture, which is most widespread incorporates the Pongola Floodplains agricultural uses in the future. in the old Hlabisa municipal side and the Makhathini Flats that contain
Figure 5: Agricultural potential in uMkhanyakude District Municipality Source:Figure IDP, 5 2018/2019:: Agricultural 70 potential in uMkhanyakude District Municipality Source: IDP, 2018/2019: 70
50 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities formal and irrigated croplands (IDP, are unsustainable and have negative population; high illiteracy rates have 2018/2019: 68). Irregular subsistence impacts have adverse impacts been identified to increase levels agriculture occurs within the central on food security and livelihoods of poverty. According to the IDP and eastern areas, and this is (IDP, 2018/2019: 41). There are (2018/2019: 76), the completion partially due to the general lack of no statistics to indicate how many of secondary school education water resources, which compromises households are at risk of food does not guarantee any form of permanent water for irrigation of insecurity or findings to depict future formal employment, as 35% of crops. Another contributing factor is trends in terms of food security. the unemployed population has a the poorly drained area. The reason secondary school qualification (see why the area is mainly unsuitable 5.2 Socio-economic aspects Figure 6). Figure 6 highlights that a for agriculture is due to the great tertiary education or a skills-based extent to which the municipality is 5.2.1 Tourism qualification guarantees, to some situated in a near natural ecological According to the IDP (2018/2019: extent, employment to contribute state (IDP, 2018/2019: 68). 145), uMkhanyakude District towards transforming the District. Mtubatuba has a very high Municipality has one of the best In uMkhanyakude, approximately agricultural potential, and it is climatic conditions in KwaZulu-Natal 70% of the unemployed population the least rural municipal area of and South Africa and contributes is younger than 35 years of age, uMkhanyakude. According to the significantly towards tourism. This of whom 35.2% is younger than 25 IDP (2018/2019: 68), the expansion entails warm weather, which is years of age, and 34.9% is aged of the iSimangaliso Wetland Park conducive for renewable energy between 25 and 34 years (IDP, has meant that there is competition generation. However, climate change 2018/2019: 75). The vast majority for land resources in Mtubatuba, is projected to have a significant of the unemployed population especially in the southern impact on the tourism sector, with younger than 25 years was under regions. To protect commercial resultant impacts on livelihoods in the Hlabisa Local Municipality agricultural activities and forestry, uMkhanyakude. A rise in sea level during the 2011 STATS census; this the municipality has endorsed its and loss of biodiversity are projected local municipality has since been urban edge development strategy to to impact on the tourism sector, since merged with Big Five False Bay promote sustainable development. uMkhanyakude has some of the most Municipality. This means that the pristine dune environments in the Sugarcane is the dominant Big Five Hlabisa Municipality has world, and their erosion would be a commercial crop in the District and the highest rate of unemployment of significant loss in terms of tourism has had an impact on the local individuals under the age of 25 years. and livelihoods. Consequently, it is watercourses. Further, sugarcane worth noting that it is not possible Table 3 highlights that uMkhanyakude farming practices tend to encroach on to quantify the impacts on tourism District Municipality has a low the riparian parts of rivers which has and livelihoods, as an outcome of adaptive capacity to the implications a negative impact. The high volumes the loss of biodiversity and changes of climate change. This is projected to of irrigation water needed means in sea level (SDF, 2019: 48). result in poor and rural communities that the watercourses only receive being increasingly vulnerable to a substantial amount of agricultural 5.2.2 Poverty the impacts of climate change. runoff (IDP, 2018/2019: 68). Social inequalities such as lack of 5.1.4 Food security access to basic services, income, 6. CONCLUSION urban-bias, spatial and poverty are Climate change projections This article evaluated whether most prevalent in the rural areas, and suggest that rain-fed agriculture vulnerable communities in increase the individuals’ exposure in uMkhanyakude is likely to be uMkhanyakude District Municipality, to climate hazards, increase the negatively affected, due to lower which is predominantly rural and susceptibility to damage caused annual rainfall, high temperatures, regarded as the poorest district by climatic hazards, and decrease increased hydrological risk, increased municipality in KwaZulu-Natal, could the ability to cope with and recover rainfall variability, drying of top soils, become resilient to the implications from the damage (UNICEF, 2011; less water in the soil for irrigating of climate change. The focus was on Cardona, Van Aalyst, Birkmann, plants, and increased irrigation the implications of climate change in Fordham, McGregor & Perez et needs. For that reason, this forms uMkhanyakude District Municipality, al., 2012; Islam & Winkel, 2017; the basis for small-holder agriculture. using the vulnerability categories Hallegatte, Voqt-Schilb, Rozenberg, UMkhanyakude has approximately of biophysical and socio-economic. Bangalore & Baudet, 2020). 20% of land that has high Climate change remains one of the agricultural potential. Unfortunately, According to Patrick (2020: 5), biggest environmental challenges in infrastructural backlogs, climate- the poverty rate of the District is South Africa, with severe implications related impacts on water resources extremely high and ranges between for socio-economic livelihoods as well as agricultural practices that 72.1% and 88.6% of the total of the rural people. It is evident
51 SSB/TRP/MDM 2020 (77) transforming the District. that climate change is a natural phenomenon. However, the climate is changing at abnormal rates, due to the interference of human activities on climatic variables.
The findings revealed that, in terms of the biophysical aspects of uMkhanyakude, the District’s invasive alien species compromise water security and ecosystem services since they compete with crops. This impacts on food security. Findings further revealed that, although climate change mainly impacts on water resources within the District, infrastructural backlogs due to poor Figure 6: Level of education of unemployed population maintenance and negligence also Figure 6: Level of education of unemployed population in uMkhanyakude District in uMkhanyakude District Municipality impact on the communities’ access to Municipality water resources. Although agriculture Source:Source: IDP,IDP, 2018/2019: 2018/2019: 77 77 is considered one of the cornerstones highest rate of unemployment of individuals under the age of 25 years. of the District’s economic development, tourism and trade industries contribute significantly towards the overall functioning of the Municipality. Climate change impacts on agriculture, while unsustainable land management causes a decline in food security, poor agricultural yields and crop production as well as the loss of income for small-holder farmers. This compromises the livelihoods of communities that are dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
Vulnerable communities in uMkhanyakude District Municipality have a low adaptive capacity, which limits their ability to become resilient to the implications of climate Figure 7: Employment status of economically active population in uMkhanyakude Figure 7: Employment status of economically active population change. Further, due to their disaster District Municipality in uMkhanyakude District Municipality management unit operating in a silo Source: IDP, 2018/2019: 75 and lacking bottom-up participation Source: IDP, 2018/2019: 75 of vulnerable communities, the importance of indigenous knowledge has been overlooked when it comes to drafting plans to address climate Table 3: Vulnerable sectors in uMkhanyakude District Municipality change and natural disasters. Adaptive Sector Sector description Exposure Sensitivity Until there is a shift in terms of capacity Less water available for irrigation and Water resources Yes High Low paradigms, uMkhanyakude will drinking. continue to face the impacts of Loss of priority wetlands and river Biodiversity Yes High Low climate change and their cascading ecosystems. consequences, unless there is Increased exposure to pests such as Agriculture and eldana, chilo and codling moth Yes High Low a systematic, bottom-up and food security Change in grain (maize, wheat proactive initiative that will consider and barley) grassroot participation, in order to Increased water-borne and become resilient. This research thus Human health communicable diseases (typhoid, fever, Yes High Low cholera, and hepatitis) shows that uMkhanyakude District Municipality is not resilient to the Source: uMkhanyakude Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment and Response Plan, implications of climate change, due 2019: 7-8
52 Anele Mthembu & Syathokoza Hlophe • Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities to top-down approaches and reactive of staff in government departments, AKINNAGBE, O.M. & IROHIBE, I.J. strategies to climate change. limited comprehension of, and 2014. Agricultural adaptation strategies expertise in tackling climate-related to climate change impacts in Africa: A review. Bangladesh Journal of 7. RECOMMENDATIONS issues, climate change being Agricultural Research, 39(3), pp. 407- regarded as a development challenge The use of indigenous knowledge 418. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjar. instead of an environmental v39i3.21984 is significant in climate change adaptation and building resilience, challenge that affects livelihoods. ANTWI-AGYEI, P., DOUGILL, A.J. and this is recognised through These barriers may take some & STRINGER, L.C. 2013. Barriers enabling indigenous knowledge time to resolve. The implications of to climate change adaptation in in the design and implementation climate change continue to affect sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from northeast Ghana and systematic of projects sustainably (Kihila, communities. Therefore, in the 2018: 2). Although indigenous literature review. Climate and case of uMkhanyakude District Development, 7(4), pp. 297-309. communities are localised, they Municipality, while institutional https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2014 have emancipatory knowledge that barriers are considered, an .951013 could be considered and used to implementation-oriented process improve the resilience to climate AVERCHENKOVA, A., GANNON, K.E. change. Participatory governance that will take place in a systematic, & CURRAN, P. 2019. Governance of could also assist in finding solutions proactive and bottom-up manner, climate change policy: A case study of South Africa. 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