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Transistor Und IC Historisch Betrachtet HALBLEITER-HISTORIE Sowohl der Transistor als auch das IC wurden jeweils zweimal parallel „erfunden“ Transistor und IC historisch betrachtet Der Tag, an dem James Watt im Jahre 1769 zum ersten Mal eine Urform seiner Dampfmaschine präsentier- te, gilt unter Historikern als der Beginn des Industriezeitalters. Der 23.12.1947 markiert den Beginn des In- formations-Zeitalters, denn an diesem Tag wurde der Transistor „geboren“. elektronik industrie hat tief in den Archiven recherchiert und erläutert die wesentlichen Meilensteine auf dem Weg zum Transistor so- wie weiter bis zum IC von heute. Übrigens: Fast hätte der erste Transistor in Europa (und nicht in den USA) Signale verstärkt. Die „Erfinder“ des Transistors (Bild 1), John Bardeen und Walter Houser Brattain so- wie William Bradford Shockley haben hart gearbeitet und großartiges geleis- tet. Völlig zu Recht erhielten sie am 10.12.1956 dafür den Nobelpreis für Phy- sik, aber die Grundlagen für die „Erfin- Bell-Labs/Alcatel-Lucent Quelle: dung“ des Transistors legten Forscher in Europa. Außerdem wurde der Transistor nicht erfunden, sondern zielgerichtet im Team entwickelt – und zwar eingebettet in ein finanzkräftiges Gerüst. Der Transis- tor war somit auch das erste Ergebnis der industrialisierten Wissenschaft, des „Sys- tems Engineering“, so dass Walter Brat- tain anlässlich der Verleihung des Nobel- preises 1956 die Auswirkungen dieser neuen Forschungsstrategie auch sehr deutlich kommentierte: „Man muss Bild 1: Die Erfinder/Entwickler des Transistors: Die Erfinder des Transistors: John Bardeen (links), William Bradford Shockley (Mitte) und Walter Houser Brattain. schon bescheiden sein, einen solchen Preis anzunehmen, wenn man bedenkt, Grundlagen im Europa der 1920er sik wurden etwa in den Jahren 1925 bis wie viel Glück man hatte, zur rechten Zeit Jahre gelegt 1933 in Europa gelegt, indem einige der an der richtigen Stelle zu sein.“ Bereits lange vor dem denkwürdigen Tag weltweit führenden Theoretiker die Wie viel Glück die Nobelpreisträger mit des Jahres 1947 begann in den Bell Tele- Quantenmechanik in theoretischer Form ihrem Timing wirklich hatten und welche phone Laboratories (kurz Bell Labs) in auf Festkörper und hier vor allem auf Me- Fakten Brattain offensichtlich zu dieser Murray Hill/New Jersey (USA) die Ent- talle anwandten. So beschrieb beispiels- Aussage bewegten, drang viele Jahre lang wicklung des Transistors. Schon 1923 ent- weise Julius Lilienfeld bereits im Jahr 1928 nicht an die Öffentlichkeit, denn erst in deckte der russische Physiker Oleg Vladi- die prinzipielle Funktionsweise des Feld- diesem Jahrtausend kristallisierte sich mirov Lossev, dass ein Zinkoxid-Kristall, effekt-Transistors (FET) – also fast 30 Jah- heraus, dass die beiden deutschen For- über dem eine Spannung von einigen Volt re vor dessen physikalischen Entdeckung. scher Dr. Herbert Mataré und Dr. Heinrich angelegt und der mit einem Schwing- Allerdings waren damals noch viele Welker in Paris Anfang 1948 ebenfalls ei- kreis verbunden wird, als Oszillator oder grundlegende Aspekte offen. So konnte nen funktionierenden Transistor ent- Detektor mit Eigenschwingung fungie- zu dieser Zeit zum Beispiel niemand er- wickelt hatten. ren kann. Ab 1923 beschäftigte sich auch klären, warum Kupfer aus Chile besser für der Hochschulprofessor und Siemens- Kupferoxidul-Gleichrichter geeignet war Grundlagenforscher Walter Schottky mit als Kupfer, das in den USA verhüttet wur- der Halbleiterphysik. Zusammen mit de. Diese Kupferoxidul-Gleichrichter wur- Davjdor und Mott erkannte Schottky den den auch als Trockengleichrichter be- Leitungsmechanismus der Halbleiter. zeichnet und nutzen die halbleitenden Ei- Die für den Transistor nötigen Grund- genschaften des Kupfer-I-Oxids (Kupfer- lagen auf dem Gebiet der Festkörperphy- oxidul). Sie zählen zu den ersten indus- Bild 2: Das weltweit erste IC, entwickelt von TI-Mitarbeiter Jack Kilby. Foto: Texas Instruments elektronik industrie 7-2009 Entdecken Sie weitere interessante Artikel und News zum Thema auf all-electronics.de! Hier klicken & informieren! HALBLEITER-HISTORIE den zur Herstellung von Radar-Detekto- ve Spannung angelegt wird, was gemäß ren benötigt. Schon 1945 schlug William des Feldeffekts auch erwartet wurde. Das Quelle: LSI LSI Quelle: Bradford Shockley vor, einen Halbleiter- war die erste Verstärkung mit Hilfe eines verstärker auf Basis des Feldeffekt-Prin- Halbleiters, aber sie funktionierte auf- zips zu bauen, das Julius Lilienfeld 1928 grund des sehr trägen Elektrolyts nur bei theoretisch beschrieben hatte, aber di- niedrigen Frequenzen bis zu 8 Hz. verse Versuche, die Theorie in die Praxis Darauf führten Brattain und Bardeen umzusetzen, schlugen fehl, weil noch das ähnliche Experimente mit p-dotierter In- Grundverständnis über Minoritätsträger versionsschicht auf n-dotiertem Germa- fehlte. nium durch, was zu noch besseren Ergeb- Von Ende Juni bis Ende August 1947 flo- nissen führte. Die beiden beobachteten, gen Bardeen und Shockley gemeinsam wie sich auf der Oberfläche des Germani- Bild 3: Der erste Transistor. auf Geschäftsreise nach England und ums langsam eine Oxidschicht bildete. triell verwendeten Halbleiterbauteilen Zentraleuropa, was damals nur mit Tank- Daher beschlossen sie, den Elektrolyt und wurden von den Selen sowie den Ger- stops in Neufundland und Irland möglich wegzulassen und über den dünnen Oxid- manium- und Siliziumgleichrichtern ab- war. Europa litt in dieser Zeit noch sehr film hinweg eine Spannung anzulegen. gelöst. Zur Reduktion des hierfür benötig- unter den Folgen des Krieges, und es war So entdeckten Brattain und Bardeen den ten Kupfererzes warfen die Chilenen da- für die zwei Wissenschaftler oft schwer, bipolaren Punktkontakt-Transistor. mals nämlich riesige Holzscheite, wenn Nahrung und Unterkunft zu finden. In Der erste Transistor überhaupt war ein nicht gar halbe Baumstämme in die Erz- England mussten die beiden sogar für ei- Punktkontakt-Transistor (Bild 3), in dem schmelze, während die Amerikaner auf ne Nacht gemeinsam in einem Bett näch- zwei Kontaktpunkte auf der Oberfläche Methoden zurückgriffen, die weniger Ver- tigen. Trotz der widrigen Umstände konn- eines kleinen n-dotierten Germanium- unreinigungen hinterlassen. Zwischen ten die Wissenschaftler viele wertvolle Blocks dicht beieinander befestigt waren. 1925 und 1935 begannen die Festkörper- Anregungen für ihre Arbeit aus England, Einer dieser Kontakte, heute würde man physiker zu verstehen, wie wichtig die Frankreich (Paris), den Niederlanden und ihn Emitter nennen, wies eine positive Störstellen, Gitterfehlstellen (Löcher) und der Schweiz mitbringen. Aufgrund der Vorspannung auf, der zweite Kontakt, Zwischengitter-Verunreinigungen für be- besonders schlechten Nachkriegs-Zu- heute Kollektor genannt, eine negative stimmte elektrische Leitvorgänge sind. stände in Deutschland (und vielleicht war Vorspannung. Der Emitter injizierte auf es aus politischen Gründen auch nicht ge- Grund seiner Vorspannung Löcher, die Aktivitäten in den Bell Labs stattet...) trafen sich die beiden Amerika- zum Kollektor flossen – und genau das Die Solid-State Division (Halbleiter-Abtei- ner sehr zu ihrem Bedauern weder mit führten die Wissenschaftler am 23. De- lung) der berühmten Bell Labs, die später Walter Schottky noch mit anderen deut- zember 1947 ihren Chefs in den Bell Labs an AT&T und danach an Lucent Technolo- schen Kollegen. vor. Dieser Tag gilt als der offizielle Ge- gies gingen, wurde Ende des Jahres 1945 Im November 1947 begannen dann die burtstag des Transistors (Bild 4). Die ers- mit dem Zweck gegründet, „neues Wis- ersten Experimente mit einem kleinen ten erfolgreichen Experimente dieser Art sen zu erlangen, das zur Entwicklung von Stück p-dotierten Silizium, auf dem eine erfolgten übrigens bereits gut eine Wo- durchgehend neuen und verbesserten n-dotierte Inversionsschicht aufgebracht che vorher, so dass der Transistor eigent- Bauelementen und Kommunikations- war. Ursprünglich wollten die beiden da- lich schon am 16.12.1947 „geboren“ wur- Systemen verwendet werden kann“. Die- mit ein Bauelement entwickeln, das auf de, als die Forscher erstmals eine Span- se Solid-State Division sollte sich eines Basis des Feldeffekts funktioniert. nungs- und Leistungsverstärkung mit lange gehegten Traums von Mervin Kelly, Hilfe eines Halbleiters erzielten. des damaligen Entwicklungsleiters der Die erste Verstärkung per Halbleiter Bell Labs, annehmen. Schon 1936 äußerte Am 17. November 1947 machte ein Kollege Systematische Entwicklung sich Kelly gegenüber William Bradford namens Gibney den Vorschlag, zwischen im Team Shockley, er wolle einen elektronischen der Metallplatte und dem Halbleiter eine Auf Basis des bei Kriegsende existieren- Ersatz für die Relais in Telefon-Vermitt- Vorspannung anzulegen, während beide den Wissens gab es viele Hinweise darauf, lungsstellen finden. Da Vakuumröhren Teile in einen Elektrolyt eingetaucht sind. dass die Halbleiter bei einem tieferen Ver- zuviel Leistung verbrauchten, zuviel Hitze Diese Idee der Vorspannung markierte ei- ständnis der Grundlagen zu den ge- produzierten und zu unzuverlässig wa- nen weiteren Schritt hin zum ersten Tran- wünschten Ergebnissen führen konnten, ren, schieden sie für diesen Zweck aus. sistor. Bei einem relativ zur Basis positi- einen elektronischen Ersatz für die Relais Bereits während des Krieges hatten die ven Vorstrom zeigte sich, dass der Strom in Telefon-Vermittlungsstellen zu finden. Amerikaner das Know-how für die Her- kleiner wird, wenn an dem Elektrolyt (eine Walter Brattain bemerkte damals, dass stellung von
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