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Tissue Level of Organization 81 TISSUES OUTLINE 4.1 Epithelial Tissue 81 4.1a Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue 81 4.1b Functions of Epithelial Tissue 82 4 4.1c Specialized Structure of Epithelial Tissue 82 4.1d Classification of Epithelial Tissue 84 4.1e Types of Epithelium 85 4.1f Glands 92 Tissue 4.2 Connective Tissue 95 4.2a Characteristics of Connective Tissue 95 4.2b Functions of Connective Tissue 95 4.2c Development of Connective Tissue 96 Level of 4.2d Classification of Connective Tissue 98 4.3 Body Membranes 108 4.4 Muscle Tissue 109 Organization 4.4a Classification of Muscle Tissue 109 4.5 Nervous Tissue 111 4.5a Characteristics of Neurons 112 4.6 Tissue Change and Aging 112 4.6a Tissue Change 112 4.6b Tissue Aging 113 MODULE 3: TISSUES mck78097_ch04_080-117.indd 80 2/11/11 2:54 PM Chapter Four Tissue Level of Organization 81 he human body is composed of trillions of cells, which are orga- Epithelial (ep-i-thē ́lē -ă l; epi = upon, thēl ē = nipple) tissue T nized into more complex units called tissues. Tissues are groups of covers or lines every body surface and all body cavities; thus it similar cells and extracellular products that carry out a common func- forms both the external and internal lining of many organs, and tion, such as providing protection or facilitating body movement. The it constitutes the majority of glands. An epithelium (pl., epithelia) study of tissues and their relationships within organs is called histology. is composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells between There are four principal types of tissues in the body: epithe- two compartments having different components. There is little to lial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. no extracellular matrix between epithelial cells; additionally, no Immediately following the connective tissue discussion, section blood vessels penetrate an epithelium. 4.3 (Body Membranes) has been inserted because these structures are composed of an epithelial sheet and an underlying connective 4.1a Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue tissue layer. Tissues are formed from the three primary germ layers All epithelia exhibit several common characteristics: (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm). The four tissue types vary in terms of the structure and function of their specialized cells, as ■ Cellularity. Epithelial tissue is composed almost entirely of well as the presence of an extracellular matrix (mā triks;́ matrix = cells. The cells of an epithelium are bound closely together womb) that not only is produced by the cells but surrounds them. by different types of intercellular junctions (discussed later). The extracellular matrix is composed of varying amounts of water, A minimal amount of extracellular matrix separates the protein fibers, and dissolved macromolecules. Its consistency cells in an epithelium. ranges from fluid to quite solid. Epithelial, muscle, and nervous ■ Polarity. Every epithelium has an apical (ā p ́i-kă l) surface tissues have relatively little matrix between their cells. In contrast, (free or top surface), which is exposed either to the external connective tissue types contain varying amounts of extracellular environment or to some internal body space, and lateral matrix that differ in the volume of space occupied, the relative surfaces having intercellular junctions. Additionally, each amounts of the extracellular matrix components, and the consis- epithelium has a basal (bā ś ă l) surface (fixed or bottom tency (fluid to solid) of the extracellular matrix. surface) where the epithelium is attached to the underlying As we examine each of the four classes of tissues in this chapter, connective tissue. it may help you to refer to table 4.1, which summarizes their ■ Attachment. At the basal surface of an epithelium, the characteristics and functions. This chapter is a transition between epithelial layer is bound to a thin basement membrane, chapter 2, which investigated the nature of cells, and later chapters, a complex molecular structure produced by both the which examine tissue interactions in organs and organ systems. epithelium and the underlying connective tissue. ■ Avascularity. All epithelial tissues lack blood vessels. Epithelial cells obtain nutrients either directly across the 4.1 Epithelial Tissue apical surface or by diffusion across the basal surface from the underlying connective tissue. Learning Objectives: ■ Innervation. Epithelia are richly innervated to detect changes in 1. Identify the structure and function of each type of the environment at a particular body or organ surface region. epithelial tissue. Most nervous tissue is in the underlying connective tissue. 2. Explain where each type of epithelial tissue is found in ■ High regeneration capacity. Because epithelial cells have an the body. apical surface that is exposed to the environment, they are 3. Describe the specialized features of an epithelium. frequently damaged or lost by abrasion. However, damaged 4. Classify exocrine glands. or lost epithelial cells generally are replaced as fast as they Table 4.1 Tissue Types Type General Characteristics General Functions Primary Example Subtypes and Their Locations Germ Layer Derivative Epithelial tissue Cellular, polar, attached, Covers surfaces; lines Ectoderm, Simple columnar epithelium: Inner lining of avascular, innervated, high insides of organs and body mesoderm, digestive tract regeneration capacity cavities endoderm Stratifi ed squamous epithelium: Epidermis of skin Transitional epithelium: Inner lining of urinary bladder Connective tissue Diverse types; all contain cells, Protects, binds together, Mesoderm Adipose connective tissue: Fat protein fi bers, and ground and supports organs Dense regular connective tissue: Ligaments substance and tendons Dense irregular connective tissue: Dermis of skin Hyaline cartilage: Articular cartilage in some joints Fluid connective tissue: Blood Muscle tissue Contractile; receives stimulation Facilitates movement of Mesoderm Skeletal muscle: Muscles attached to bones from nervous system and/or skeleton or organ walls Cardiac muscle: Muscle layer in heart endocrine system Smooth muscle: Muscle layer in digestive tract Nervous tissue Neurons: Excitable, high Neurons: Control activities, Ectoderm Neurons: Brain and spinal cord metabolic rate, extreme process information Glial cells: Brain and spinal cord longevity, nonmitotic Glial cells: Support and Glial cells: Nonexcitable, mitotic protect neurons mck78097_ch04_080-117.indd 81 2/11/11 2:54 PM 82 Chapter Four Tissue Level of Organization are lost because epithelia have a high regeneration capacity. lamina, which contains protein fibers and carbohydrates. Together, The continual replacement occurs through the mitotic these components of the basement membrane strengthen the attach- divisions of the deepest epithelial cells (called stem cells), ment and form a selective molecular barrier between the epithelium which are found within the epithelium near its base. and the underlying connective tissue. The basement membrane has the following functions: 4.1b Functions of Epithelial Tissue ■ Providing physical support for the epithelium Epithelia may have several functions, although no single epithe- ■ Anchoring the epithelium to the connective tissue lium performs all of them. These functions include: ■ Acting as a barrier to regulate the movement of large ■ Physical protection. Epithelial tissues protect both exposed molecules between the epithelium and the underlying and internal surfaces from dehydration, abrasion, and connective tissue destruction by physical, chemical, or biological agents. Intercellular Junctions ■ Selective permeability. All epithelial cells act as “gatekeepers,” in that they regulate the movement of materials Epithelial cells are strongly bound together by specialized connec- into and out of certain regions of the body. All substances tions in the plasma membranes of their lateral surfaces called inter- that enter or leave the body must pass through an epithelium. cellular junctions. There are four types of junctions: tight junctions, Sometimes an epithelium exhibits a range of permeability; adhering junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions (figure 4.1b). that is, it may be relatively impermeable to some substances, Each of these types of junctions has a specialized structure. while at the same time promoting and assisting the passage of other molecules by absorption or secretion. The structure Tight Junctions A tight junction, also called a zonula (zō ń ū lă) and characteristics of an epithelium may change as a result occludens (“occluding belt”), encircles epithelial cells near their of applied pressure or stress; for example, walking around apical surface and completely attaches each cell to its neighbors. without shoes may increase the thickness of calluses on the Plasma membrane proteins among neighboring cells fuse, so the bottom of the feet, which could alter or reduce the movement apical surfaces of the cells are tightly connected everywhere around of materials across the epithelium. the cell. This seals off the intercellular space and prevents sub- ■ Secretions. Some epithelial cells, called exocrine glands, stances from passing between the epithelial cells. The tight junction are specialized to produce secretions. Individual gland cells forces almost all materials to move through, rather than between, may be scattered among other cell types in an epithelium, the epithelial cells in order to cross the epithelium. Thus, epithelial or a large group of epithelial secretory cells may form a cells
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