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Morphology, Composition, Production, Processing and Applications of Chlorella Vulgaris: a Review See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261918083 Morphology, composition, production, processing and applications of Chlorella vulgaris: A review Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · July 2014 DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.007 CITATIONS READS 292 17,201 5 authors, including: Dr. Carl Safi Bachar Zebib Wageningen University & Research École Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Toulouse 19 PUBLICATIONS 892 CITATIONS 25 PUBLICATIONS 689 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Othmane Merah Pierre-Yves Pontalier Paul Sabatier University - Toulouse III Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Ingénieurs en Arts Chimiques et Technologiques 108 PUBLICATIONS 1,949 CITATIONS 64 PUBLICATIONS 1,573 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Implications des changements climatiques dans l’agriculture et le développement durable : Cas des hautes plaines sétifiennes View project LEGUMIP View project All content following this page was uploaded by Bachar Zebib on 05 October 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/authorsrights Author's personal copy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 35 (2014) 265–278 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser Morphology, composition, production, processing and applications of Chlorella vulgaris: A review Carl Safi a,b,n, Bachar Zebib a,b, Othmane Merah a,b, Pierre-Yves Pontalier a,b, Carlos Vaca-Garcia a,b,c a Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, LCA (Laboratoire de Chimie Agro-industrielle), F-31030 Toulouse, France b INRA, UMR 1010 CAI, F-31030 Toulouse, France c King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia article info abstract Article history: Economic and technical problems related to the reduction of petroleum resources require the Received 8 March 2013 valorisation of renewable raw material. Recently, microalgae emerged as promising alternative feedstock Received in revised form that represents an enormous biodiversity with multiple benefits exceeding the potential of conventional 9 March 2014 agricultural feedstock. Thus, this comprehensive review article spots the light on one of the most Accepted 6 April 2014 interesting microalga Chlorella vulgaris. It assembles the history and a thorough description of its Available online 25 April 2014 ultrastructure and composition according to growth conditions. The harvesting techniques are presented Keywords: in relation to the novel algo-refinery concept, with their technological advancements and potential Chlorella vulgaris applications in the market. Algo-refinery & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Growth conditions Morphology Primary composition Production Contents 1. Introduction........................................................................................................266 2. Morphology........................................................................................................266 2.1. Cellwall..................................................................................................... 267 2.2. Cytoplasm . 267 2.2.1. Mitochondrion . 267 2.2.2. Chloroplast . 267 3. Reproduction . 267 4. Production . 267 4.1. Autotrophic growth . 268 4.1.1. Open pond systems . 268 4.1.2. Closed photo-bioreactor . 268 4.2. Heterotrophic growth . 268 4.3. Mixotrophic growth. 268 4.4. Other growth techniques . 268 4.5. Harvesting . 269 4.5.1. Centrifugation . 269 4.5.2. Flocculation . 269 4.5.3. Flotation . 269 4.5.4. Filtration. 269 5. Primary composition . 269 5.1. Proteins..................................................................................................... 269 5.2. Lipids....................................................................................................... 270 n Corresponding author at: Université de Toulouse, INP-ENSIACET, LCA (Laboratoire de Chimie Agro-industrielle), F-31030 Toulouse, France. Tel.: þ33650452965. E-mail address: csafi@me.com (C. Safi). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.007 1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Author's personal copy 266 C. Safi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 35 (2014) 265–278 5.3. Carbohydrates . 271 5.4. Pigments.................................................................................................... 271 5.5. Minerals and vitamins. 271 6. Cell disruption techniques. 272 7. Applications and potential interests . 272 7.1. Biofuels...................................................................................................... 272 7.2. Human nutrition . 273 7.3. Animalfeed.................................................................................................. 273 7.4. Wastewater treatment. 274 7.5. Agrochemical applications. 274 8. Algo-refinery concept . 275 9. Conclusion . 275 Acknowledgements . 275 References.............................................................................................................275 1. Introduction conflict with food production [16] and especially would not cause deforestation. Microalgae have an ancient history that left a footprint 3.4 bil- Microalgae represent an enormous biodiversity from which lion years ago, when the oldest known microalga, belonging to the about 40.000 are already described or analysed [17]. One of the group of cyanobacteria, fossilised in rocks of Western Australia. most remarkable is the green eukaryotic microalga C. vulgaris, Studies confirmed that until our days their structure remains which belongs to the following scientific classification: Domain: unchanged and, no matter how primitive they are, they still Eukaryota, Kingdom: Protista, Divison: Chlorophyta, Class: Tre- represent rather complicated and expertly organised forms of life bouxiophyceae, Order: Chlorellales, Family: Chlorellaceae, Genus: [1]. Nevertheless, other reports estimated that the actual time of Chlorella, Specie: Chlorella vulgaris. Hence, Martinus Willem Bei- evolution of cyanobacteria is thought to be closer to 2.7 billion jerinck, a Dutch researcher, first discovered it in 1890 as the first years ago [2,3]. Hence, evolutionary biologists estimate that algae microalga with a well-defined nucleus [18]. The name Chlorella could be the ancestors of plants. Thus, through time algae gave rise comes from the Greek word chloros (Χλωρός), which means to other marine plants and moved to the land during the green, and the Latin suffix ella referring to its microscopic size. It Palaeozoic Age 450 millions years ago just like the scenario of is a unicellular microalga that grows in fresh water and has been animals moving from water onto land. However, evolutionists present on earth since the pre-Cambrian period 2.5 billion years need to overcome multiple obstacles (danger of drying, feed, ago and since then its genetic integrity has remained constant [1]. reproduction, and protection from oxygen) to definitely confirm By the early 1900s, Chlorella protein content (455% dry weight) this scenario complemented with more scientific evidence. attracted the attention of German scientists as an unconventional Like any other phytoplankton, microalgae have a nutritional food source. In the 1950s, the Carnegie Institution of Washington value. The first to consume the blue green microalga were the [19] took over the study and managed to grow this microalga on a Aztecs and other Mesoamericans, who used this biomass as an large scale for CO2 abatement. Nowadays, Japan is the world leader important food source [4]. Nowadays, these microscopic organisms in consuming Chlorella and uses it for medical treatment [20,21] are still consumed as food supplement such as Chlorella vulgaris and because it showed to have immune-modulating and anti-cancer Spirulina platensis [5] and their products are also used for different properties [22–26]. After feeding it to rats, mice and rabbits in the purposes like dyes, pharmaceuticals,.
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