Literary Cultures in History Reconstructions from South Asia EDITED BY Sheldon Pollock UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley Los Angeles London 8 The Two Histories of Literary Culture in Bengal Sudipta Kaviraj INTRODUCTION A general reading of the history of a particular literature requires, first of all, a principle of organization. Histories of Bangla literature usually offer a narrative of continuity: they seek to show, quite legitimately, how the liter- ary culture develops through successive stages—how literary works of one period become the stock on which later stages carry out their productive op- erations. These studies are less interested in asking how literary mentalities come to be transformed or how a continuing tradition can be interrupted, or in speculating on possible reasons behind these significant literary turns. In an attempt to move away from these conventional histories, which record unproblematically the sequential narrative of the production of texts and their authors, this essay gives attention primarily to two questions. The first is: What were the major historical “literary cultures,” that is, the sensibilities or mentalities constructed around a common core of tastes, methods of tex- tual production, paratextual activities (like performance, recitation, or other use in religious, nonliterary contexts), reception, and the social composition of audiences? The second question, closely related to the first, is: How do literary cultures, especially deeply entrenched literary cultures, change? The treatment of Bangla literary history in this essay, therefore, focuses more on textualities or text types than on individual texts, and it offers hardly any literary-critical analysis of major canonical works. A figure like Rabin- dranath Tagore is treated with relative neglect, since he does not represent a phase of serious interpretative contention or rupture in literary production I thank Sheldon Pollock for detailed comments on this paper at different stages of its prepa- ration. I have benefited greatly from discussions with Alok Rai, Francesca Orsini, and Dipesh Chakrabarty on various themes that have gone into its writing. 503 504 sudipta kaviraj or taste, although his work dominates modern Bangla literary sensibility. The struggles of the generation immediately following Tagore to challenge and replace his aesthetics with a more modern one that tried to come to grips with the problem of evil, are given greater attention. This essay looks at two types of questions about literary transformation: the first concerns chronological changes in sensibilities or styles of literary production; the second, which cannot be ignored in any history of Bangla literature, is the problem of inclusion and exclusion of different social groups within this literary culture. The literature each group produces, receives, and enjoys contains internal structures of language, mythical content, imagery, or iconic systems that tend to include some Bangla readers and exclude oth- ers. It is important to note at the outset that even the question “What is Bangla literature?” is not an innocent or noncontentious one. Writing the history of Bangla literature was part of the project of literary modernity, and since this was entirely dominated by a Hindu upper stratum of society, the initial historical accounts tended to ignore Islamic elements by suggesting either that they belonged to a separate cultural strand (called Musalmani Bamla) or that these texts were not of sufficient literary quality to find a place in an exalted history of literary art. This is the central question of the complex “place” of Islamic culture in Bangla literature.1 Comparisons with literary cultures from neighboring regions of northern India, especially the Hindi, Urdu, and Gujarati regions, might yield interesting themes for further un- derstanding of the relation between the Islamic and the Sanskritic in Indian literary tradition as a whole. Two Approaches to the Past: Tradition and History The history of Bangla literature has two beginnings, and some of the most significant problems of its historiography stem from the problematic rela- tions between these two separate historical stages. For the history of Bangla literature can have two equally plausible narratives, each with its own inter- nal coherence and problems. In conventional critical discussions on the his- tory of Bangla literature, its origin is placed in the tenth century, when Bud- dhist religious compositions known as caryapadas were being written in a language recognizable as the first ancestor of modern Bangla.2 This narra- 1. There has been a good deal of writing and analysis on the exclusion of Muslims from mod- ern Bangla literature. We must, however, maintain a distinction between a large “political” point that asserts the fact of this exclusion and deplores it for moral and political reasons, and a more textual and literary question about exactly how this exclusion works in the body of the literary texts. See for example, Shibaji Bandyopadhyay’s recent lectures (Bandyopadhyay 1986). 2. The word “ancestor” here does not connote unproblematic descent. Because the carya- padas are also claimed as the point of origin by other eastern Indian languages, several lan- two literary culture histories in bengal 505 tive of Bangla literature is parallel and comparable to those of other north Indian languages, many of which emerged in a typical evolutionary pattern from Sanskrit. Classical Sanskrit developed several distinctive literary styles of composition.3 The Apabhramsha form diversified into various styles and eventually created the distinctive individual vernaculars. Gradually, the Bangla vernacular crystallized into its particular linguistic shape and came to have an identifiably distinct literature.4 Even after its linguistic differen- tiation, Bangla continued to bear an interesting, fluctuating relationship with the canons of Sanskrit high literature, as Bangla writers sometimes tried to emulate the forms and delicacies of Sanskrit, and sometimes tried to con- sciously move away from the values of the Sanskrit universe and create in- dependent literary criteria of their own. Historically, this literature gave rise to several corpora with peculiar cultural, religious, and literary sensibilities. It is impossible to analyze all of them in detail in this interpretative essay, but as the chapter proceeds I shall flag the major phases and forms. The literary historian Sukumar Sen considers the advent of the great re- ligious personality Caitanya (1486–1534) a significant watershed in Bangla literary history, and he divides the tradition preceding Caitanya plausibly into three major sections, each with its own internally coherent literary concerns, forms, and styles.5 The first segment consists primarily of renditions and trans- fers from the high Sanskrit canon. Its major texts are the Ramayana of K,ttibas and the Mahabharata by Ka4iramdas (both of uncertain date, perhaps fifteenth century), though these two texts are surrounded by a large litera- ture seeking to translate Sanskrit texts into Bangla. The second segment con- sists of the large corpus of the mañgalkavyas inspired by popular religious sects. Each strand of worship developed its own series of these texts, which had wholly original narrative lines celebrating the powers of popular deities in the context of a specific, local literary geography. Third, a considerable body of distinctive literature, often of great poetic sophistication, emerged in the pre-Caitanya era through the Vai3nava sensibility (of devotion to the god Vi3nu), associated with the works of Vidyapati and Candidas, the two guages may have differentiated from this linguistic form. The Bengalis, accordingly, do not have an exclusive linguistic or historical claim to this ancestry. See the discussion of Tibetan litera- ture by Matthew Kapstein, chapter 13 in this volume. 3. For the diversification of different styles of Sanskrit, of which Magadhi and Gaudi were the generally acknowledged east Indian forms, see Pollock, chapter 1 in this volume. 4. One of the most influential views about the linguistic differentiation of Bangla from San- skrit and Prakrit can be found in Dinesh Chandra Sen 1950: 10–20. He notes the particular features of the Gaudiya riti in Sanskrit as being full of samasa (compounds) and sandhi (eu- phonic combination), and marked by 4abdadambara (erudite ornamentation, devoid of fluid- ity and grace). 5. Sen 1965. 506 sudipta kaviraj great early composers of padavali (sequences of devotional lyrics). These po- ems worked primarily within the general narrative structure of the popular story of K,3na and Radha, the divine couple in Vai3nava culture. After Caitanya, these primary currents of Bangla literary culture contin- ued. But there was an enormous influx of strength and sophistication into the Vai3nava tradition, which produced a new literary genre that Sen felici- tiously calls carita4akha, the “biographic branch,” specializing in presenting Caitanya’s life as a divine narrative through a skilled combination of the myth- ical and the historical. The literary impulse associated with Caitanya’s reli- gion dominated Bangla literary production for nearly two centuries. In the eighteenth century, as modern historians have pointed out, it is possible to detect the emergence of a new cultural sensibility that moved away from typical themes of mystical eroticism found in the literary culture of the Gaudiya Vai3navas (Bengali devotees of Vi3nu) and gives rise to a new, more