Hip Hop Practice As Identity and Memory Work in and In-Between Chile and Sweden
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Susan Lindholm HIP HOP PRACTICE AS IDENTITY AND MEMORY WORK IN AND IN-BETWEEN ChILE AND SWEDEN abstract Over 40 years have passed since the coup d’état in Chile on September 11th 1973. Although Augusto Pinochet’s military regime officially came to an end in 1990, the political and societal consequences of the coup and 17 years of dictatorship live on to this day, both in and outside of Chile. In this article I discuss hip hop practice as a form of identity and memory work in, and in-between Chile and Sweden, the country that welcomed the highest number of Chilean refugees in Europe after the coup. I focus on those instances in which rappers in both Sweden and Chile refer to specific versions of the past in their lyrics, music, videos, biographies, and in TV programs. My analysis shows that artists in both countries use hip hop culture in order to create meaning and a sense of shared history by engaging in strategic and self-conscious identity and memory work. Keywords: hip hop, Chile, Sweden, Chilean diaspora, memory work, identity work, solidarity INTRODUCTION versions of the past, and analyze these instances as examples of self-conscious and strategic In both Sweden and Chile, hip hop artists identity work. My analysis is based on two became involved in different societal debates interviews, a biography, and the lyrics, music, from the late 1980s onward (Sernhede and and visual narrative of a video, all of which Söderman 2010; Poch Plá 2011; Tijoux et al. I describe in greater detail in the sections below. 2012). Although earlier research on Swedish hip In Sweden, I interviewed Cristian Salla hop has described it as a glocal collective culture Salazar Campos, a former member of the seminal that has served to render earlier migration group The Latin Kings, as well as a co-founder experiences obsolete, I here explore the way in of the record label Redline Recordings, and which hip hop becomes a platform for memory the production company The Salazar Brothers, work in both Chile and the Chilean diaspora in July 2015. Salla’s parents were among those in Sweden. I specifically discuss a number of Chileans who came to Sweden in the later 1970s. instances in which rappers in both countries In Chile, I interviewed Eduardo Lalo Meneses, engage in memory work by referring to specific an early b-boy and co-founder of the hip hop suomen antropologi | volume 42 issue 2 summer 2017 60 Susan Lindholm group Panteras Negras (the Black Panthers) in HISTORICAL BACKGROUND June 2015. I also use his autobiography Reyes de la Jungla (Kings of the Jungle) that was On September 11th 1973 the Chilean govern- published in 2014. I conducted my interview ment was overthrown by a military coup led by with Lalo in Spanish, and my interview with General Augusto Pinochet. In its immediate Salla in Swedish. All translations from Spanish aftermath, the military regime shut down and Swedish included in this article are my own. congress and banned all unions and political My analysis is also based on the lyrics, organizations that were not in line with its music and visual narrative of the joint video Ett political views. Between 1973 and 1990 the land som är tryggt / Betongbarn (A country that is regime tortured, exiled, and killed thousands of safe / Children of the concrete) by the Malmö- civilians (Constable and Valenzuelo 1991: 21). based group Advance Patrol. The group consists Outside of Chile, the coup was followed by an of rappers Juan Havana ( Juan Hektor Paez international wave of solidarity (Christiaens et Larraguibel), Gonza (Gonzalo Rodrigo del Rio al.: 10). It also became a central societal and Saldias), and DJ Lucutz (Lucas Simon Alsén). political issue in Sweden in the 1970s and 1980s, Both Juan’s and Gonza’s parents emigrated from a time when issues such international solidarity, Chile to Sweden during the 1970s and 1980s. multiculturalism, and the welfare state were Finally, I also discuss an episode of the Swedish high on the political agenda. TV program Lyckliga gatan (The Happy Street) Large numbers of Chileans who sought that features The Salazar Brothers as producers. refuge in Sweden were not only warmly Before engaging in a discussion of this welcomed by the Swedish government under material, I briefly introduce the historical Prime Minister Olof Palme, but also by a number background in, and in-between Sweden and of civilian groups such as the Chilekommitén, Chile, as well as the specific way in which I use the Chile committee (Gradskova 2015: 15). the concepts of identity and memory work in As a result, Sweden became the country that this article. The following analysis falls into five welcomed the highest number of Chilean parts. The first and second part exemplify the refugees in Europe. During the 1970s and identity and memory work of Cristian Salla 1980s, both the Swedish solidarity movement Salazar Campos in Sweden, and Eduardo Lalo and the Chilean exile community focused on Meneses in Chile in relation to hip hop as an opposing the Pinochet regime through political emerging music genre in the 1980s and 1990s and cultural activism (Lindqvist 1991; Olsson in their respective countries. In the third and 2007; Tornbjer 2008). fourth sections I discuss the joint video Ett land Democratic elections finally took place in som är tryggt / Betongbarn by the group Advance 1990, making Patricio Aylwin Azócar the first Patrol as an example of conscious identity and democratically elected president since 1970 memory work by Swedish-Chilean hip hop (Sjöqvist and Palmgren 1990: 20). However, artists. In the fifth and final part I outline the the end of the Pinochet regime did not bring continuing importance of the Chilean nueva an end to military influence on Chilean canción movement for the identity and memory politics. Different generals kept threatening work of both Swedish-Chilean and Chilean hip to take over the government throughout the hop artists today. 1990s, and Pinochet remained in his position suomen antropologi | volume 42 issue 2 summer 2017 61 Susan Lindholm as commander-in-chief of the military until IDENTITY AND MEMORY WORK 1998 (Sørensen 2011:3). In such a political climate, media outlets did not dare to be openly In this article, I am not concerned with diaspora critical of the regime, especially since Pinochet identities as such (Georgiou 2006; Hall 1990; had been granted immunity for all crimes Clifford 1994), but rather with describing the committed between 1973 and 1978. As a result, kinds of memory work that give rise to different media rarely mentioned the regime, and if they constellations of identity expressions among did, they only discussed it in hushed tones. To Swedish-Chilean and Chilean hip hop artists. this day, there are still individuals who advocate The concept of identity work has been applied by the borron y cuenta (nueva) approach that a number of scholars in different fields in order was based on forgetting the past and instead to describe the way in which individuals relate focusing on the future (Sjöqvist and Palmgren to broader societal structures and historical 1990: 17; Camacho Padilla 2009: 88.). processes by creating or narrating different The elections in Chile also changed the identities (Ibarra Insead and Barbulescu 2010; situation of what had now become the Chilean Watson 2008). For the purpose of this article, post-exile community in Sweden. It had to I define identity work as a practice that serves find new strategies for group mobilization, as to create meaning and a sense of shared history political resistance to the Pinochet regime no over time and space (Brah, Hickman and Mac longer served to unite the group (Lindqvist 1990: an Ghaill 1999: 19; Gillis 1999:3). However, 34). These new strategies included challenging such a shared history is not rediscovered, but social hierarchies that create economic and rather constructed by individuals and groups racialized marginalization in Sweden. Owing who create and define their identities in the to the very heterogeneous nature of this present based on remembering specific versions post-exile group, earlier research has come of the past (Hall 1990: 224). to contradictory conclusions regarding the Identity work is, in other words, closely children of these Chilean refugees. While, for connected to memory work, a concept that instance, Erik Olsson argues that they no longer I here apply to explore the process whereby automatically identify themselves with Chile, individuals create and negotiate their identities María Denis Esquivel Sánchez refers to a study by remembering specific versions of the past in that states that the children of Chilean refugees both national and transnational contexts (Onyx have started to identify themselves with Chile and Small 2001: 774; Assmann 2014: 547). to a greater extent than their parents’ generation I specifically use the concepts of identity work (Olsson 2007: 220; Esquivel Sanchez 2005: 78). and memory work in order to discuss those I here specifically focus on the work of hip hop instances in which rappers in both Sweden artists in both Sweden and Chile who engage in and Chile refer to specific versions of the past identity work by remembering specific versions in and in-between Sweden and Chile in their of a Chilean or Swedish past. lyrics, music, videos, biographies, and in TV programs that I will describe in greater detail in each section. By defining these instances as examples of self-conscious and strategic identity work, I explore the way in which hip hop can suomen antropologi | volume 42 issue 2 summer 2017 62 Susan Lindholm be a means through which individuals engage the representative of these problems in public in memory work in Chile and the Chilean debate in the 1990s (Ristilammi 1994; Ericsson diaspora in Sweden.