Just As the Priests Have Their Wives”: Priests and Concubines in England, 1375-1549

“JUST AS THE PRIESTS HAVE THEIR WIVES”: PRIESTS AND CONCUBINES IN ENGLAND, 1375-1549 Janelle Werner A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History. Chapel Hill 2009 Approved by: Advisor: Professor Judith M. Bennett Reader: Professor Stanley Chojnacki Reader: Professor Barbara J. Harris Reader: Cynthia B. Herrup Reader: Brett Whalen © 2009 Janelle Werner ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT JANELLE WERNER: “Just As the Priests Have Their Wives”: Priests and Concubines in England, 1375-1549 (Under the direction of Judith M. Bennett) This project – the first in-depth analysis of clerical concubinage in medieval England – examines cultural perceptions of clerical sexual misbehavior as well as the lived experiences of priests, concubines, and their children. Although much has been written on the imposition of priestly celibacy during the Gregorian Reform and on its rejection during the Reformation, the history of clerical concubinage between these two watersheds has remained largely unstudied. My analysis is based primarily on archival records from Hereford, a diocese in the West Midlands that incorporated both English- and Welsh-speaking parishes and combines the quantitative analysis of documentary evidence with a close reading of pastoral and popular literature. Drawing on an episcopal visitation from 1397, the act books of the consistory court, and bishops’ registers, I argue that clerical concubinage occurred as frequently in England as elsewhere in late medieval Europe and that priests and their concubines were, to some extent, socially and culturally accepted in late medieval England. Clerical relationships took on a variety of configurations, but many resembled secular marriages, and these similarities may have contributed to the social acceptability of clerical families. Despite the resemblance of these relationships to marriage, though, clerical concubines faced real disadvantages. Evidence about the social and economic status of iii priests and concubines points to the low status of women who partnered with priests – particularly those in stable, long-term unions. Clerical concubines bore the brunt of punishment for these relationships: they were more likely to be punished than their clerical partners, and they were punished more harshly. These women were presented with less tangible difficulties, too. Despite the social tolerance of clerical families on the ground, the figure of the clerical concubine was not an honorable one. Moral censure of priests’ partners drew on centuries of hatred and denigration of priests’ wives; clerical concubines were characterized as lecherous, venal women, often equated – both tacitly and explicitly – with prostitutes. iv To Dan v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I sit down write these acknowledgements, I am overwhelmed by the number of people who have contributed – directly or indirectly – to this project. I am deeply grateful to all of them. I could not have completed this dissertation without the financial support I received from several institutions and benefactors. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provided generous support from the moment I arrived on campus. Teaching assistantships and a Mowry Grant from the Department of History and the Graduate School’s William N. Reynolds Fellowship helped me complete my studies. A Schallek Dissertation Fellowship from the Medieval Academy of America and the Richard III Society provided me with the means to spend nearly two years working (and playing) in English archives. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation/American Council of Learned Societies Dissertation Completion Fellowship gave me the freedom of a year of writing without distraction. Many scholars have shared their insights, advice, and scholarship with me over the years. Stan Chojnacki, Barbara Harris, Cynthia Herrup, and Brett Whalen encouraged me throughout this project and gave me thoughtful comments on both my proposal and the final draft. Others have given me feedback at conferences or responded kindly to an unsolicited email from an unknown graduate student: Ann Barstow, Beth Barr, Virginia Davis, Caroline Dunn, Kit French, Joe Goering, Richard Helmholz, Ruth Karras, Marie Kelleher, Maryanne Kowaleski, Maura Lafferty, Shannon McSheffrey, Carin Ruff, and Jennifer Thibodeaux. I owe special thanks to Robert Swanson, who first pointed me in the direction of the diocese of vi Hereford, and to Christopher Whittick of the East Sussex Record Office, who patiently helped me decipher the illegible scrawls of Hereford’s court clerks. I owe thanks to the staffs of the British Library, Lambeth Palace Library, the Gloucestershire Record Office, The National Archives, the Shropshire Archives, and the Worcestershire Record Office. The archivists and staff of the Herefordshire Record Office were gracious hosts during the eighteen months that I spent working on Hereford’s church court records. I owe special thanks to archivists Rhys Griffiths and Hayden Burns and to the volunteers of the Friends of The Record Office – in particular, Sue Hubbard and Jim and Muriel Tonkin – who made my many months of research there a pleasure. I was fortunate to have the good company of Sylvia Gill and Richard Churchley as they sat across the table from me while sifting through episcopal registers for the Clergy of the Church of England Database. I am especially grateful to the natives of Herefordshire and Powys, who must be some of the kindest people in the world. Mike and Annie Allen – welcoming landlords, good friends, and dedicated protectors of my Skoda – made Broxwood my second home; Elizabeth Snead-Cox entertained me with whiskey and the history of Broxwood Court; Jas Grassie, Kate Bull, and the Stitch ‘n Bitchers at the Royal Oak in Gladestry provided companionship and a warm fire throughout the (endless) winters; and the Hay Festival stewards can always be counted on for a riotously good time. My deepest thanks are due to Lis and Andrew Darwin, who opened their home to me. Darwin provided curry nights and weekly mountain bike rides into the wilds of North Herefordshire (with only the occasional injury), and was a keen editor, as well; Lis offered Sunday dinners and bread-and-butter puddings, and let me sooth my frustrated inner gardener in her kitchen garden. Many of my fondest memories vii were forged over tea or dinner or drinks at Church House, and without Andrew and Lis, my time there would have been far less rich. My colleagues, friends, and students at Beloit College helped sustain me through a tough year of teaching, writing, and job-seeking. Linda Sturtz was a wonderful and supportive departmental chair. Mona Jackson, Ellen Joyce, Rob LaFleur, Ed Mathieu, and Beatrice McKenzie helped me navigate my first year of teaching. Rachel Ellett, Jennifer Esperanza, Paul Dionne, and Rod Wyrick were (and are) excellent companions, and Kathy Greene and Teresa Leopold were the best possible neighbors. Maria Albares, Madeline Kramer, Audrey Landale, and John Tryneski showed me what a joy teaching can be and reminded me that I am on the right path, after all. More than anything, I am grateful for the unexpected friendship of Daniel Barolsky, and he knows exactly why. The support I have received from friends and family over the years has made all the difference. My mother, Ellen Werner, believed in me from the start and reminded me to celebrate my achievements. Dana Brinson, Amy Crow, Denise Domet, Marko Duman čić, Laurel Frydenborg, Marisa Guptarak, Zoe Latil, Amy Pattee, Cindy Skema, Nathaniel Smith, and Laura Wylie gave me unwavering support and kept me laughing. My fellow yogis at the Yoga Spot – especially Nancy Kimberly and Suzanne Faulkner – saw me through the highs and lows of the past nine years. Dina Taylor has been my best friend and came to visit when I needed her most. Sara Snyder has nourished me emotionally and spiritually, and helped me rewrite a truculent chapter at a rather crucial time. More recently, Erin Allingham, Laura Jones, and Raina Langley have dragged me out of the house for Sunday brunches, and Jason Bissey has supplied those brunches with weird, unhealthy doughnuts. Gee Barger, it turns out, shares my brain. viii Two women have shaped my intellectual development and career trajectory. As a sophomore at Bryn Mawr College, I had the good fortune to stumble upon a course on medieval women taught by Susan Stuard. During that first lecture, I realized I was home. Dr. Stuard was a supportive mentor throughout my undergraduate studies, but more than anything else, I am grateful to her for suggesting I work with Judith Bennett. To say that this dissertation could not have been written without the guidance of Judith Bennett is an understatement, and I find it difficult to articulate the many ways in which she has helped me over the past nine years. I was an exasperating and willful student at times, I am sure, but Judith somehow managed to balance firm supervision with unfaltering encouragement, and frank criticism with sincere praise. She has been a sharp and candid editor, and one with the uncanny ability of knowing what I meant to say, even when I did not. I could not have asked for a better advisor and mentor, and I am proud to be her student. I dedicate this dissertation to Dan Warthman, who has been both friend and father to me over the past twenty years. He read endless drafts of job letters, chapters, and conference papers. He answered

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