64 ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994

THEMIDDLEARCHAICOCCUPATIONOFTHE NIAGARAPENINSULA: EVIDENCE FROM THE BELL SITE (AgGt-33)

Ronald F. Williamson, Stephen C. Thomas, and Deborah A. Steiss

Excavation and analysis of the Bell site cludes examinations of the geomorphological (AgGt-33), located near Fonthill, Ontario, has origin of the Fonthill Kame delta and assoc- provided new insights into the settlement and iated sand plain, the regional soil characteris- subsistence patterns of the poorly documented tics, the inferred vegetational cover, and the Middle Archaic occupants of the available floral and faunal resources. Peninsula. Site data are then compared with current archaeological reconstructions of Archaic In the summer of 1984 Archaeological lifeways in the general region and are eval- Services Inc. carried out an archaeological uated for their importance in understanding resource assessment on a parcel of land to be Middle Archaic cultural development in other developed on Lot 163, Fonthill, Township of parts of . This study has (now Town of Pelham) in the Regional yielded important data concerning the settle- Municipality of Niagara. This survey resulted ment-subsistence systems of hunter-gatherer in the discovery of two sizeable lithic scatters populations who inhabited the Niagara area overlooking a tributary of Twelve Mile Creek several thousand years ago. (Figures 1 and 2). Subsequent investigations suggested that GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL one of these two scatters, the Bell site (AgGt- 33), which was located near the southwestern SETTING boundary of the property, could be dated to the Middle Archaic period. While the majority A detailed reconstruction of the prehistoric of the site lay beyond the area of the pro-posed environment surrounding the Bell site has development, it was apparent that valuable been completed (Williamson et al. 1985). This data would be lost should construction reconstruction took into consideration the proceed prior to salvage mitigation. These geomorphological and fluvial evolution of the excavations were carried out in 1985. Niagara Peninsula, as well as soil development The following is a summary of the sub- and the associated vegetational cover. The sequent analysis of the settlement, subsis- latter two characteristics are of consider-able tence, and artifactual remains recovered importance in any effort to reconstruct during the 1985 salvage excavation of that prehistoric settlement-subsistence adaptations part of the Bell site to be impacted by the from the archaeological record. development (Williamson et al. 1985). The The soils within a five-kilometre radius of economic behaviour of the site inhabitants is the site are those derived from deltaic pro- briefly examined by employing an ecological cesses and are predominantly well-drained approach to reconstruct the prehistoric envir- sandy loams to loams (Chapman and Putnam onment surrounding the site, in order to help 1973:257-258). These are soils on which oak define the economic function of the site and its either tends to dominate or has a significant place within the annual subsistence schedule. presence (Maycock 1963; Kenyon and Payne The environmental reconstruction in 1981; Williamson 1985:89-100). They are, WILLIAMSON et al. THEMIDDLEARCHAIC... 65 66 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57. 1994

Figure 2. Topography and Areal Extent of the Bell Site (AgGt-33) and the Possibly Related Lithic Scatter(s) (AgGt-34). however, generally surrounded by heavier, more butternut or black walnut. poorly drained soils derived from Lake Warren. It is not surprising that despite survey across the region, Archaic sites appear to cluster with ARCHAEOLOGYOFTHEBELL respect to the Fonthill Kame and its associated SITE light and well-drained deposits. This tendency for Archaic sites to cluster around well-drained outwash sands and gravels was previously Methods recognized by Kenyon and Payne (1981). In Field investigations at the Bell site were their ecological analysis of Late Archaic Satchell based on a five-metre grid and resulted in the complex site distributions, they argued that, because such soils support rich mast- excavation of 132 one-metre squares. Since the producing forest, they are useful criteria for objective of the excavation was to salvage as locating sites of that period. Not only would the much of the threatened remains as possible, nuts have provided a high-caloric food source, work proceeded from the centre of the site, as but certain game would have been attracted to defined by the results of previous test these environments, particularly during the fall excavations, and continued to the outer limits. and early winter periods. Even more attractive These limits were estimated (cf Lennox 1986) may have been the river systems cutting on the basis of boundary subsquares contain- through areas of oak forest, especially where the ing less than 15 flakes. river bottoms widened and supported marsh The ploughzone was removed by shovel and communities and other fruit-bearing screened through standard six-millimetre (1/4") hardwoods, such as mesh. While attempts were made to utilize three-millimetre (1/8") mesh, it became necessary to water screen and the technique WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC ... 67 was abandoned as too time consuming. Once the south half of the site, beyond the threat- the ploughzone was removed from the ened area. Materials exhibiting potlid frac- squares, the first five centimetres of subsoil tures, grainy surfaces, or obvious surface were screened, provided the number of flakes discolouration were characterized as "ther- recovered from the ploughzone did not exceed mally altered". Descriptions of the various an arbitrarily set level of 40. Those units with artifacts are provided below, as are the pos- over 40 flakes in the ploughzone were sible implications of their spatial distributions generally trowelled in five-centimetre levels to and non-metric attributes. Mean values for a depth of 15 cm. In addition, all the sub- various metric attributes are provided for squares from an east-west and north-south complete specimens within each artifact class. transect were trowelled in order to provide comparative control data. All of the artifactual Projectile Points material from trowelled subsquares, including lithic debris, calcined bone, and floral Portions of seven projectile points, all of remains, was mapped horizontally in five- Onondaga chert, were recovered from the site. centimetre levels. Three features were recog- Two of the point fragments were collected from nized and recorded on the basis of soil dis- the surface of the site. The first of these, the colouration, while a fourth was identified on tip of which is missing, is side notched and the basis of subsoil clustering of flakes, faunal has wide, shallow notches (Figure 3d). It and floral material. These features were measures 3.5 cm in length, 1.8 cm in width, sectioned, their profiles were drawn, and soil and .7 cm in thickness. The other surface find samples taken for flotation. is a thermally altered and broken side-notched point (Figure 3e). While its original length is Artifacts indeterminate, it measures 1.9 cm in width and .6 cm in thickness. The base of this point The recovered artifactual material was is straight and exhibits basal thinning. analyzed in order to derive frequencies and Five partial points were recovered from the summary statistics for the total site assem- excavation units (Figure 4). The most complete blage. Metric and non-metric attributes were of these (Figure 3c) is a side-notched point recorded for each artifact, regardless of its with an expanded base. It measures 2.7 cm in class. Over 5,000 artifacts were recovered length, 1.5 cm in width, and .5 cm in during the course of the excavations (Table 1), thickness. The basal fragments of three other with the majority comprising lithics (Table 2). projectile points (Figure 3a,b,f) were also The recovered material was screened primarily recovered. All are side notched and have been from the ploughzone (81 percent), although a thermally altered. The remaining specimen is substantial amount was also recovered from a point tip fragment. subsoil levels (17 percent). The remainder was surface collected from

Table 1. Bell Site (AgGt-33), Artifact Class Frequencies.

ARTIFACT CLASS n % COMMENTS

Chipped Stone 4911 97.02 (39.9% burnt) Ground Stone 10 .20

Faunal Elements 131 2.59

Floral Remains 9 .17 (exduding floats)

Red Ochre 1 .01

TOTAL 5062 99.99 68 ONTARIOARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994

Table 2. Bell Site (AgGt-33), Lithic Artifact Types and Frequencies.

ARTIFACT TYPE n %

Projectile Points 7 .14 Bifaces 73 1.48 Unifaces 3 .06 Knives 2 .04 End Scrapers 19 .39 Lateral Scrapers 7 .14 Crescent Scrapers 6 .12 Combination Scrapers 5 .10 Scraper/Gravers 8 .16 Amorphous Flake Scrapers 15 .30 Utilized Flakes 77 1.56 Gravers 2 .04 Burins 1 .02 Primary Flakes 75 1.52 Primary Flake Fragments 15 .30 Secondary Rakes 1173 23.84 Secondary Flake Fragments 2891 58.75 Shatter 174 .54 Heat Shatter 347 7.05 Cores 12 .24 Cobble Fragments 1 .02 Abraders 1 .02 Abrader/Anvilstones 1 .02 Abrader/Hammerstones 1 .02 Harrnerstones 1 .02 Hammer/Anvilstones 1 .02 Fire-cracked Rock 2 .04

TOTAL 4921 99.95 WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC... 69

Figure 3. Projectile Points (a-f), Knives (g-h) and Gravers (i-o) from the Bell Site (AgGt-33).

Because of the lack of complete specimens, Middle Archaic Brewerton phase has been and the fact that most have been thermally dated to circa 5,000 - 4,500 B.P. for south-ern altered, the points from the site cannot easily Ontario and contiguous parts of the Northeast be assigned to established type categories. (Ellis et al.1990:86). While all are side notched, the notch widths and basal widths vary considerably. Never- Bifaces theless, there is some uniformity in overall basal configuration, which appears to be Seventy-three bifaces were recovered, 25 consistent with the Brewerton side-notched percent of which were surface finds from form (Ritchie 1971). The complete projectile south of the excavated area. Three bifaces point is bi-convex in cross-section, with a were recovered from subsoil contexts, while trianguloid blade characterized by excur- the remainder were from the ploughzone vate/straight edges and a straight but ex- (Figure 4). For those specimens where lengths, panded base. While these are characteristic widths, and thicknesses could be recorded, attributes for the Brewerton side-notched their means are 3.08, 2.57, and .81 cm, form, this specimen falls below the generally respectively. Eighteen percent of the bifaces accepted size range for such points. The were thermally altered and 19 percent 70 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994 exhibited cortical surfaces. based on traditional morphological categories, The predominant biface form has a rectan- and on characteristics such as brightness, guloid base to midshaft section with excurvate continuation of polish, and regularity or edges leading to a triangular-shaped tip angularity in scraping surface heights. These section (Figure 5). The bases are for the most attributes have been attributed to a variety of part straight, although some are convex. As for specific tasks or functions (Brink 1978). Bone the two specimens exhibiting shoulders or antler working, for example, may produce (Figure 5b,e), the larger one may have func- surfaces which are angular and irregular with tioned as a knife while the other may have discontinuous polish, while hide working may served as a hafted scraper. Few of the lithic produce rounder scraping surfaces with very artifacts are finely finished. With the exception bright, continuous polish. In addition, Wilmsen of the small rectanguloid type (Figure 5a,f), no (1968) has noted that edge angles may also other intact bifaces were recovered. More-over, provide clues to tool function. a number of specimens (10 percent) had been Among the 59 recovered tools, 18 are reworked into scrapers or exhibit retouch identified as end scrapers, 15 are of the (Figure 5n,o,p). All but one were made from amorphous flake variety, eight are combina- Onondaga chert. tion scraper/gravers, seven are lateral or side scrapers, and six are crescent scrapers. Scrapers Finally, five tools combined elements of all types. Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of Scrapers are the most developed and those scraping tools recovered from subsur- complex tool industry represented at the Bell face proveniences. site. An examination of general morphology End Scrapers. Eighteen end scrapers and a limited microwear analysis were at- (Figure 7a-k) were recovered; three other tempted, in an effort to infer scraper functions. specimens may represent a related form Qualitative observations were made WILLIAMSON et al. THEMIDDLEARCHAIC... 71 72 ONTARIOARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994

(Figure 71-n). Together, they total almost forty tion to those described above, two other tools percent of the scraping tool industry. Lengths (Figure 3g, 1) are categorized as knives on the vary from 2.4 cm to 3.9 cm, and edge angles basis of their edge angles and forms. from approximately 30 degrees to 85 degrees. Wilmsen also argues that angles in the 45 Mean length, width, and thickness are 2.86, to 55-degree range signify a number of dif- 2.21, and 0.69 cm, respectively. ferent functional applications, including skin- These scrapers may be classed into four ning and hide scraping, as well as shredding functional categories on the basis of edge of sinew or plant fibre. Steep angles greater angle. The first group may be described as than 70 degrees would have been used pre- thumbnail scrapers with edge angles of less dominantly for bone working. than 30 degrees (Figure 71-n). The second The various categories of end scrapers were group (Figure 7a-d,h) consists of eight scrapers examined at 10x magnification in order to with edge angles of 30 to 40 degrees, some of assess use wear attributes, as described by which were hafted, and some of which were Brink (1978). Scrapers in the less than 30- faceted to facilitate a hand grip. Three are of a degree angle category were generally char- much smaller size (e.g., Figure 7k). The third acterized by angular, irregular scraping group includes eight tools with edge angles of (cutting) surfaces with discontinuous to non- 55 to 65 degrees (Figure 7e, g). While some of existent polish, although one appeared to be these are fragmented, most appear to have quite rounded and regular. Those in the less been hafted tools. The final group consists of than 40-degree angle class were characterized two tools with edge angles of 82 degrees and by irregular angular surfaces with dis- 85 degrees (Figure 7f, j). continuous polish. Those in the 55 to 65- Wilmsen (1968) has attributed general degree angle range had more regular and functional categories to various ranges of edge rounder scraping surfaces with some polish. angles. He has suggested that tools with acute Those in the very steep category had extremely angles less than 40 degrees are associated angular and irregular surfaces with no trace of with cutting functions. In addi polish.

Figure 6. Distribution of Scraping Tools from Excavated Units. WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC ... 73

Figure 7. End Scrapers (a-k), Thumbnail Scrapers (1-n), Crescent Scrapers (p, q), and Utilized flakes (r-t) from the Bell Site (AgGt-33). 74 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994

In light of the preceding, cutting and hide and irregular in form. processing tools appear to dominate among recognized distal type scrapers, with a minor Utilized Flakes presence of tools used for bone working. Scraper/Gravers. Eight of the recovered scrapers also functioned as gravers (Figure 3 The 77 utilized flakes recovered represent k,l,n; Figure 7p). Five of these are on large only two percent of the lithic debris from the primary reduction flakes with dull cortical site. All debitage was carefully hand-examined surfaces presumably facilitating grip. Mean for signs of use wear. The main criterion used dimensions are 2.8 x 1.96 x .53 cm. In seven to distinguish use wear from retouch was a of the eight cases, a crescent-shaped scraping wear height of less than one millimetre. The surface is present, leading up to the graver tip. means for length, width, and thickness are Two other gravers were also recovered from 2.47, 1.93, and .54 cm respectively. the site. These are very diminutive specimens, Most utilization occurs on primary thinning but obvious retouch surrounding their tips flakes (65 percent), with the remainder on pri- confirms their function (Figure 3j,l). When the mary reduction flakes. Thirty-three percent are utilized flakes with possible graver tips are thermally altered, while 32 percent exhibit added to the inventory the presence of a cortical surfaces. While the typical forms of significant minor industry (13) devoted to utilization are small secondary or primary engraving bone or other perishable materials reduction flakes with a single lateral utilized is suggested. edge, crescentic (11 percent) and spokeshave- Lateral Scrapers. Seven side or lateral type (7 percent) utilization also occur. scrapers were recovered (e.g., Figure 7o). While Moreover, four flakes show clear micro- many utilized flakes and amorphous flake retouch possibly intended to create gravers scrapers display lateral utilization or retouch, (e.g., Figure 3m). these tools are characterized by their medium The low occurrence of utilization on lithic to large size (mean dimensions of 3.05, 1.81, debris may indicate that the occupants of the and .56 cm) and their consistent lateral site had little difficulty accessing chert retouch. All but one of these display angular sources. This suggestion contrasts with one and irregular scraping surfaces. recently forwarded by Lennox (1990) with Crescent Scrapers. Six scrapers of this respect to the nearby Narrow Point Late easily identified form were recovered (e.g., Archaic Lamoka (circa 4,500 B.P.-3,800 B.P.) Figure 7p,q). These are, for the most part, occupation of the Canada Century site, on the medium-sized flakes (mean dimensions of south shore of the River. Referring to 1.87, 1.85, and .37 cm) with angular, irregular research concerning the possible effects of crescentic-shaped scraping surfaces, ranging fluctuating water levels (e.g., in length from 2.4 to .8 cm. These tools have Pengelly 1991), Lennox suggested that an traditionally been interpreted as relating to emphasis on the reduction of bipolar cores bone working. during the tool manufacturing process, in an Combination Scrapers. Five scrapers exhibit effort to make maximum use of a scarce more than one scraping surface. These resource, may indicate that the high waters of surfaces are distally and laterally located on the Nipissing Phase Lake Wainfleet (circa both ventral and dorsal surfaces. Mean length, 5,500 B.P. - 3,900 B.P.) restricted the local width, and thickness are 2.28, 1.98, and .42 availability of chert (Lennox 1990:47-51). cm, respectively. Once again, the scraping surfaces are, for the most part, angular and Primary Reduction Flakes irregular. Amorphous Flake Scrapers. Fifteen amor- Primary reduction flakes are characterized phous flakes also exhibit scraping surfaces. by a thick, chunky dorsal surface. Dorsal flake Their mean length, width, and thickness are scars are deep and random, and exhibit a 2.49, 2.01, and .53 cm, respectively. For the large Beta Angle. Such flakes may be most part, scraping surfaces are laterally produced during initial core reduction located on dorsal surfaces, and are angular (Thomas 1992:21). Excluding those primary reduction flakes included in other categories WILLIAMSON et al. THEMIDDLEARCHAIC... 75

(i.e., utilized flakes), only 75 primary reduction found in ploughzone contexts. flakes and 15 fragments were recovered. The minor occurrence of primary reduction act- Cores ivities at the site suggests that preforms or bifaces were brought to the site. The mean length, width, and thickness for complete Ten cores were recovered from ploughzone flakes are 2.64, 2.13, and .57 cm, and for contexts and two from subsoil contexts. Only fragmentary flakes 2.31, 2.36, and 1.47 cm, one had been thermally altered and all are of respectively. Fifteen percent are thermally Onondaga chert. Their mean length, width, altered. and thickness are 4.63, 2.86, and 1.65 cm, respectively. Of the 12 specimens, two are Secondary Reduction Flakes bipolar, four are single ridge, four are heavily expended, one is utilized along its heavily The category of secondary reduction flakes crushed margins, and one appears to be includes both knapping and retouch flakes. bifacially worked. The latter artifact may, in Secondary knapping flakes are thin and fact, represent a basal fragment from a very regular in cross-section. Dorsal scars tend to large biface. be aligned and perpendicular to the striking platform. Beta Angles are generally acute, Ground Stone Tools although sometimes the platform is rounded by platform preparation or crushing. Such Ten small abraders, hammerstones, and flakes are typical of semi-refined and refined anvilstones were recovered from the site. biface production (Thomas 1992:23). Secon- Seven abraders, formed from fine-grained dary retouch flakes are very thin and flat. The sandstones, are irregularly-shaped with flake scars have a parallel alignment, perp- multiple surfaces smoothed through grinding endicular to the striking platform, and are very use. Two other specimens show clear pitting shallow. The cross-section is very lenticular, or and use as anvils, while pecking and faceted approaches a broad, extremely flat triangle or surfaces on another suggest use as a ham- trapezoid. The Beta Angle is usually acute, or merstone. the striking platform is crushed, rounded or worn. Such flakes are typical of final shaping SETTLEMENTPATTERNS or resharpening of a refined biface, a projectile point, or formal end scraper (Thomas 1992). Four subsurface features were recognized Excluding those flakes included in other during the excavation of the site (Figure 8). categories, 1,173 secondary reduction flakes Feature 1 was a small, ovate-shaped pit with and 2,891 fragments were recovered. The a simple basin profile to a depth of 10 cm. It mean length, width, and thickness for com- had a light-coloured fill of subsoil with some plete flakes are 1.54, 1.27, and .26 cm, and for organic soil mottling and contained only three fragmentary flakes 1.06, 1.04, and .22 cm, secondary flake fragments. respectively. Twenty-seven percent of the Feature 2 had a predominant surface fill complete flakes and 43 percent of the frag- matrix of light grey soil with charcoal mot- mentary flakes have been thermally altered. tling. This fill had a depth of only a few centi- metres. A subsoil level clustering of artifacts Shatter within and adjacent to this area included both lithic and faunal debris as well as a knife, Specimens were characterized as shatter suggesting the presence of an activity centre. when typical flake attributes appeared to be Feature 3 was characterized by a predom- missing. Most are rectanguloid in form. Their inant matrix of dark black organic soil with mean length, width, and thickness are 1.81, charcoal and subsoil mottling. Fire-cracked 1.23, and .49 cm. The mean length, width, and rock and lenses of fired soil and sand mottled thickness of heat shatter are 1.7, 1.23, and .51 with fully carbonized charcoal were evident in cm. Ninety-five percent of all shatter was the first 10-15 cm of fill. Numerous thermally altered, secondary reduction flakes, car- bonized butternut fragments, faunal remains, 76 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 199 WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC ... 77 and several biface fragments were also squares were significantly above 50 percent, recovered. whereas the mean for the site is less than 40 Feature 4 was not recognized on the basis percent. As might be expected, the same is of soil discolouration, but on the basis of true for subsoil percentages (Figure 12). artifact clustering in the subsoil. The location Although fired soil was not detected outside of appears to correlate with high densities of Feature 3, these percentages, along with the floral and faunal remains, scraping tools, and recovery of fire-cracked rock, carbonized flora other artifact types. and calcined fauna, suggest these None of these features, or artifact clusters concentrations may also have been hearths. representing activity areas, can be related to Unfortunately, the distribution of subsoil flakes the presence of house structures. While house does not suggest anything more specific, walls have been interpreted elsewhere on the beyond the delineation of the four features and basis of debitage density transects in plough- a few other less dense, but still discrete zone levels (Lennox 1986, 1990), the densities clusters of flakes, north and south of Feature recorded at Bell for ploughzone levels (Figure 4. 9) appear to reflect rather small, multiple areas of high densities rather than a larger focal SUBSISTENCEPATTERNS pattern. On the other hand, those units at the southern base line of the excavations appear Flora to represent the centre of most activity on the north section of the site. Future examination of Plant remains recovered from two of the units immediately south of the excavated area features and a number of trowelled subsoil may result in a more complete picture, and contexts were analyzed by Dr. Stephen Monc- perhaps even the delineation of house walls. kton. Samples consisted of 21.56 g of light In the meantime, however, the nature of fraction from a subsoil feature (Feature 3 at 6- subsurface features and the overall density 10 cm) and a series of wood charcoal and distribution of various artifactual remains fragments. The following descriptions and attest to an intensive, if not long-term, occu- identifications were provided by Monckton. pation. The spatial distribution noted at the Following Crawford (1982), the light fraction Bell site has also yielded important data for of Feature 3 was passed through a series of designing and implementing research pro- nine geological sieves with aperture sizes of grams at similar sites in the future. Figures 9 4.00, 2.80, 2.36, 2.00, 1.40, 1.00, .710, .425, and and 10 provide frequencies for recovered .212 mm. The resulting 10 particle size frac- artifacts from ploughzone and subsoil proven- tions were sorted individually. Material larger iences. While the highest ploughzone densities than 2.36 mm was separated completely into clearly correlate with significant subsoil wood charcoal, mineral, uncarbonized organic, artifact densities and indices of feature act- and unidentified plant remains. The weight ivity, mid-range ploughzone densities (30 - 60 proportions of these components were used to flakes) may not (e.g., P21-Q2; K6,11; D2,7,12, calculate their contribution to the sample as a 17,21). This suggests that some activity areas whole. Since the light fraction was collected may be reflected only in ploughzone densities. using a .596-mm mesh, the collection of Moreover, these areas may be located beyond particle size categories smaller than this was the limits of the site as delineated by considered to be fortuitous. Percentage numerous adjacent units consistently produc- calculations for the total sample, therefore, do ing less than 15 flakes (e.g., P21; Q1,2). not include the contents of the .212-mm Another attribute which may or may not mesh. All mesh contents, however, were sorted correlate with subsoil activity is the percentage and examined for seeds. of thermally altered material within Analysis of the light fraction from Feature 3 ploughzone levels (Figure 11). In all those revealed 10 carbonized raspberry (Rubus sp.) cases where subsoil activity areas were seeds, a knotweed (Polygonum sp.) seed, a detected, percentages of thermally altered fragment of white pine (Pinus strobus) needle, material from those (or immediately adjacent) and two unidentified cone or bud structures. Members of Rubus are known to have been 78 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994

Figure 9. Artifact Density per One-Metre-Square Ploughzone Level.

Figure 10. Artifact Density per One-Metre-Square Subsoil Level. WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC ... 79

Figure 11. Thermally Altered Artifact Density per One-Metre-Square Ploughzone Level.

Figure 12. Thermally Altered Artifact Density per One-Metre-Square Subsoil Level. 80 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994 used extensively by most aboriginal groups in and curvature. Large mammals include deer, the Northeast and they are ubiquitous in and bear, medium mammals include wolf, and archaeological samples. While most species of beaver, and small mammals include Rubus are available in the summer, they do woodchuck and squirrel. Otter might be not necessarily indicate the season of site categorized as a medium to small-sized occupation since such fruit may have been mammal. Many of the large to medium-sized stored. The recovery of several fragments of fragments are most likely white-tailed deer. No butternut does, however, suggest a fall occ- antler was noted. upation. Deer appears to have been a focus of faunal Wood charcoal that failed to pass through exploitation at the site, although there was the 4.00-mm mesh was considered large also a substantial number of small to enough for identification. Each fragment was medium-sized mammals (i.e., cottontail, broken in half to provide a clean surface for beaver and otter). This, and the identification identification using a stereoscope at mag- of wild turkey concurs with the environmental nifications of 25x to 50x. The results of the reconstruction as described below. While the wood charcoal analysis are presented in Table beaver and otter may have been taken from 3. the adjacent stream, the recovery of turtle While it is recognized that the size of the suggests nearby ponding or marsh areas as flotation sample was limited, it is probable that well. oak was the dominant taxon available as burning fuel. This is in agreement, not only RECONSTRUCTINGTHE with our current knowledge concerning veget- ation during the late hypsithermal when oak SETTLEMENT-SUBSISTENCE forest would have been at least as prominent STRATEGY in southwestern Ontario as it is today, but also with the environmental reconstruction The microenvironment is the most effective presented below which suggests that the Bell level at which to attempt any reconstruction of site was intentionally situated in an extensive prehistoric economic adaptation, since com- area of oak dominated forest. munities usually exploited valley floors, forest patches, or marine systems. This is not to say Fauna that groups necessarily were adapted to particular microenvironments, but rather to a The recovered faunal assemblage was small number of plants and animals that analyzed by one of the authors (Thomas), extend across several such environments. Any using the comparative collection of the explanation of the settlement-subsistence data Department of Anthropology, University of recovered from the Bell site must rely on an . Taxonomic nomenclature follows examination of the physiographic region in Banfield (1981) and Godfrey (1986). which it is located (the Fonthill Kame and Almost the entire faunal sample (96 per- associated sand plain), and the specific forest cent) was fragmented and calcined, providing zones or stream valleys within that region. some corroborative evidence that the docu- One of the most significant environmental mented features functioned as hearths. The variables affecting a population's settlement- condition of the assemblage, however, made subsistence pattern is the nature of the exist- identification to species difficult (Table 4). ing vegetation in the population's physical Nevertheless, Odocoileus virginianus (white- setting. While the reconstruction of past forest tailed deer), Castor canadensis (beaver), Lutra cover depends on a number of criteria, soil canadensis (otter), Meleagris gallopavo (wild conditions are without doubt one of the most turkey), and Sylvilagus floridanus (east-ern critical variables. Within a one-kilometre cottontail) were identified. Blandings turtle radius of the Bell site, the soils consist of (Emydoidea sp.) may also be present. Pelham Loam (75 percent), Pelham Sandy While the remaining fragments were not Loam (10 percent), Caistor Loam (10 percent), identifiable to species, they were assigned to and Fonthill Loam (5 percent). Ninety percent size ranges on the basis of cortex thickness of these loams and sandy loams are well WILLIAMSON et al. THE MIDDLE ARCHAIC ... 81

Table 3. Wood Charcoal Recovered from the Bell Site (AgGt-33).

SPECIES WEIGHT %

(g) White Oak (Quercus alba) 2.63 83.7 Red Oak (Quercus borealis) .03 .9 Paper Birch (Betulapapyrifera) .04 1.3 Unidentifiable .44 14.0

TOTAL 3.14 99.9

Table 4. Faunal Remains Recovered from the Bell Site (AgGt-33).

TAXON COMMON NAME NISP

Emydoideasp. large turtle (probably Blandings) 1

Meleagrisgallopavo wild turkey 1 Aves sp. medium-large bird 1 Aves sp. large bird 2 Aves sp. 1 Sylvilagus floridanus eastern cottontail 1 Castorcanadensis beaver 1 Lutracanadensis river otter 1 Odocoileus virginianus white-tail deer 2 Cervidae sp. cf. 0 virginianus probable white-tail deer 3 Mammal sp. small-medium mammal 9 Mammal sp. medium/small-medium mammal 31 Mammal sp. medium mammal 18 Mammal sp. medium-large mammal 25 Mammal sp. large mammal 7 Mammal sp. 9 Probable Mammal sp. probable small-medium mammal 9 Class unknown probable mammal 19

TOTAL 133 82 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994 drained. Within a five-kilometre radius of the While researchers have attempted to recon- site, the soils include Caistor Loam (20 per- struct settlement-subsistence strategies of cent), Pelham Loam (18 percent), Pelham regional foraging populations by employing Sandy Loam (14 percent), and Fonthill Loam optimal foraging models (Jochim 1976; Reid- (12 percent), as well as Haldimand Clay (15 head 1980; Keene 1981; Winterhalter and percent), Oneida Clay Loam (13 percent), Smith 1981), there are not yet sufficient data Berrien Sandy Loam (6 percent), Welland Clay in this particular region to reconstruct the (1 percent), and Ontario Loam (1 per-cent). complete settlement-subsistence system. We Seventy-three percent of these soils exhibit can, however, assume that the Bell inhabi- good drainage, 21 percent poor drain-age, and tants had a thorough knowledge of their 6 percent mixed drainage qualities. environment and behaved rationally with The well-drained loams and sandy loams respect to the exploitation of flora and fauna. which predominate in the vicinity of the Bell The assumptions normally employed by site provide optimum conditions for support- archaeologists to characterize rational decis- ing stands of mature oak (Quercus sp.). These ion-making are invariably derived from Zipf's oaks, and various other secondary species — (1949) principle of least effort. The present such as chestnut (Castanea dentata), hickory study likewise assumes that those plant and (Carya sp.), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and animal species within a region that are the butternut (Juglans cinerea) — would have most cost-effective (in terms of caloric or other formed rich mast-producing forests. The nuts value relative to the energy expended in their of these trees would have provided a high- exploitation) will have played the leading role caloric food source, and certain game species, in the subsistence economy. In so far as they particularly white-tailed deer (Odocoileus are preserved in the archaeological record, the virginianus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and remains of these resources should be present black bear (Ursus amen-cams) would have in high proportions. Unfortunately, the two been attracted to these environments in the crucial variables of need and cost are difficult fall and early winter periods. Additional plant to quantify. species, including (but not limited) to fruit- In optimal foraging models, the question of producing shrubs and trees, would also have need is usually solved by first estimating the flourished within this forest environment. size of the human population under study and Before the complexities of seasonal re- then calculating its nutritional and raw mater- source exploitation and the reconstruction of ial requirements in terms of available wild settlement-subsistence strategies are dis- plant and animal resources. Since quantifying cussed, certain general concepts concerning either variable is difficult in the present case, foraging economies and their socio-cultural we must be content to assume that those systems must be outlined. This is best accom- natural resources which were being exploited plished by examining previous ethnohistorical were done so in a cost-effective manner. It is and archaeological analyses of foraging also reasonable to assume that both basic populations. It has been suggested that nutritional needs, and non-food requirements hunter-gatherer groups came together in the had to be satisfied. Gramly (1977) has noted spring or early summer to form macroband the importance of animal hides in the manu- settlements that made use of rich riverine or facture of clothing. Of those animals readily lakeshore resources. In the fall and winter they available in the site area, the hides of deer, separated into microbands consisting of only a bear, beaver, and raccoon were the most few families, in order to exploit forest-based useful (Keene 1981:145), although the skins of faunal resources, which generally could not squirrel and muskrat were probably also used. support larger concentrations of people Deer hides were preferred for the production of (Stothers 1977; Finlayson 1977). As noted clothing (Keene 1981:145). Gramly has below, however, such a settlement-subsistence calculated that Late Iroquoians, living in a pattern can no longer be considered to have climate only slightly colder than that of the been the only possible adaptive strategy. study region, needed an average of 3.5 deer hides per person per year to satisfy their clothing needs, exclusive of WILLIAMSON et al. THEMIDDLEARCHAIC... 83 footwear and other accessories (Gramly mies. The need to consider such social factors 1977:602). When constructing a subsistence in the application of optimal foraging models schedule, allowance must be made for the has been reiterated by Spence et al. (1984) and acquisition of adequate numbers of deer and Savage (1990). other animals at the time of year when their While we have traced the various problems hides were in prime condition. In most cases, which characterize any effort to infer a sub- this corresponds to those seasons when sistence strategy in a cost-benefit framework, animal densities and body weights are highest which is the hallmark of optimal foraging and are therefore most cost-effective to exploit. models (Keene 1983:139; Martin 1983), this It is also recognized that cultural variables, analysis concerns only one component of an such as the desire for dietary variety, would annual subsistence schedule. The environ- also have played a role in the selection of food mental data suggest that the Bell site was resources. situated in or close to a mast-producing forest The quantification of cost in subsistence and may have functioned as an inland fall and strategies has traditionally been calculated in winter hunting camp for a microband terms of energy expended or cost-benefit ratios consisting of one or two families. The occupa- measured in calories (Lee 1968; Rappoport tion of such a site would have occurred from 1968). A notable exception is Reidhead (1976), September to at least December. Important fall who relied heavily on ethnographic analogy activities would have involved the collection of and experimental data to estimate the hourly nuts, bush fruits, and tree fruits, as well as the labour output required for the exploitation of exploitation of deer, raccoon, squirrel, and wild seasonally-available resources. Jochim's (1976) turkey, which were all attracted to the mast- study provided the foundation for most recent producing forest. Locations along streams, optimal foraging models and efforts at defining originating within the oak forest zone, would cost. Employing ethnographic literature on be optimal for the exploitation of such foragers, he identified two major and recurring resources, since both humans and fauna decisions that control resource exploitation: (1) require water. There are several other the desire to obtain a secure level of food and advantages to stream-side locations, including manufacturing resources, and (2) a need to their suitability for black walnuts and minimize energy expenditures. To assess the butternuts, and their attractiveness to muskrat major decisions and cost factors and beaver. quantitatively, Jochim formulated two main If these sites were occupied from September relationships, using as input the average to December and functioned primarily as food weight of a species, its aggregation size, its exploitation and hide processing sites, at least density, its mobility, and its non-food yield. a few house structures would have been His conclusions, not surprisingly, were that necessary. The presence, or absence, of house the significance of a resource correlates structures at Bell can only be deter-mined positively with increases in its weight and non- through further excavation to the south of the food yield, while its risk as a resource threatened portion of the site. Such sites decreases as resource density increases and should have evidence of the exploitation of mobility decreases. Resources were also resources available within the mast-producing calculated to be less expensive as aggregation forest zones, and should yield tool ass- size increases and mobility decreases. One of emblages that reflect hunting, hide-working, the most serious problems involved in and nut-processing activities. For the most applying Jochim's or other cost formulas, is part, both the artifactual assemblage and estimating values for variables such as subsistence remains recovered from the Bell mobility, aggregation, or non-food yield. site excavations conform to these expectations. Moreover, Keene (1983) in his critical review of optimal foraging theory, has suggested that it SUMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS is difficult to assess either the cost involved in maintaining social needs or the degree to Work at the Bell site has resulted in the which social processes influenced the documentation of one settlement type belong- structure of econo 84 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57, 1994 ing to a regionally-based, Middle Archaic standing of the nature and habits of flora and settlement-subsistence system in the Niagara fauna available to the site inhabitants. The peninsula. Excavations suggest that it was animal resources apparently exploited in the occupied in the fall to exploit deer and other vicinity of Bell include white-tailed deer, wild animals attracted to a mast-producing forest. turkey, beaver, otter, cottontail and turtle. Moreover, significant scraping and engraving Significant numbers of deer would have been tool industries suggest that the processing of available to the site inhabitants within a five- hides and animal bone was one of the major kilometre catchment, provided the site was economic activities at the site. Another activity situated in an oak dominated forest zone, and involved the reduction of bifaces, as evidenced was occupied in the fall. The floral remains, by a preponderance of secondary reduction although limited in sample size, support both flakes and flake fragments. While the walls of propositions. The overall size and nature of the house structures were not delineated, the site suggests that it functioned as a hunting nature of subsurface features and the overall and processing centre for a small group, density and distribution of various artifactual probably consisting of one or two families, and remains attest to an intensive if not long-term was occupied in the fall and perhaps winter. It occupation. The six temporally-diagnostic was neither a base settlement for a larger artifacts recovered from the site indicate that macroband population, nor a settlement this occupation dates to the Brewerton phase situated to exploit rich riverine re-sources. of the Middle Archaic Period (circa 5,000 - While evidence for the Middle Archaic 4,500 B.P.). period occupation of the eastern Niagara The Bell site has also yielded important Peninsula remains relatively scarce, more data for designing and implementing re-search general Archaic period patterns of site dis- programs at similar sites in the future. As tribution, and regional settlement-subsistence discussed earlier, and illustrated in Figures 9 strategies, are better documented. For the and 10, the relationships between the most part, regional groups appear to have frequencies of recovered artifacts from followed settlement-subsistence systems ploughzone and subsoil proveniences may be involving interior fall and winter microband more complex than generally assumed. The camps located upriver, and larger spring and highest ploughzone densities clearly correlate summer macroband settlements located near with significant subsoil artifact densities and river mouths and lakeshores (Ellis et al. 1990). indices of feature activity; however, this cor- Such inferences are largely based on the work relation is not as apparent in mid-range of Ritchie and Funk (1973), who have ploughzone densities. This suggests that some described the Brewerton settlement activity areas are only reflected in ploughzone and subsistence patterns in terms of small densities. inland hunting camps occupied in the late fall Another attribute which may or may not and winter by small bands or families, and correlate with the presence of subsurface larger spring macroband settlements at features is the percentage of heat-treated productive fishing spots, where groups may material in ploughzone levels (Figure 11). In have remained for months. those areas where concentrated activity was More recent research has, however, raised apparent, the frequencies of heat-treated questions about the inland/microband/cold material were significantly higher. Subsoil season - littoral/macroband/warm season frequencies of thermally altered material dichotomy in the cyclical movement of groups. (Figure 12) also share this general corres- Several of these studies suggest that the pondence. Although fired soil was not detected frequent re-use of many Middle and Late outside of Feature 3, these percentages, along Archaic sites, may indicate that some popula- with the recovery of fire-cracked rock, tions were attracted to particularly rich envir- carbonized flora and calcined fauna suggest onments that offered the potential of meeting these concentrations may have been hearths. subsistence needs on a year-round basis (e.g., Analysis of the Bell site also included an Woodley 1990; Welsh et al. 1992). Such attempt to reconstruct the paleoenvironment regionally-based settlement-subsistence of the Fonthill Kame to advance an under- WILLIAMSON et al. THEMIDDLEARCHAIC... 85 systems, in which the need for large scale mobility was obviated by the reliability and diversity of more localized resources, may have REFERENCESCITED significant implications for an under-standing Banfield, A. W. F. of the evolution of band territoriality during 1981 The Mammals of Canada. University the Middle to Late Archaic, as was originally of Toronto Press, Toronto. proposed by Brose (1978). Brink, J. Further excavation at the Bell site and a 1978 An Experimental Study of Microwear well-designed regional survey would likely Formation on Endscrapers. National yield important new data. More research in Museum of Man Mercury Series this and other regions will permit archaeo- Paper 83. National Museums of logists to assess the full range of site types Canada, Ottawa. present, and to identify settlement-subsistence Brose, D. systems through environmental reconstruc- 1978 Late Prehistory in the Upper Great tion. The Bell site study, while not part of a Lakes Area. In Northeast, edited by B. long-term research project of this type, has G. Trigger, pp. 569-582. Hand-book successfully salvaged important data from a of North American Indians, vol. 15, Middle Archaic site that would otherwise have W. E. Sturtevant, general editor. been lost or destroyed during development. Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash- ington D.C.: Acknowledgments. The archaeological Chapman, L. J. and D. F. Putnam excavation and analysis of the Bell Site would 1973 The Physiography of Southern not have been possible without the financial Ontario. The University of Toronto support of Short Hills Meadows Inc. and the Press, Toronto. Ontario Heritage Foundation. We would like Crawford, G. especially to thank Mr. Allen Goar of Group 2 1982 Late Archaic Plant Remains from Development Limited and Mr. Peter Car- West-Central Kentucky: A Summary. ruthers of the Ontario Ministry of Citizenship Mid-Continental Journal of Archaeo- and Culture for their co-operation and assis- logy 7(2):205-224. tance in securing the necessary funds and Ellis, C. J., I. T. Kenyon, and M. W. Spence permits to conduct this work, and Dr. Howard 1990 The Archaic. In The Archaeology of Savage of the University of Toronto for access Southern Ontario to A.D. 1650, edited to the Department of Anthropology's compara- by C. J. Ellis and N. Ferris, pp. 65- tive zooarchaeological collections. The regular 124. Occasional Publication of .the field crew consisted of Ron Williamson, London Chapter, Ontario Archaeo- Deborah Steiss, Andrew Clish, and Martin logical Society 5. London, Ontario. Cooper. Our thanks are also extended to Finlayson, W. D. Robert MacDonald, Andrew Stewart, Kathy 1977 The Scrugeen Culture: A Middle Mills, and Stephen Reingold, who assisted Woodland Manifestation in South- with the excavation; to Stephen Monckton, western Ontario. National Museum of who conducted the floral analysis; and to Man Mercury Series Paper 61. Andrew Allan, who produced the graphics. National Museums of Canada, Ot- Field laboratory facilities were kindly provided tawa. by the Pelham Historical Society. We would Godfrey, E. W. like to thank Ms. Paddy Chitty for her help in 1986 The Birds of Canada. Revised ed. arranging for their use. Shaun Austin, Martin National Museum of Natural Cooper, David Robertson, and Bruce Welsh Sciences. National Museums of provided substantive and editorial comment Canada, Ottawa. on an earlier draft of this article. Our deepest Gramly, R. M. appreciation is extended to Jim and Jan Bell. 1977 Deerskins and Hunting Territories: Their field work, support, co-operation, and Competition of a Scarce Resource of warm hospitality made an invaluable con- the Northeastern Woodlands. tribution to the research project. American Antiquity 42:601-605. 86 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY No. 57. 1994

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