From the Masses, to the Masses by Kilmore and John Albert

From the Masses, To the Masses by kilmore and John ALbert

A Summation of the October 22 Coalition’s Resistance to Police Brutality in the Late 1990s written summer 2019 kites #1

DEDicatED in rEmEmbrancE of nicholas hEywarD, sr., a fiErcE fightEr in thE strugglE against policE violEncE

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a FamIlIar sTory gaIns TracTIon Eric Garner, 43, in Staten Island, NY, 2014. Michael Brown, 18, in Ferguson, MO, 2014. Laquan McDonald, 17, in Chicago, IL, 2014. Tamir Rice, 12, in Cleveland, OH, 2014. Walter Scott. Freddie Gray. Alton Sterling. Philando Castile….

Over the past fve years, the number of high-profle murders at the hands of police has drawn national attention to the epidemic of police violence and the treatment of Black people in the United States (US). While the particular role played by police in the oppression of Black people has been ongoing—a story told and retold with painstaking articulation in urban uprisings from Watts in 1965 to Baltimore in 2015—only recently have a signifcant number of petty-bourgeois and white people become familiar with it, newly “woke” to the sheer volume of incidents of brutality and murder perpetrated by police. Furthermore, only a select few cases were given coverage by mainstream media throughout the years, while today the epidemic nature of police violence is being more widely reported.

In response to these outrages and to their revelation of a systemic issue, hundreds of thousands have taken to the streets demanding justice, giving rise to a movement against unchecked police terror and violence. While noteworthy, this is hardly the frst incident of organized resistance to oppressive policing; the central, founding tenet of the Black Panther Party (BPP) at the time of its inception in 1966, for example, was to protect the Black community of Oak- land, California from the continuous abuse visited upon it by law enforcement (as is evident in the BPP’s original name: the Black Pan-

39 The October 22 Coalition logo. ther Party for Self-Defense). To that end, Panthers would conduct armed patrols in order to monitor police and intervene were they to witness ofcers engaging in brutality and other misconduct. In a word, the long and storied history of police violence is punctuated by instances of organized resistance to it, which brings us nearer the subject of our piece.

With the Great Migrations of Black people into Northern cities from the rural South in the 20th century, police and prisons replaced lynch mobs as the primary instruments through which social control and white supremacy are enforced. In the decades that followed, Black communities throughout the US bore the brunt of the in- creased focus on preserving “law and order” through mass incarcer- ation and militarized policing, most notably as part of the ongoing War on Drugs initially waged by President Richard Nixon in 1971. This, coupled with the demand for more police to repress a population struggling with the anger and despair that accompanied the deindustrialization of cities across the US, gave rise to an epidemic of police violence. Enter the October 22 Coalition to Stop Police Bru- tality, Repression, and the Criminalization of a Generation (O22).

Formed in 1996 by a coalition of family members of those slain by law enforcement (henceforth referred to as families), revolu- tionaries, and seasoned activists—many of whom were veterans of political struggles during the 1960s and ’70s—O22 sought to bring

40 kites #1 national attention to the epidemic of police violence and empower those most deeply afected by it through grassroots organizing ef- forts. Though its history is not widely known, O22’s impact on the struggle against police brutality was substantial, and is worthy of exploration and summation. It is our hope that doing so will be of value to groups and individuals in the movement today, a movement that emerged from knowledge of an epidemic that O22 was the frst to document.

In order to better understand its history and the efect it had on those involved, over the course of our research into O22, we conducted interviews with families and activists who are knowledge- able of—and were crucial to—its day-to-day functioning and strategic planning process, especially at its height from 1996-2000. Due to a dearth of coverage of people’s struggles by mainstream media outlets in the US, for further details and insights, we turned to old issues of Revolutionary Worker, the ofcial newspaper and “voice” of the Revolutionary Communist Party, USA (RCP), which consistent- ly covered O22’s development during those years. While those who are familiar with the RCP today might be surprised to learn that, in years past, it undertook considerable eforts to unite broad sections of people in the struggle against police brutality, that does not dis- count—nor should it obfuscate—the important role that the RCP played in that struggle, especially through its work with O22.

addressIng The epIdemIc According to its website, the seed of what would become O22:

came out of conversations among Pam Africa (International Concerned Family and Friends of Mumia Abu Jamal and MOVE), Akil Al-Jundi (Community Self Defense Program), Angel Cervantes (Four Winds Student Movement), Omowale Clay (December 12th Movement), Carl Dix (Revolutionary Communist Party) and Keith McHenry (Food Not Bombs). These conversations centered on the need to meet the inten- sifying nationwide epidemic of police brutality with resistance on the national level.1 1 “History and Background of October 22 Coalition,” http://october22.org/history.

41 What it is, what it ain’t

Protesters carry a Stolen Lives banner in Ferguson, 2014, after the murder of Michael Brown by police.

The group then determined that the frst step should be to establish and popularize a National Day of Protest to Stop Police Bru- tality, Repression, and the Criminalization of a Generation (NDP) of predominantly Black youth. “Conferences were held in Los Ange- les [(LA), California] and New York City [(NYC), New York] in June of 1996 to begin the organizing efort for NDP 1996,” reads the O22 website, and while October 22 grew in signifcance as a result of this efort, the date itself “did not have a signifcance in its own right…. The groups involved wanted to have it in October, because students would be back in school, and before the elections, so that people could have a way to express themselves in the streets.”2

Two activists with whom we spoke described how they became aware of and involved with O22, as well as ofering their perspectives on its overall purpose. Kathie Cheng is an activist and educator whose frst foray into political life came in the wake of the Febru- ary, 2000 acquittal of the four police ofcers indicted in the murder of Amadou Diallo.3 “I happened to hear the verdict on the radio,” Cheng says, “and even though I wasn’t following [the case intently],

html (accessed May 1, 2019). 2 Ibid. 3 Amadou Diallo was a 23-year-old immigrant from Guinea who was murdered by police outside of his apartment in the Bronx, New York on February 4, 1999. He was unarmed and holding his wallet when police fred 41 rounds, 19 of which struck Diallo.

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I kind of knew a little bit about what happened, …and I’m just like, ‘Really?! Seriously?! How can they not be guilty?!’” Compelled to action, she soon met O22 organizers Nicholas Heyward, Sr. (the father of 13-year-old Nicholas Heyward, Jr., who was murdered by police while playing cops and robbers with friends in September, 1994 in Brooklyn, New York), RCP supporter Steve Yip, and others from associated groups who invited her to attend her frst O22 meeting. Despite her lack of experience in activism, Cheng would become deeply involved with O22 after witnessing its ability to bring broad sections of people together in such a meaningful way, devoting much of her time over the next decade to coordinating and organizing eforts. O22 and the Stolen Lives Project (SLP) are the subjects of her PhD dissertation, “The Stolen Lives Project Online: A Digital Humanities Project.”

“I see O22 as having the mission of ensuring that there’s at least one day a year when people will remember that police brutality, repression, and criminalization is a serious problem,” Cheng says, “and there are a lot of people who are not willing to stand for it.” She believes O22 helped:

remind people that there is [an option] to take this position [of resistance], ‘cause some people don’t see it as an option…. Not having that voice…would have been a lot more detrimental. You would have people just resigned to “This is the way things are; there’s nothing we can do about it….” People still think that, …but if we didn’t have some vocal, visible opposition to the kind of violence that’s aficted on people, things would be a lot worse…. Keeping police brutality in the spotlight, …making sure people don’t forget that this is a problem …[that] this is something that needs to stop ...is important and necessary.

Efa Nwangaza is a former lawyer and “lifelong human rights advocate” raised by her parents in the Garveyite tradition. As early as age 13, she has been politically active, beginning in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and eventually gravitating toward the more radical sides of the Black Power and Civ- il Rights Movements, working with the Student Nonviolent Coor-

43 from the masses, to the masses dinating Committee and the Revolutionary Action Movement. She is a founding member of the Malcolm X Grassroots Movement for Self-Determination. Nwangaza frst heard of O22 during an emergency march in South Carolina called for by the Center for Consti- tutional Rights, where she met Monica Shay, a lead O22 organizer. “[Shay] and other folks...had this humongous banner that had all these names on it…of people who had been murdered by the cops across the country,” says Nwangaza, “and that was my reaction too…. [This wasn’t] just some fare-up that was occurring here in…upstate South Carolina; ...it was a national problem, and...something had to be done about it.” Nwangaza became involved, eventually becoming a part of O22’s National Executive Committee.

Addressing O22’s intent and purpose, she says:

The original conception was to address police violence and to empower the people who were most directly impacted to be able to [defend] themselves and each other, and to work with those of us who had a more sophisticated reading of the system to be able to support them, to politicize and develop them, and to…attack the system in a more sophisticated kind of way.

Nwangaza continues, opining that leading members of O22— most notably the RCP—had:

the ability to recognize...that police violence was a symptom of state repression, and it was not being recognized or addressed, and as a result of that, came to recognize the need to come to the aid of that sector of the community. At that point in time, when somebody got arrested— especially in poor communities (Black, Latino, even poor white communities)—there was an assumption that the cops were right and that the person must have done something wrong. And there was a shame [to being arrested] that during the Civil Rights Movement had been challenged…. [There] was some destigmatization that had occurred during that time, but it had began to fall back in place, because the objects of the abuse were not middle-class kids dressed in their Sunday best. They were working class, poor, dependent members of the community that were the subject of these abuses, and that the traditional civil rights organizations did not cotton to.

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The naTIonal day oF proTesT: Wear black, FIghT back The original and overarching mission of O22 was to bring together broad sections of people to resist police violence by means of establishing and maintaining a national day of protest on Octo- ber 22: the NDP. According to the Mission Statement of the NDP on O22’s website:

The [NDP] was initiated by a diverse coalition of organizations and individuals. We came together out of our concern that the peoples’ resistance to Police Brutality needed to be taken to a higher level nationwide.

The [NDP] aims to bring forward a powerful, visible, national protest against police brutality and the criminalization of a generation. It aims to expose the state’s repressive program. It aims to bring forward those most directly under the gun of Police Brutality AND to also reach into all parts of the society—bringing forward others to stand in the fght against this ofcial brutality. And the [NDP] aims to strengthen the peoples’ organized capacity for resistance in a variety of ways.4

The character of the NDP was markedly diferent than that of most other protests, both then and now. Even in cities as populous as LA and NYC, one is bound to see familiar faces in the course of attending the many more-ritualized protests and rallies these met- ropolitan centers host. Events generally attract a predictable slew of petty-bourgeois forces whose relative freedom and intellectual training have drawn them into political life. Rarely, however, does one see anything approaching a strong showing from those living at the bottom of society—a proletarian presence.5 While there are no- 4 “History and Background of October 22 Coalition,” last modifed July 13, 2015, http://october22.org/history.html (accessed May 1, 2019). 5 “Proletarian” here and throughout the course of this article refers to the character or membership of the proletariat: a class comprised of those with “nothing to lose but their chains.” For a detailed analysis and explanation of the proletariat today, see Kenny Lake’s four-part series, “The Specter that Still Haunts: Locating a Revolutionary Class within Contemporary Capitalism-Imperialism,” which is

45 from the masses, to the masses table exceptions, such as the unrest that followed the police killings of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri in 2014 and Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland in 2015, the proletariat is generally under- represented at political demonstrations. The NDP subverted this tendency, providing a platform for those most afected by police violence and state repression. Quetzal, a revolutionary communist who worked closely with the RCP at the time and served as a lead coordi- nator and organizer for O22’s Student/Youth Network, describes this approach and discusses its appeal among that class of people:

There was just this sense that…never in their lives was there [any other] chance for them to tell their stories…. So the fact that there was a spotlight [on police brutality], and [it] was something that [other people could] hear about, and…that they would be welcome was something that hadn’t happened before…. This [was] something that really spoke to their day-to-day life experience….

The outreach that we did was also diferent, because…all these organizations that were part of this Coalition [were] important, but their base was not the proletariat. Their base was the church-going people, or the movement people, …or the unions, and all that, and they were very important. We actually struggled with a lot of people to go back to their base and bring them forward, ‘cause you actually need that. That made a huge diference—for preachers to be preaching about [the NDP] on Sundays and [asking] their congregations to come, or for the unions to come, or for teachers—all those other people to come. The [RCP] was focused on really bringing forward the proletariat, so we went to them…. I think the proletariat found a voice in O22.

Attendees of the NDP would fnd themselves surrounded by a sea of people clad in black—a show of solidarity with those families mourning the loss of loved ones at the hands of police. Punctu- ating the monochromatic solemnity of black clothing, many wore yellow enamel pins with the art of Dread Scott, portraying the fgure of a police ofcer shooting another fgure whose hands are raised in compliance and reading, “Danger: Police in Area.” Throughout currently available in full at www.revolutionary-initiative.com and will be printed in kites #1-4.

46 Scott’s Sign of the Times, which featured prominently on the NDP. the country, a coalition of academics, activists, artists, community and religious leaders, lawyers, and more stood with the oppressed, emboldening them to share their stories of routine brutality, harassment, and murder by law enforcement. In some cities, members of opposing gangs would call for cease-fres and an easing of tensions, citing a common enemy in the police, who some see as the largest, most violent street gang in the US. Rap and spoken word artists per- formed their works fanked by long banners displaying the names of thousands of people killed by US law enforcement. Speakers, all- too-conscious of the fact that they were being monitored by police, would defantly chant “Fuck the police!” and openly refer to them as “murderers” and “pigs.” In a word, the NDP fostered an atmosphere of honesty—of unfltered anger and anguish—while providing attendees from disparate sections of society the opportunity to stand together in their resolve to stop police brutality and repression.

Every city is unique, and so too was every city’s NDP. An article in Revolutionary Worker described the atmosphere and character of the NDP in LA in 2000, when the Ramparts scandal revealing wide-

47 from the masses, to the masses spread police corruption was fresh in people’s minds:6

The low wail of a conch shell pierced the afternoon skies and drum beats rolled down Broadway as 50 Aztec dancers led the way for the 5th [NDP] in [LA]—2,500 determined people were headed for [Los Ange- les Police Department (LAPD)] headquarters at Parker Center. Before the day was over, the march was attacked by LAPD cops on horses, cops and riot squads fring concussion grenades and rubber bullets and beating people with clubs. But not even this brutal attack could shut down the day, as people fearlessly stood their ground and kept the rally going.

Overwhelmingly young and militant, the marchers were all national- ities and backgrounds, and each brought their own favor to the mix. Many were new to resistance or had just gotten involved during the protests at the Democratic National Convention (DNC) this summer.7 The strong proletarian character of the crowd, and so many diverse people dressed in Black, gave an edge to the march—a sense that a new kind of resistance is taking root.

People who live every day under the gun of the police brought their courage, their desire to put an end to this oppression, and their con- tempt for the system. Hundreds of immigrant proletarians lined the street, as the contingent from Pico-Union, a large immigrant barrio po- liced by the Rampart division of the LAPD, marched with a huge banner—calling attention to the police brutality and corruption scandal that has rocked LA for months; “La Pico-Union Bajo la bota de Ram-

6 The Ramparts scandal of the late ’90s involved more than 70 police ofcers associated with the Rampart Division’s Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums anti-gang unit that operated in Pico-Union and other neighborhoods west of Downtown LA. Among the laundry list of crimes at the heart of the scandal, ofcers were implicated in bank robbery, beatings, murders, planting false evidence, and stealing and distributing narcotics, making it one of the largest and most notorious cases of police corruption and misconduct in US history. 7 The 2000 DNC drew tens of thousands of protesters, many of whom were attacked by police wielding pepper spray and fring rubber bullets and tear gas canisters after their gathering within a permitted protest zone was declared an unlawful assembly. The attack, which was broadly criticized, inspired many people to become more politically involved, especially in the struggle against police brutality.

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part, Vidas Robadas, Vidas Arruinadas, Jamás olvidaremos, Jamás per- donaremos” (Pico-Union Under Rampart, Stolen Lives, Ruined Lives, We will never forget, We will never forgive). The Watts Drum Corps and a young girls’ drill team set the beat, as the infectious chant from the Watts Committee Against Police Brutality echoed up and down the march: “Who Let the Pigs Out? Oink, Oink, Oink, Oink!”8

In Cleveland, Ohio that same year, protesters motivated by a rash of police killings—most notably that of 19-year-old Marsean Scott only days prior—and suspicious hangings in local jails gathered for the NDP at Luke Easter Park in the city’s predominantly Black, proletarian East Side, and then marched onto the front lawn of the Fourth District police station. Undeterred by the fact that the city had not granted them a permit to protest, Cleveland’s O22 organizers, including Art McCoy of Black on Black 2000, mobilized the local masses to stand together in defance of police terror. Amongst them were friends of Scott, who marched full of pain and indignation. Upon reaching the police station’s front lawn, community members and families shared their stories of brutality and harassment at the hands of law enforcement, condemning its ubiquitous nature as well as singling out Cleveland’s particularly brutal Fourth District police.

March routes and rally sites for the NDP in major cities were generally audacious and confrontational, with O22 often choosing to convene at police stations themselves. Quetzal describes the dif- fculty and signifcance of this approach, saying, “I always thought that was the big strength about O22 [and the NDP]: the fact that you would [protest] right in front of [police stations]. People [would go] with a lot of terror, …so [convincing families to speak at those sites] was a big deal.” This approach was also of strategic signifcance, designed to sharpen or, in Quetzal’s words, “step up” the struggle against police brutality while developing the commitment and fghting capacity of those involved in that struggle. 8 “October 22, 2000 5th National Day to Stop Police Brutality: In the Streets for Justice,” RW Online, last modifed November 6, 2000, https:// revcom.us/a/v22/1070-79/1077/ndpy2k.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).

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Many marches during the NDP also deviated from standards insofar as they selected routes that wove through and sometimes terminated in ghettos and housing projects, in essence bringing the protest to those for whom the issue of police violence is the most relevant. Not only did this provide organizers with opportunities to agitate and propagandize among an essential demographic—the proletariat—but it also allowed those who were not previously part of the protest the chance to speak and be heard on the subject of police brutality and harassment. Furthermore, situating the NDP’s march and rally sites in and around these proletarian centers provided O22 with the opportunity to familiarize protesters from other class backgrounds with the living conditions of precisely those communities most targeted by police brutality, repression, and criminalization. Juanita Young, a co-founder of Mothers Cry for Justice and perhaps the most fery, outspoken, and recognized O22 organizer nationwide, speaks to this choice of venue, saying, “We try to pick an area which will draw attention…. We try to pick areas where it has the most violence or where people are targeted.” Young was drawn into the struggle against police brutality following the murder of her son, Malcolm Ferguson, by a New York Police Department (NYPD) ofcer in March, 2000. Ferguson was shot in the head in an execu- tion-style murder at point-blank range less than a week after having been arrested while protesting the acquittal of the four NYPD ofcers involved in the Diallo shooting, suggesting that his death may have been a political assassination.

While O22’s focus was primarily on confronting the police brutality in overwhelmingly Black and proletarian communities, organizers of the NDP did not hesitate to condemn incidents of police violence and state repression that occurred outside of those param- eters. Such was the case in the years immediately following the Sep- tember 11, 2001 (9/11) attacks, which saw a rise in assaults and harassment against Muslim, Arab, and South Asian immigrants, among others. Cheng describes O22 not only addressing and condemning these issues during the NDP, but also helping to establish their own day of recognition, saying, “Because of the experience and the net-

50 kites #1 work that was built through O22, it was very easy to build for a Na- tional Day of Solidarity with Muslim, Arab, and South Asian Im- migrants in February, 2002.” Similarly, harassment of and violence against Latino immigrants at the US/Mexico border and throughout the US were addressed, condemned, and—importantly—linked sys- temically to an underlying politics of repression and criminalization at the NDP. Nwangaza speaks to this approach:

There were cases where border control would kill people with the same impunity on the border that [police] had in the cities and rural areas. We didn’t make a distinction between the divisions of the agencies of the state. You know, the cops is the cops is the cops; whether it’s the cop on the beat, the highway patrol, the sherif, or a border patrol or [US Immigration and Customs Enforcement agent]—all represent the exclusive claim of the state to coercion and violence, and the impunity and lack of regard with which they use it.

FamIlIes FIrsT: cenTral, Focal, VIsIble, and Vocal At the heart of the NDP and O22 generally were the families of those killed by law enforcement, whose input and interests factored prominently into the Coalition’s many endeavors. Rather than ap- point representatives to speak on their behalf, O22 insisted that the families themselves be the centerpiece of the NDP, providing them with a platform with which they could speak to the bitterness and resentment of loss while also demanding criminal charges against and convictions of killer cops and ofending ofcers. This insistence that families be central, focal, visible, and vocal helped to humanize those afected by police violence, provided them with a momentary sense of catharsis before an engaged and sympathetic crowd, and emboldened others to share their stories.

Families were also front and center during marches, forcing media to capture the real face of the struggle against police brutality and symbolizing that O22 is a coalition of and for the people. While

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this approach may initially seem unremarkable, it is in contrast with a great many scenarios in which a family’s grief and pursuit of justice is overshadowed or outright co-opted by political opportunists—often in the form of careerist, nonproft-organization activists today— rather than empowering victims to speak for themselves. One can imagine that this approach also appealed to people living in the many proletarian areas through which O22 marched, as those most visible and vocal looked and sounded like them and spoke to their day-to-day experiences with police.

In addition to establishing the NDP—a platform through which families could voice their pain and indignation while populariz- ing demands for criminal charges against and convictions of killer cops—O22 provided much-needed support to families in a number of other ways. Young refects on O22’s support, saying, “From day one to this day, they’ve been with me. O22 was the best thing that could’ve happened to a family, number one: because of the connections, and number two: because they stand for what they believe.” Among the connections were those to legal aid and media, while the most lasting and meaningful connections developed by O22 were often between families themselves. Families involved with O22 were encouraged to reach out to and provide those who had sufered a Families lead a march on the NDP in NYC, 2014.

52 kites #1 recent loss with emotional and logistical support as they navigated their lives in the wake of a loved one’s murder by police. Young continues:

When I met some of the people from O22, they were really, really concerned. They hated the fact that I was in so much pain, and they just stayed with me everywhere I went. Anything going on, we’d sit down and we’d talk about it and we’d plan it…. I thought that was so good— to have that kind of help and that kind of support—because, like I said, they have never left me. I’ve met with other families, …I bring them to [O22], and they do the same thing…. Here in New York, when I hear of a case [of police violence], nine times out of ten I get up, I get dressed, and I get a cab to go fnd the mother, or I’ll go to the area where the [violence] was to try to get in touch with [the victim’s] friends or somebody in person and meet the mothers that way.

Families were conceived of as crucial organizers and leaders in this capacity, traveling around the country with O22 organizers and developing ties with other families who had experienced loss at the hands of law enforcement. They would assist these other families, assuring each that they were not alone, and that they too had a role to play in O22’s fght to overcome the epidemic of police brutality to which their loved one had fallen victim.

Another family member with whom we spoke was Andree Smith, a retired journalist and newspaper editor whose experience in political activism developed over the course of her career, as she fought to establish the humanity of Black people within the US and shed light on issues uniquely afecting them. Even before connecting with O22 following the murder of her son, Justin Smith, by Tulsa, Oklahoma police in 1998, Smith exercised a similar community-ori- ented approach to covering police violence, opting to speak with community and family members of those brutalized or killed rather than blithely parroting police accounts of how events unfolded. She recounts O22’s family-to-family approach to outreach:

We [had] a conference call every week. Whenever we [heard] of someone who [was] murdered, [we’d] have someone reach out to [the vic-

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tim’s] family to let them know that they’re not alone. One of the things that happened to me [after the death of my son] in ’98 [was] that I felt so alone. There was no networking of families [prior to O22]. There was no community support. [So] we [would] try to support each other…. We went around the country supporting [families] when we heard about someone being killed. We went to Chicago[, Illinois], we went to Tamir Rice’s mother in Cleveland, we went to Cincinnati[, Ohio], to Louisville[, Kentucky], to Tennessee, to New Jersey…. We went to several cities…trying to mobilize families to get involved in the movement.

Nwangaza addresses this approach:

When murders occurred, we’d go to the families and ofer assistance and support…. We would go to them and say, “Here are other people around the country [who have had loved ones killed by police]. This is a problem that is going on. You shouldn’t feel alone. You shouldn’t feel ashamed. You should speak up and demand justice for your family member.”

O22 anticipated and recognized the importance of families reaching out to one another rather than relying solely on activists who had not experienced the devastating loss of a loved one to police violence frsthand. Families alone can fully empathize with that particular combination of anger, confusion, heartbreak, isolation, shame, and stigmatization. Cheng speaks to the importance of families networking from personal experience, saying, “What [Young] and I found in the early 2000s was that having another family member go with an organizer to try to make contact with another family is important,” as many families would be disconcerted or wary of the intentions and interests of organizers themselves. But, she continues:

Because [Young] was with me and she got to introduce herself and [mention] that her son died, we were welcomed into [their homes]…. That was our one important lesson: that we needed to have another family member…to make that connection, ‘cause otherwise they don’t know who the hell you are, or what you want, or what you want with them…. Most times, the connection is partly to get them to realize

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that [their loved one’s killing is] not an isolated incident, which they probably do [realize], but don’t think about it that way, ‘cause it is very isolating when it happens. Also, just connecting them to other families, other people they can talk to, but also just to make sure they know that there are gonna be cops, media, government ofcials coming at them, and just preparing them for what’s to come, and to know that we’re there to help support them…. There are a lot of things we can’t do, really, so most times, what we would ofer was, “If you want a vigil organized, we can help you organize that. We’ll help you get the word out; we’ll help you make up a fyer…. If you want to do a protest, we’ll organize that.” It’s mostly [that] if the family wanted to do something, then we [would] do what we [could] to make that happen.

Recognizing that ofering direct support to each and every family afected by police violence was logistically impossible given the epidemic nature of the issue and the relatively modest size of the Coalition, O22 initiated eforts intended for remote outreach and support. Among these was a national call for mothers who had loved ones killed by police to contact O22, share the details of their stories, and endorse the Call for the NDP. Young explains, “Some cases you never hear about, like those cases where they got families in these small towns. [That’s why] we put out our national call for mothers.” Smith describes another form of outreach that had the capacity to support families remotely:

We put together a Family First Aid Kit, …[because] when our sons were murdered, we didn’t know what to do. We had no idea where to go or who to talk to; we were on our own…. When that occurs, you’re con- fused. When you live in a society where those that are sworn to protect you destroy your family, destroy your loved ones, your whole world is shattered. We put together the First Aid Kit so that we could develop a support system and teach families how to develop their support systems, and how to raise their cases to supportive political, civil, and human rights groups.

O22 also made a point of helping families in the legal realm, from ofering emotional support in the courtroom to providing advice in their choices of legal counsel. As Smith outlines above, all families

55 from the masses, to the masses are in a state of complete devastation and dismay when a loved one is stolen from them, and lacking the appropriate legal experience or fuency, they are often led simply to pursue civil suits rather than criminal charges. Young explains:

I’d tell the families to be careful of the lawyers, because nine times out of ten, the lawyer’s not out for justice; he’s out for a civil thing, and an attorney won’t tell the family he’s a civil suit lawyer instead of a criminal lawyer…. So most of the time, [they’re] fred for misrepresentation. Even though [the families] want a civil suit, they want to know what’s happening in the criminal aspect [of the case].

Young credits O22 with helping to provide the appropriate legal support to many families, including her own, saying:

A lot of the families, if it wasn’t for O22, wouldn’t have got legal support, but that’s what O22 is good for: exposing [police violence] and supporting the families…. O22 was defnitely a big help [in my case], because they had lawyers and diferent people advise me.

Young has since applied what knowledge she gleaned from her experience with O22’s legal support to assist many other families throughout the country.

Returning to the Family First Aid Kit, Smith describes that among its contents were a number of legal suggestions for families, including:

How to pursue legal strategies, …to obtain their own pathologist, … how to document what’s happened to [their] loved ones (we [would] tell them which records they needed to collect), …how to begin their own investigations, how to present their cases to the media. These are things that weren’t available to us [prior to O22]. We wanted to make sure that other families could beneft from our experiences.

Though she joined O22 at a time when its organizational capacity was in decline, Cheng describes how, at the least, O22 would agitate and organize against police brutality and murder throughout the year by publicizing and otherwise supporting civil and criminal

56 kites #1 cases brought against ofending ofcers:

We would blast [information regarding the case] out there [and] let people know this is happening. We might try to organize a press conference before or after a vigil or protest or rally, and then we’d try to be in the courtroom to be supportive and help out.

In sum, the focus on and support of families was the backbone of O22 and factored into its every endeavor. But the Coalition was not a charity, and families were far from simply being recipients of attention and support; they were relied upon and challenged to be committed leaders and organizers—to take ownership of and responsibility over O22 by informing its content, stimulating its growth, and upholding its mission to stop police brutality, repression, and criminalization.

unITed FronT: WInnIng The supporT oF oThers In its efort to unite all who could be united to stand with families and other members of those communities most afected by police violence and state repression, O22 mobilized academics, activists, artists, community and religious leaders, lawyers, and others from many sections and strata of society. Cheng explains:

Part of O22’s mission is to gather together people under the gun and not under the gun, …and the idea is that there are those who are directly afected by police—by oppression—who need to have the strength to be able to stand up against it, but also need to know that other people have their backs.

Indeed, this approach to build a united front is clearly articu- lated in the Mission Statement of the NDP cited above, and in ac- cordance, while its organizing eforts were centered around the proletariat frst and foremost, O22 conducted outreach to and drew support from people representing a broad range of backgrounds and lifestyles in society.

57 from the masses, to the masses

Flanked by police, protesters carry placards remembering Stolen Lives through NYC on the NDP.:The white-haired woman appearing at the front of this rally, Monica Shay, was a lead O22 organizer who tragically passed away in a 2011 shooting unrelated to her political activities.

Each year, O22 would draft a Call for groups and individuals to endorse the NDP and take responsibility for building for it. The means by which endorsers helped mobilize others varied according to their particular positions and strengths, but their combined ef- forts help demonstrate the validity and strategic vision of a united front approach. Prominent activists were approached, such as political prisoner Mumia Abu-Jamal, who prerecorded audio of his encouragement from his prison cell to be shared with attendees of the NDP. Among the artists who endorsed the Call were Chuck D of Public Enemy, Lord Jamar of Brand Nubian, and Wyclef Jean, all of whom lent their celebrity to the cause by recording public service announcements urging others to partake in O22’s scheduled actions and events. Community and religious leaders provided logistical and spiritual support to aggrieved families, often opening their doors to O22, as was the case in 1999 when the Life Church of God in Christ in

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Riverside, California and the Washington Square Methodist Church in NYC hosted Stolen Lives induction ceremonies, during which the names of recent victims of police violence were added to an already staggering list of Stolen Lives nationwide.9 Lawyers—most notably those associated with the National Lawyers Guild—fought through on families’ cases, monitored the NDP for police misconduct, and provided legal aid to protesters in the event of their arrests. Organiz- ers also approached students and teachers at both the high school and university levels, challenging them to bring the struggle against police brutality onto their campuses and into their classrooms.

Quetzal describes her experience on the academic front while organizing youth in LA, saying, “They started inviting me to go speak in their classrooms, and I met teachers…. It became a thing.” While she was positively received by students in schools throughout LA, from South Central to Beverly Hills, Quetzal recalls O22’s message being most fervently welcomed by youth in proletarian school dis- tricts. “There were high schools where [students] had to sneak me in,” she says. “They broke rules, because their story was being told and they were actually being heard.” Quetzal goes on to speak to the enthusiasm she witnessed organizing more radically-minded youth in the predominantly white outlying areas of LA, such as Lancaster, California:

The fact that they were invited to come and be part of this, and [be] downtown, and fght against police brutality, and…be amongst other people…was really exciting for them. Actually, they made up a huge percentage of the young population that came out [for the frst NDP].

Quetzal’s experience with organizing for O22 reveals a more general standard applied throughout the Coalition: far from simply passing out fyers (or posting on social media today), organizers were asked to really engage with and speak to people, challenging them to commit to mobilize others for the NDP and to contribute in creative ways. Organizers tabled at the concerts of political artists like Ozom- 9 Margot Harry, “Remembering Stolen Lives,” RW Online, last modifed June 27, 1999, https://revcom.us/a/v21/1010-019/1012/slp.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).

59 from the masses, to the masses atli and Rage Against the Machine, challenging fans to engage with those artists’ messages by standing with the people against police violence. Shopkeepers and staf were regularly challenged to put people’s interests before profts by sacrifcing ad space to display fyers promoting the NDP on their storefront windows. Television spots featuring celebrities and families challenging millions of viewers to mobilize against police brutality aired on popular channels such as Black Entertainment Television (BET) and MTV thanks to contributions from organizations such as Physicians for Social Responsi- bility. “It began to take on broader, more visible proportions,” says Nwangaza, as organizers:

went after movie stars—not just for donating money, but for taking a public stand in support of the families—to really build the consciousness among visible people. In fact, when we did the Calls [to mobilize for the NDP] every year, they were the frst line of attack (for lack of a better term), because they were the people that we were trying to get to sign on as endorsers to the Call in order to give the Call visibility, give the Call credibility, and to attract other people to signing on to the Call. That was work that was done by O22 and that was spearheaded by the RCP—people who had contact with various folk in the entertainment industry, especially names that ordinary people would recognize.

As a result of these organizing and outreach eforts, the breadth and magnitude of groups and individuals to attend and/or endorse the NDP was staggering. At its height in 1998, Revolutionary Work- er reported that the NDP drew support from Carl Dix, National Spokesperson of the RCP, King Mission of the Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation, and Herman Ferguson, Chairperson of the New Afrikan Liberation Front among others in NYC; Stan Willis of the Conference of Black Lawyers, Reverend Costella Cannon of the Campaign to End the Death Penalty, and Wallace “Gator” Bradley of United in Peace among others in Chicago; James Laferty, Executive Director of the National Lawyers Guild, Reverend M. Andrew Rob- inson-Gaither of the Faith United Methodist Church, and Tomás Lopez of the Immigrant Rights Committee among others in LA; and Isabel Huie of Chinese for Afrmative Action, Richard Diaz of the

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Human Rights Defense Committee, and Julia Allen of the Prison Ac- tivist Resource Center among others in San Francisco, California.10 This strategy of struggling to develop a broad, united front led by those “under the gun” and supported by people from all walks of life lent itself to the character and creativity of the NDP, and enabled O22 to develop a network of thousands in the movement to stop police brutality.

The sTolen lIVes projecT: documenTIng The epIdemIc Among the practical accomplishments achieved by O22 in its heyday was the initiation of the SLP, a joint efort of the Anthony Baez Foundation, the National Lawyers Guild, and O22. According to Cheng:

The mission of the [SLP] is to assemble national documentation of people killed by US law enforcement agents from 1990 to the present. Due to the fact that there had not been any ofcial accounting of police killings made available to the public, those who were working with… [O22] decided in 1996 to conduct their own documentation….

The idea for the [SLP] originated from late People’s Poet Louis Reyes Rivera. In 1996, Rivera suggested to those who worked on what used to be called the Revolutionary Worker that since they claim repeatedly in their newspaper that police brutality is systemic, they should devote resources usually aforded to an issue of the paper to gather names of people killed by police and publish the list in order to show readers just how systemic it is. As mobilization for a national day of protest against police brutality was underway, the yet-to-be-named project began, and a booklet was distributed at the frst [NDP] as the “pilot of a project to collect the names.”11 10 “National Press Conferences Target Police Brutality,” RW Online, last modifed September 27, 1998, https://revcom.us/a/v20/970-79/975/22pres.htm (accessed May 1, 2019). 11 Kathie Cheng, “The Stolen Lives Project Online: A Digital Humanities Project,” (PhD diss., St. John’s University, 2018), 4.

61 from the masses, to the masses

Within the next year, this booklet was followed by a self-published book featuring the names of 500 people killed by police, and “in 1998, an updated version renamed Stolen Lives: Killed by Law En- forcement was released, covering 1,000 cases.”12 In 1999, a second edition of the book was published by Seven Stories Press, featuring the names and/or stories of more than 2,000 victims of police killings, further humanizing the deceased and ofering proof of the epidemic nature—the size and the scope—of police violence. Since the publication of the Second Edition, the SLP decided to periodically update a free PDF version of the book online.13

As Cheng asserts, in an age in which one can simply use a search browser to collect national data on police violence due to a number of media outlets and organizations compiling that data, it is easy to forget that “For more than a decade, the SLP was the only existing national documentation of police homicides in the United States, with local documentation by a variety of organizations and individuals contributing to the national data.”14 Quetzal describes the irony of having to turn to nongovernmental organizations for data on police violence:

You can go to [the federal government] and fnd out how many bikes are stolen in the US, and they can break it down by brand and color, but if you go to them and you ask them how many people have been killed by the police, …they can’t tell you. They don’t keep records of it, and they never have. Today, you fnd out all that because there are these outside sources that have done [the documentation], even people 12 Ibid., 5-6. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid., 10.

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Myers Aaron Winchester Marvin Donald Free Barron Wright Roger David Street Jerry Gray Richard Ramos Michael Johnson Fernando Casares Richard Hughes Roman Gallius Pierson Stephen Willis Roland Antonio Wells Andrew Robert Tolmie Alrahiem Tolbert Alexander Philip Long Alton Sterling Kevin McCarter MICHIGAN Lamar Dashea Moore Rocco Dandrea Cacedric White JaQuill Fields Steve Bell Gilbert Drogheo Walwyn Jackson Mujahid Muhammed Vladimir Santana Marilyn Zeh Omar Garcia Fernandez John Lindsey Myers LaKenya Latrice Winchester Bryan French SOUTH DAKOTA Jack Allen Stevens, Jr Kenneth Green Nugent Raspberry J.R. Kvernes Casimero Casillas Tyrone Hughes Woodrow Player III Charlie Wilson Antonio Lamont Williams José Torres Vincent Turner Mack Long Don White Aaron Nathaniel McCoy Luqman Ameen Abdullah Damita Morton David Daniels Erik Nylen Jermaine Williams Thomas Lars Domagala Brian Fillmore Joel Torres Jason Beller Allan Duarte William "Corey" Jackson Santos Mulero Alex Santos Alan Zelencic Ratmir Gasanov Joel Vance Nash Darryl C. Wiggins Steven Clark Foster RHODE ISLAND Lucas Ghost Bear Darrius Stewart Stephen Paul Greene Korey Lavale Rawls Isaac Lankisch Ernesto Castaneda Leopoldo Huizar Richard Poccia Kenny R. Wilson Ronald James Turner Antonio Tyler Joseph W. Love Victor White III Rajsaun McCray Bernard A. Adams Charles Muse III Robert D. Davis Jordan K. Willis Patrick Heki Michael Gabriele Roger S. Duchnik Prince James Tim Mulqueen Jose Santos Ahmed Zia Brian Gentry Tywain Neal Devaron Ricardo Wilburn Paul L. Froats Jason Arcaro Jamie Lee Braveheart Larry Stone James Guerra Randy Redd Hector Lara Jaime Castellanos Antoine D. Hunter Albert Polencia FLORIDA Frank Valdez Chuck Vicha Terrell Lucas Tyris Wilkerson Keith Harrison McLeod Lou Adkins Kenneth Muse Roger L. Davis Stacey Wright Mike Smith Lonnie James Robert Tuite, Jr Joseph Bernazard Shawn Dukes Mauricio Jaquez Jose Muniz Orlando Santos Ousmane Zongo Lee Aaron Gerston Leeanna Codespot Newman Daniel Michael Wilkerson Christopher J. Capps Allen Quintez Swader Robert Guerrero Lee Redoux Donald Lininger Juan Castellanos Wilford Hunton Brownie Polk John Winkler Arlene Adams John Robert Vogelle Michael McKinney Abdul Akbar Jacqueline Nichols Carolyn Lisa Dean Thomas Opalinski Southaly Ketmany William Gainous Zach Bingert Morris Duncan Charles Q. "Tuna" Jennings Vishwaja Muppa Victor Santos Stephen Ryan Gibson Timothy Wayne Newton Peter C. Gilbaugh Robert Bergeson Sarah Lee Circle Bear Kenneth Brian Releford

kites #1

from outside the country.

Nwangaza elaborates on the degree of efort required to develop the frst national database as well as the signifcance of this type of work:

We created the frst database in the day that you actually had to go to the library and dig up the microfche, and fortunately, the students at Sonoma State [University] began that process in conjunction with O22. Creating this database—the frst grassroots database, which is the model that all the other databases are based on—[was momen- tous]…. We established the epidemic of state violence with the United Nations—on fle at the Human Rights Council is a copy of the Stolen Lives: [Killed by Law Enforcement] (Second Edition), as well as the “Every 28 Hours” report [“Operation Ghetto Storm”] that was done by Arlene Eisen, which is based on the databases that grew out of the original O22/SLP databases.15

One of the aforementioned individuals who worked in conjunction with Sonoma State University was Karen Saari, who would become a lead researcher for the SLP. Saari details her journey in the Introduction to 1999’s Stolen Lives: Killed by Law Enforcement (Second Edition):

In the fall of 1996, a friend who was organizing for the frst [NDP] asked me to help out. In the course of attending meetings, I met some of the relatives of victims of police killings. When I heard their stories of how their loved ones were killed, I was horrifed. Like most people, I had believed the news accounts of these killings which usually describe the victims as criminals posing an immediate threat to the community. After meeting with many relatives and eyewitnesses over the course of the past three years, I now know that this widely promoted notion is

ALABAMA John Loxas Tamara Angela Hurtado Jamar Witherspoon Lance Adams Egberto Vasquez Ariston Waiters William McKnight MAINE Douglas Akins William Olbert Sara Deckert David Paquin MISSOURI Jacob J. Lair Christopher Galliano Ronald Van Thomas Nicholas Bisulca Gayle Duran Jonathan Jennings Jerome Murdough Daniel Satre NORTH CAROLINA Kenneth Glaze Channing Eugene Nicholson Fred Thor Goodmanson Douglas Cooper Raina DeMarrias Henry C. Taylor, Jr Steven Guillory Tony Reyes Brent Imes John Buckendorf Charles Medina Jeremy Acre Mario Albert Madrigal Daniel Ibarra Alfred Pouliot Edmund Wong Theopholus Adebisi Steve Vasquez Clarence Walker Richard Allen Moore Dorothy Applebee Steven J. McGilton Lou Ann Allaer Sara Pantke Benjamin DeCoteau Perry Parks Eric C. Auxier Marcus Lee Dominick Galliano Barbara Elke Getz Vanaman Earl Black Jason Echeverria Christopher T. Johnson James Murphy, Jr Reno Sayles G Gerald "Tiny" Abney Lethaniel Lee Glenn, Jr Carl Nivens Jai Lateef Solveig Williams Raymond Guerder Jamie Coyle Alberta Six Feathers Johnny Taylor Eric Joseph Guioco Catalina Rico Richard Jackson Benjamin Buell William Melanson, Jr Aaron Westby Kenneth Lamar Bedgood John Magoch Marcel Luis Ceja Eloy Infante-Toscano Mathew Powell Jody Woodfox Fermin Alameda Alfonso Watson Kenneth Walker Christopher A. Moreland Cameron Arrigoni Derek McIntosh Ronald Lee Allen, Jr Arthur Partee Dana Dempsey Mark Patch Ryan Michael Bain William Lomax Gail Galliano Mariano Vargas Nerrow Black Leigh Edelman Dante Johnson Michael G. Murphy Ernest Sayon Sylasone Ackhavong Sherman Angelo Glenn Bobby Troledge Norris Jashavius Everick Williams Roosevelt Wesley Harris III John Garreaux Ricky Terry James Riddle Travis Johnson very far from the truth. Marty Maiden II Hector Celaya Christopher Jackson Pralith Pralourng Mario Woods Donnie Alexander Chester Arthur Weldon William "Wade" Wallace William E. Morris Julie Mead Suhailia Alvarez Gordon Denmark Donald Pederson Cary Ball, Jr Andres Garcia Eddie Velazquez Hayden Blackman Mitchell Edey Erik Johnson Raymond Murray David R.A. Scaringe James Howard Allen Shawn Lee Gordon Teyreze Odoms La-Reko A. Williams Michael Shawn Harrison Raymond Gassman Michael Thomason Santos Rijos Corey Dee Kanosh Gary Dean Burow Niles Meservy Amanda Bivens Raymond P. Majors Julian "Boo Boo" Celaya Fletcher "Antoine" Jackson Karina Preza Kevin Wooten Peter Allende Michael Welsh Corey Ward Montrell Moss Sandra Chase Frederick R. Miller Keontae Zamarus Amerson Efrain Depaz Quincy Adam Pederson Kyle Melendez Kenwin Garcia Gilberto Blanco Calvin Edwards Wade Allen Samuel Grady Rigoberto Olvera Reginald Lee Witcher Christopher Ryan Healy Selvin M. Garrido Morales Lucas Grey Ghost Bear Greg Thompson, Jr Eric Eric Alex Macario Rivera Eagle Michael Russell Whitaker Daniel Blackmon Edward Mallet Francisco Manuel Cesena Ezequiel Jacobo Paul Quintanar Marcellus Wright Shirley June Ansley Derrick Wiltshire Milton Wilcox James Michael Mundy David Foster Davis, Jr Thomas Tavon Miller Timothy Richard Arnold Aaron Phillips Miquell Deppa Kenneth Peterson Michael Brown John Paiva Thomas Garcia Jan Vida Roberto Blanco Kedrian Edwards Jermaine Johnson Malik Mustafa Lawrence Edward Graham III Anthony Ray Osburn Darryl Woodall, Jr Ramona Pearl Heinze Timothy Gileau Phillip M. High Bear Aubrey Hardcastle Barnabas Roberson Christopher Knight Rick Camat Mary Millard Kareen White Melissa C. Boarts Jason Erin Marsh Zachary Champommier Aaron James Alex Roman Quintanilla Vue Xiong Zabian J. Anthony Carl Williams Brandon Williams Edward Mwaura Phyllis Ham Michael Ricardo Minor Kyle Baker Rick Ronald Pifer Zheng Diao Kyle Jason Peterson Anthony Bruno Eric Payton DeFarra "Dean" Gaymon Steven Vierra Jamal Blount Luther Edwards Ronald Johnson Kuthurima Mwaria Karen Schmeer Ronald Dewey Anderson Donald Clarke Grant Declan Owen Kadaufei Worley Larry Wayne Helberg Mark Kilcline Patrick Stephen Lundstrom Thongsavanh Vandarack Sandra Hardial Russell Robertson Sean Krummi Jose Carlos Capuzano Joy Saunders Miller James Whiteshield Earl Douglas Braddy Errol Chang Mario Jaramillo William Quiros, Jr Manuel Jamines Xum Angel Arsenio Arencibia Brian Wilson Frederick Jerome Williams Alexander Myers Richard Ham John R. Monroe Alphonzo Lamonte Porter, Jr Lorenzo Doby Robert Peterson Andrew P. Bush Laxma Reddy William Gibbons Anthony Boatwright Omar J. Edwards Wardell Johnson Kurt Myers David A. Schwalm Michael Harrison Andrews Jerry Lee Pace, Jr Michael Henry Allen Locke John Walker James Harper Rodrigo Robles Gregory Lamb Adam Caywood Kelly A. Miller Anthony Dewayne Briggs Joseph Mavis Jeremiah Chass Guy Jerome Jarreau, Jr Arthur Jarvis Raleigh Tou Yang Diego Argaez Shelton Wilson James Thomas Williams Howard Ng Katherine A. Hegarty Quinton Quinell Monroe Kimberly Bedford Demetrius Posey-Horsely Walter Dochniak Thomas D. Peterson Walter Bynum Jacqueline Reich Rashaan Gilbert Damon Washington Lelis Bonilla Orville Edwards Thomas Jones Alfred Nelson Thomas Scimone Roger Anthony Billy Ray Greene Arthur Page Salvador Hernandez Alister McGregor Joy Ann Sherman Reginald Dewayne Wallace Jason Harrison Ronald Robinson Steven Lane Stanley Chambers Kenneth Joseph Miller Desseria Whitmore Mitchell Keith Campbell Alvin McBride Mohammad Usman Chaudhry Cedric Oscar Ramirez Daniel Christopher Yealu John Armstrong Jason Yeagley Melvin Williams Brian Nichols John Knudsen Donovan M. Morant Rex Bell Adam J. Powell Devon Dockery Duane Cain Monica Ritchey Antoquan Watson Jonathan Efraim Felix Jorge, Jr Alan Newsome Joseph Seguin Eric Randall Armstrong James Edward Page NORTH DAKOTA Thomas Higginbotham Timothy Picard Albert James Six Feathers, Jr Stephen Lamont Weaver David Donnell Hartley Amin Rocha Ron Larsen Adelino Chavez Robert K. Mills James C. Whitney David Dementariu Canty Ryan McCabe Javier Chavez Dashonnon Jennings Cesar Ramirez David Zapata Antonio Young Willie James Williams Kent Norman Edel Cato Moreland Richard S. Powell, Jr Martha Donald Eric Podtburg Garland "Lil' Goo" Carter, Jr Steven Schaaf Jahqui Graham Timothy Wall Paul Bookson Lawrence Elie Peter Jourdan An Van Nguyen Stephen Seignious Ronald H. Armstrong Travis Nevelle Page Adam Alcozer Judith Irene Hinch Craig J. Raposa Daniel Tiger Travis Wegener Daniel Rocha Steven Leonard Maurice Clemmons Barry Millsap Kenneth Wickham King Casby R.T. McGinty Yi Tzu Chen Jorge Jimenez James Ramirez Juan Zaragoza Heinz Baer Edwin Wingo Richard W. North Daniel Pinney Antonio Moreno Rakeem O. Bentley Debra K. Doree Zachary Paul Rodney Premo Gerard Cartwright Edward Scheboth Diahlo Grant Guy Walsifer Monserrat Borrero James J. Ellis Jason Nichols Nyles Arrington James Paschal, Sr Timothy Ray Bowling William Hoge Josh Gilchrist Allan F. White III Corey Hayes Alfonso Rodriguez Nicholas Lister Ruth L. Cole Emily Milonas Wendy Chappell Darío Miranda Valenzuela John Edward Chesney Jose Jimenez Luis Ramirez Douglas Zerby Mark Stephen Bailey GEORGIA Edward James Wolfertz Barnie Wayne Nuckels Henry Seekamp Jessica Elaine Morgan Lee Floyd Berry Demetrice D. Presnall John Doyle Mark A. Prom Richard L. Conrad Khary Grimes Randy Weaver Tasheen Bourne Carlton Daquan English, Jr Lenas Kakkouras Deborah Nieves Jose Serrano James Paschal, Jr Tasha Brenno John Rhodes Huber Eddy Tiburcio Jacob Westberg Larry Grant Whitehead Travis Henderson David Pete Rodriguez Reginald Coleman Bodegard Mitchell Jacqueline "Crys" Williams Michael Cho Frank Johnson Manuel Ramirez Igor Ziazin Kenin Sherrod Bailey Leon Alfred Donald Wood Jess Nuckels Jerzy Sidor Ira Bevins, Jr Charles Prins Robert John Erle Gerald Propps JNA Crawford Mike James Smith-Lonnie Edwin C. Halko Anthony Weekes Rashad Bradford Roger Eppes Jason Kanally Drane Nikac Steven Service Lew Jessie Ayers Joseph Charboneau Donald Hupp Alfred Torres Diana Henry Hector Rodriguez William Maw Adam Colliers Michael Ray Mitchell Jason Williams Gilbert Thomas Collar Joseph Moreno Samuel Johnson Mario Ramiro Alvin Barroso Jimmy Allen Timothy Woods Michael Nunn Michael Theriault Thomas Lee Birdwell Seth Privacky Edmond D. Fair Philip Quinn William Dupree Andy Puente Soto Timothy J. Harden Stephen Weekes Miguel Espinal Jeane Kane Jamel Nixon Yousef Shaker Guy Christopher Ayscue Robert C. Guy David Doda Keith Randall James James Wilcox TENNESSEE Stanley "Laransie" Whitman Paulina Henry Joseph Mario Rodriguez Anthony Mayhew Deborah A. Cooper Samath Mom Eddie Collins Mark Nelson Andre Maurice Jones Gordon Rauch COLORADO Robert Barry Shelley Amos Edward Wright Carlos Olguin Joshua Williams Emanuel Nelson Anthony Salvatore Quasarano Denise Fairchild Ricky Redin Kevin L. Ellis Ali Muslim Harris Phillip White Dalton Branch Emilio Eucdea Tolsie Nohar Larry Shin Nijza Lamar Hagans Irene Pearson Jesse Paul Ellingson Kendra Sarie James Cornel Young, Jr Mohammod Youssuf Abdulazeez Koltlee Whitson Phillip Henry Oliver Rodriguez, Jr Jesse McFarlin Ethan Corporon Dwight B. Monnie John T. Williams Isaiah Core III Jerry Cochran Derrick Jones DeOnte Rawlings William Abeyta Gracia Beaugris Surafel Assaminew Linda Yancey Gary Page Kyree Nelson Travis Lee Quay Brian Feist Quincy Reindl Joshua D. Ford Keith Tucker Clarence Harris Gary Williams Lemiel Brand Menellio Eucdea Benjamin Núñez Keith Shumway Rex Jordan Bair Russell Hahnel Joseph Cameron Pence James Freestone Michael Gregory Johnson John D. Acree Randall Kyle Wilcox Stephen Henry David Renauld Rogers Nicholas McGehee James Monroe James J. Willis Clever Craig Timothy Sean O'Brien Avery Cody, Jr Eric Jones Andres Raya Ernest S. Ackler Gibson Belizaire MARYLAND Kotrell Omar Newsome James T. Bush Eric Ramsey Lloyd David Feerhusen Joe Reuter Jose H. Garcia Keion Williams Daniel Brennan Dane Kemp Julio Núñez Michael Sica David Keith Baker Derek Shannon Haithcock Dennis Penny Darris Eugene Johnson SOUTH CAROLINA Brian Acton Vanessa Henry Edward Seth Rogers, Jr Jesus Merino Daniel Covarrubias Mauro Montez Elvis Wayne Wilson Danny Morel Cupps, Jr Rayshaun Cole Lamontez Jones Andrew Gene Alvarez Frank Birch Jonathan Ayers HAWAII Eric William Allen Poore Erwin J. Acree, Jr. John Mell Camacho Deviere Ernel Ransom Dominic Felder Wayne Reyes Shawn H. Garner NEW HAMPSHIRE Joseph Harvey, Jr Malik Williams Lyn Briggs Miquel Espinal Darrius H. Kennedy Michael Tebbs Nunn Dainell Simmons Wade Allen Baker Angie Hall Saul Perez James Leppell Tyler Keinonen Cody Adams John Adams Ronald Lowell Wright Zilla Henry Daniel Ross, Jr Sean Morrison Steven Covyeow Phillip Montgomery Kevin Dale Woo Bobby Dancy Eduardo José Posada Elaine Coleman David Jordan Randy Reeves Richard Bisaccio Gene Mason Bagley Mark Ahnee George Porter James Edward Adell Cheryl Lynn Noel Bradley Carey Shane Ervin Fischer Mark Richards Robert Green Donald Bedard Sixto Hernandez Peter Lee Williams Osbourne Broadie Robert Everson Manuel Ocampo Satnam Singh Edmond Banks Montez Dewayne Hambric Michael Neal Peters Keith Newton Deontae Keller Larry Adams Michael Sean Adams Hubert "John-John" Yancey Augustus Garcia Hernandez Gregory Ruiz Todd Murray David E. Crable Joshua Moran Kenneth Woodham Fred Davis Jason Edward Prostrollo Darrick Collins Richard Keith Kelley Pedro Renteria Jackie Archuleta Fealex Black Barbara Baker Fortunato "Junior" Barquez III Edmund Powell Rosalie Ann Alico James L. Norris Kristopher Cheyne Hollis Ramon Rawls Melvin Fletcher Timothy Ridge Damon Cortez Hall Larry A. Bohannon Kevin Higgenbotham Tina Williams Gwendulina Brodie Steve Excell Mario Ocasio Richard Singleton Gilbert Alexander Barber James Hamrick Kyle Quackenbush Lynn M. Kibbee Dexter Addison Alexio Allen Carlos Mendoza Hernandez Stephanie P. Ryne Allen Keith Nelson Holly Crahay Carolyn Moran-Hernandez Bobby Woods Deborah Jo Day Antonio Renteria Ted Collins Paul Ray Kemp, Jr Francisco Reyes Alonzo Ashley Samuel Baker Jared Fe Benito Celia Ramirez Caesar Nathaniel Allen Emmanuel Okutuga Charles Ledell Clay William Craig Reddie Terrance Franklin Phillip Ray Robinson Jared Harris James D. Breton Jennie Hightower Wali G. Williams Chad Brothers Thaddeus Faison Anthony King Brian P. O'Connor Ronald Singleton Ray Barber Maurice Antonio Harden Clarence Douglas Phillips Michael Sherman William Paul Kincaid Andrew Aldrich Kelly Allen TEXAS Daniel Hernandez James Raymond Sada Mick Morgan James Bradley Wren Wesley Chad Deerman Rosalia Reyes Peter Contreras Gary Kendrick Jamie Reyes Benny Atencio Allan Blanchard Willie Banks Stephen Dinnan Shawn Michael Ruble Anthony Anderson Reynard Osman Derrinesha Clay Julius Michael Reece Leslie Fredrickson Thomas Robinson Antonio Johnson Joseph Collopy Robert Hodell Douglas J. Wnek Darrel Brown Marie Fares Kevin King Tricia Odierna Teri Sisson Eric Jerome Barnes Daniel Kevin Harris Lacy Pickens III Gladys Tolley Nicholas Kirschder Bernard Bailey Marvin Amerson Pierre Tourell Abernathy Esequiel Hernandez, Jr Rebecca Saipaia William Oakden Timothy E. Cullison Thomas Morgan David Charles Young Eric Edgell Zachary Cooke Joseph Frank Kennedy Luciano Reyes Richard Baralla Jeronimo Bonilla Jabe LaCorte Breon Lamar Rutledge Thappanika Ang Hernan Milton Ossorio McKenzie Cochran Kurt Eugene Remmers Ronald Frink Brandon Lee Rodriguez Willie Johnson Robert Cushing Daniel Wolfe Denzel Brown Etzel Faulkner Christopher Kissane John O'Meara Paul Skinner Robert Lamont Barnes Gregory Daquan Harris William Dean Poole Durwin Whitelightning Christopher Lee Koziatek Carl Ballard Steven Askew Jesse Aguirre Joel Hernandez Gerald John Salazar Dalton Culp Jayson Morris David Zaback Earnest Lee Fells Dennis Riley John Cooper Allen Kephart Noe Escobar Reyes Jeremiah Barnum Lionel Bost Marshall M.K. Langford Christopher James Ryckeart Carlos Rudolfo Espinoza Arcia Kevin Page Harold Joseph Collins Antonio Glenn Richardson James C. Fye Johnnie B. Rogers Carol A. Kerns Alex Cora DeJesus Todd Wolford Deric J. Brown Charlene Fears Nicholas Koscielniak Briana Ojeda Delrawn "Fu" Small Vinson Harris Antonio Latuanee Pryce James Frederick Wolf Mark Andrew Lawson Anthony Bernard Bass Markell Atkins Abdel Alakhras Marcus Hibbler William Saldana Bounmy Ousa Eugene Culp Murray J. Morrison Joshua Tate Fielding Steven Duane Rodgers Christopher Coronel Gwendolyn Killings Earl Rhodes Michael Bowers Donovan Brooks Jairo Bastos Rodney "Banks" Laulusa Monwell T. Scaife Charles Antoine Clarence Cooper Rolland Rohm Victor Terrance Gaddy Ivan Romero Olivares Jason Larrimore Julio Angel DeJesus Richard L. Holtz David Yearby Makever KebaBrown Jose Feliciano David Kostovski Dwight Oliver Leroy Smalls Cornelius Pierre Harrison Heather Benton Przasnyski Gary Yarbrough Richard Dennis Lee Michael Joseph Baker Roger Albrecht Brendan John Hightower Jesus Eduardo Salinas Rocco Palmisano III Samuel Stephon Curry Paul Kevin Moss Gilbert Fleury Michael Angel Ruiz Joe Casto Corrales Douglas Kim Trevion Richard Charles A. Bowyer Howard Bryan Stanley Bates Benedict "Tiki" Manupule Andrew Sizemore Bradley James Bailey Joseph C. Palczynski Grover "Tom" Crosslin Aura Rosser Randy Gallmeyer Roza Sakina Hagen Esty-Lennon Ferrell Lee Hoover Oscar Young Duane Browne David Felix Gary Kressman Frank Olsen Lashonda Ruth Belk Larry Darnell Harrison, Jr James Ransom Michael Patrick Malloy Kip Darrell Black Robert Kenneth Bales Jose Guadalupe Sanchez Shawn Payne Blaine Dalrymple Fred Muir WEST VIRGINIA Tavaris Gulley José Benito Sáenz Fernando Cortez Susie Young Kim Sammie Richardson Paul Castaway Joseph Bryant Dartanya Bentley, Jr John Miranda Duane Slentz Michael Anthony Bailey James Henry Peoples Asia Roundtree Joseph A. Garcia Calvin Sam Richard A. Lay Dennis Howard Jose Carlo Zalaya Patrick Bryan Marilyn Feng Shiquan Malik Krouser Antonio Orengo Ronnie Smalls Reagan Hartley OHIO Janet Marilyn Candace L. Blakley Michael Joseph Bartkiewicz Clinton R. Allen Peter Hipsman Ralph Sanchez Wade Russell Pennington Frank Darnell Monty Multanen Luke Baber Continuing to attend meetings, I would hear about police killings Stanley Lamar Grant Ernie Salas Garland King John Rico Jamie Ceballos Andrew Buday Joe Webster Pavao Don Oneal Smith, Jr Blanche H. Baker Francisco Antonio Perez Robert Anthony Day Bernard Rowley Donald Paul Gartner Alfred Charles "Abuka" Sanders Kaleb Lewis Jeremiah Gillen Michael Howard Anthony Bryant Malcolm Ferguson Sam Kruze Douglas Orfaly Dalton Smith John Regan Tanisha Anderson Lewis Stanley McClendon Brandon David Bearden Joel Allen Floyd Houtman Santos G. Sanchez Daniel Pogue James Dean Dator Sue Multanen Frank Alton Biddinger Nathan Grissom Alfred San Antonio Maurice Leroy Cox Gary King Fermin Rincon Jonathan Clark Mariam Burgdorf Cheryl Blount-Burton Antonio Revera George Thomas Smith Leondionas Dias Perez David Allen Dowd Jeremy Rucinski Marcus Golden Daniel Schlienz Vonderrit Myers, Jr Rodney Gladle Adrian Howell NEW MEXICO Eleanor Bumpurs Alex Fernandez Joseph Orlando Dominique Smith Ronald Mark Berry Darrell Haymon Samuel Reyes Uscanga Darnell Baker Kevin McCoy Michael Ross Bowers Travis O'Neill Allen Cedric Lee Howard Nathaniel Sanders Luis Carlos Quintana DeOntrel Marcelle Davis Miles Allen Murphy Rosalai Cal Gregory Gunn Milton Salazar David Cross Kenneth King Carlos Rivera Christopher Dubois Charles Bonner Victor Rivera Donte Sowell Donovan Bayton Jaie M. Perrizo William Ruehle Timothy Golden Adam Schneider Antonio Nash David Gonyer James Burch Eddie Fernandez Felix Kumi Julio Alberto "Zapatone" Ortega- Johnathan Smith Charles Biello Batrone Jermal Hedgepeth Nicola Richardson Jay R. McDonnell Anthony Bess Richard Jason Anderson Jacques Howard Jonathan Santellana Josue Ramirez-Perez Donald Davis Ross Nager Douglas Harris William Sershon Cesar Cruz Garmik Kirakosian Edwin Rivera James Ace Fleck James Byrd Carl Torrance Brennan Mason Saio Paul J. Spencer Edward L. Becker, Jr. Gary Petrie Cory James Ryan Katherine Marie Gordon Barbara Schneider Shawn Nims Jose Luis Ives, Jr Orlando Barranca Malcolm Burno Lydia Ferraro Hakeem Kuta Moncada Leon Smith La'Vante Trevon Biggs Jerry Hendricks Kiana Nicole Blakey Anthony McDowell Jordan Franklin Browder Chanel Andrade Tomell Hurd Katrina Sarkissian Cody Ramseyer Nolan L. Davis Dale Neel David Lane Cook William Thomas Hennessey Harold Shover, Jr Pedro Santa Cruz James Earl Rivera, Jr Steven Gant Jerry Campbell Kelvin Brooks Jesse Sperry Seth Jacob Beckman Kelvin D. Poke Cynthia Elizarraras Bernard Salazar Walter Gordon Anthony Jarvis Robert Jacovelli Gary D. Bodiford Gidone "Gary" Busch Andre Fields Joseph Ladd Donald Owens Webster Sobers Gregory Keith Hensley Bradley Thomas Rives Adolph Boyd, Jr William Kyle Monroe Donnie Browning Meloney S. Bowers Jennifer Andrade John Husband III Efran Agapito Sauceda Ricky Raso Steven Davis Terry D. Nelson John Edward Dempsey Richard Snow Jonathan Cuevas Chyraphon Komvongsa Lejon Robins Christopher George Henry William Canady Derrick Fernando Brown Benjamin Sotelho Joseph Stockdale Rudolph Bell James Quarles III Amir Saleh Thai Pham Jason Lagueux Zion James Christopher Chase Katrell Butler Joseph Fields Edgar Owens Steven Soma Ronnie Boles Joseph Lynn Henson Sakhar Williye Robinson Kendrick Brown Gale Moody Demetrius Shelley Bryant Ronald Branch Katherine Andrade Joseph Hutchinson Jacob Schlentz Patrick Rees Lonnie Davis, Jr, Jason Dillon Keoshia L. Hill Gabriel Cuevas-Muldenado Rene LaCentra Lydia Rodriguez Simon Gonzales Hung Xuan Cao John Franklin Brown Miguel A. Vierra Michael Taylor John Richard Ferguson Ahmed Gulad Robert Rebstock Harrison Lambert Rodney Jencsik John Chavez Richard Butler Alex Figueroa Richard LaPort Naim Owens Jaime Bonilla Jose Ernesto Hernandez-Navarrete Walter E. Brown Archie Michael Murray Phillip Michael Burgess Johnathan Bratcher Alfredo Hector Aragon Omar Ibanez-Torres Judy Schneider Cody Rodriguez Anthony Tyrone "Smurf" Davis, Jr Kevin Newland Joshua Emerson William Michael Hollis Brandt Steven Richard Dale Peter Rodriguez Guy Guthrie William Carboni Jasmen Bruce Tiara Thomas Jonathan Blankenship Angela Beatrice Randolph William Leon Ferguson Hope Sevidal-Elferdink Steve Gunderson George D. Reynolds Wendy Lawrence Naquean Johnson Rogelio Cisneros-Chavez Hector Cabot Michael J. Fisher Richard Larrier Dwayne M. Oxley Luis Soto Terry Adam Boone Tevin Robinson Harvey Burton John Millman Napier David Burrell Daniel Brock Orlando Aranda Dennis Dwain Jackson Mayanah Schneider Jose Rodriquez-Castro William Dawejko Rot Nguyen John Evans Dennis Hudson Sergio Cruz Tapia James Davis Kamal Lal Roberto Rodriguez Lonnie Causseaux D'Wayne Burke IDAHO John Unsworth Mark Anthony Blocker Larry Reed Vickey Finklea Errol Shaw, Sr Brian Anthony Handt Xavius Scullark-Johnson Ellen "Honey" Ross Eddie Jones III Arnold Dan, Jr Carmelo Calabro Ashley Fitzgerald Blondel Lassegue Ryo Oyamada Timothy Sousie Eugene Allen Boseman Tony Rochelle Derrick Calhoun John Steven Nardi Bryan N. Byrd James Harold Brooks Brian Daniel Arledge Donnie Dewayne Jackson Steve Schneider Christopher James Roskelley Larry Dawson Robert David OConnell Phillip Gilman Lorenzo Ingram, Sr Nicholas Tewa Richard Dawson Khalid Lanier Steve Rodriguez Michael Habay Gary Chassagne Desiree Bymon Ramon Asguinolaza Brent Walls Frank Julius Bochnowicz Michael Donald Reed Dante Foster Terrence Shurn Ronald Hannuksela Lugine Short Spencer Moon Rashid Jihad Jones Corell Dobey William S. Calhoun Leeanne Fitzgerald Carl Lastorino -Longo Mark A. Spano Tracy Daquan Bost Michael Lashon Honey Tarik Kondwani Rodgers Spencer Calhoun Richard L. Nardi Jerome Thomas Caldwell Derek Brown Eugene Leroy Arnold, Jr Michael Jacobs, Jr Michael Schroeder Armando Sanchez Amy Sue Deines Michael David Oakes Shane Gumm Bill Jackson Tobias J. Torres Ja Ma Lo Day Robert LaRue Jose Rodriguez, Jr Gary Haney Mark Samuel Chong Juwam Williams Bymon Gary Carmona Boitano Fednel Rhinvil Pamala Lavern Frowner Jesse Smith Timothy Hanson Demitreus Sesler Timothy Sleet Cullen Mutrie Abdul Kamal Miguel Dominguez-Flores Kevin John Callahan Shane Fitzgerald Diógenes Paolino Ronald Spear Bobby Rex Horne Ronald Roland David Cardenas Tasha Marie Nathan Norman Campbell Gary Thomas Brown Dominigo Artea Roger Tyrone James Daniel Roger Schuck Michael J. Okarma Jimmy L. Hamlin Jr. Johnie Warren Kamahi Jonathan Tricarico James Delarosa Jennifer LeBlanc Victoria Roger-Vasselin Dereke Herrera Steven B. Collins Edward Cabreja Craig Brodrick Eric Wells Philip Charles Boling Lucio Rodas James Garcia Rudolph "Toby" Smith Chaz Michael Havenor Darren Shaw Reginald Sublet, Jr Shelly Dianne Naroian Lavon King Jackie Gonzales Jack Calvello Donald Fleming Rafael Laureano Clayborne Parks Michael Eugene Spohn Dion Julius Brown Floyd Houser Anthony Carmichael Daniel Jordan Ogburn Bobby Canipe Todd Browning Christopher Ashford Steven Sickler Kenneth R. Dennis Venita Keen Loreal Tsingine Anita Delgado Albert Mike Leday, Jr Hannah Rogers-Grippi Margaret Hill William "Billy" Collins Santos Cabrera Doug Brodrick Treva M. Williams Andre Boone James Robert Rogers, Jr Wayne Garrison Tana Snell Jerome Harrell William Shotley Ravone Thompson Alberto Andres "Beava" Pagan Deron Andre' Jerome Kitrell Larry Harper Juan Calves Deion Fludd Jacques Lavache Spencer Parris Alberta Spruill Patrick Howell Alecyn E. Ross Michael Demonn Carpenter Richard Lewis Catoe, Jr Ricky Lynn Bunch, Jr Jordan Baker Sherri Jewell Mauro Bartolo Segovia Kristopher Chase Simmons Mayceo Devangari Douglas M. Ostling Robert Henderson Darren Kindgren Julio Valerio Kwang Lee Anastasio Hernandez Rojas Margaret Hull Samuel Cooper, Jr Antoine Cantrell Elizabeth Withers Lonnie Dale Bosley Deni W. Rosales Mark R. Gary Damian Solomon Marcus Hartman Raymond L. Siegler Paul Tinsley Kip Pepin Michael Laniado Leroy Henderson Charles Campbell Shirley Fontanez Jasmine Lawrence Rasheem Parrish Abdelle Jean St. Ange Henry Brown Daryl Howerton Gary Rummer Granville Caudell, Jr Brian Penton Benston Calvin Clinkscales Jordan Camp Wendell Baker, Jr Camilla Johnson Kelly Fay Simons Timothy Hill occurring weekly and decided to keep track of these deaths. I began Pierre Gabriel Koellner Jourdan Akili Wagner Sheila Detoy Michael Lee Sergio Rojas Richard KevinKarlo Juan Carlos Cortes Tony Carr Randall Vernon Ellenwood Marian Woempner Devonte Bowman Adam Benjamin Rothstein Darryl Paul Gates Steven Spears Roderick Harvey Abdullah K. Simmons Michael Trambell III Nuwnah Laroche Allen Chris Hensley Oliver Campbell Dwayne David Forde Leonard Lawton William Partlow Timothy Stansbury James Lewis Brown Jesus Huerta Alan Joseph Rushton Paul Cavins James Jahar Perez Brenda Faye Cooper Paul Edward Capps Williams Banks Deon Johnson Kevin Sinning William J. Dick III Anthony Ourada Dale Maverick Hudson Cimarron Lamar Lamb Shaun Nathaniel Walters Aaron Lee DeVenere Mario Romero Lance Kreps Mary Stackton Creamer Randall W. 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Seksinsky Warren Lee David Holly Jessica Canty Shereese Francis Michael Leach, Jr Joseph Stevens Joseph Brown Richard Glenn Sachariat, Jr Lorenzo Collins Mejia Poot Isaac Cullum Shari Bethel Cartmell Brounxsye Barber Steve Vernon Johnson Derrick Allan Smith Dorothy Stevens Randal Dobbins Lawrence J. Owens Brandon Johnson Michael Jermaine Lollis Renee Witham Antonio Diaz Samual Liaw Glenn Rose James Larue William Dawson James Clark Mario Louis Jaramillo Alexander Zagovalov Syiid Brinkley Robert Ethan Saylor Steven Travis Goble Gabriel Vernon Stevenson Anthony Hegstrom Lloyd Smalley Larry Turks Ben Shannon Armando Lopez Renee Lee Holms Carmine Capone Steven Fraser Jose Luis Lebron Anthony Paul II Bryan Stewart Kenny Brown Penny Sue Huskey John Crawford III Jason Porter Denzell "Jaba" Curnell Michael Lewis Chesney Jack Barnes Tony Wayne Johnson Dominique Smith Samuel Page Brian Johnson Mister Bobby Lowe Spring Wright Manuel Angel Diaz Eric Lewis Liebowitz Hernan Rubalcaba Michael Oliver Lewis Christopher DeBerry Montellis Clark Eric B. Johnston Christopher Brown Michael J. Schluderberg Larry Darnell Gordon Edward Swans Tyler Heilman David Cornelius Smith Randolph Vance Andrew J. Toto Juan Lopez Clint John Maxine Carodoza José Fuentes Mark L. 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Wilkins Samuel Lorde Leo Kampa Ricardo Carlon Marvin Fulford Peter Lee Dilcia Pena Robert Striker Lester Randolph Brown Christopher Ingle Darnell Davis Jason Summerford Purvis Deante Darden Darren Cole Griselda Herrera Barrera Bill Larry Jones Reginald Wayne Smith Dillon Taylor Antonio Silo Dunsmore Richard Pastore-Felix Craig Keith Cameron Massey Tony Dominquez Fernando Geovanni Llanez Alfredo Diaz Tracy Bernard Clyde Yanik Nicholas Audain James Brown Charles Noble Sines Lamar Wayne Grable Marc Henderson Timothy Wilson Sasha A. Yuksel Derreck Mack Hector Leija Anibal Carrasquillo Shante Gadson Gregory Legrier Patrick E. Penders Marvin Sullivan William "Bud" Gordon Brown, Jr Alijah Jackson Angel Luis Santana Kimoni Davis Terrence Turner Rea Derrick Darden Montrail Collins Osbaldo Xavier Barrera Chica Jones Tommie Smith Michael John Taylor Dwight Dwigans Gary Pate Stephen Lawrence Knight, Jr David McBrayer ARKANSAS Hector Lleras Gustavus Rugley Jose Manuel Diaz Ferlando Colbert Brian Lee Beeler Tyrone Brown Brendan J. Singleton Chaz Gracey Donovan Thomas Rbu T. Henry-Bey Quincy DeShawn Smith Kevin Worley Jelani Manigault Randy Stewart Libby Willie Carter Brenda Gaines Lori Leitner Maximo "Flaco" Pequero Michael Sweeten David Alan Buchanan Jazzman Vontrazc Jacobs Anthony Charles Reece Reginald Darnell Dogan Kevin Courtner David M. Jones Salvador Solis Than Minh Tran Michael Randall Ealy Connie Pearsall Richard Dale Kohler Ray Anson Mitchell Angelo Clark Reginald Doucert, Jr Darrell Logan John A. Edwards Henry Lee "Lemon" Cole Lome Edward Stevenson William Ranaldo Brown, Jr. Charles Odell Smith Jacob Grassley James Anthony Thomas Jonathan Hess Brody Sotona NEW JERSEY Emil Mann Carlos Lucero Paul M. Caruso Nathaniel Gains Michael Lembhard Frederico Pereira Melvin Sylvester Brian Burch Clayton Early James Walter Dobzansky Russell E. Rice Derryl Drayton Randy Crisp Andrew John Beard Derrick Jones Darnell Solomon Blaine Tripp Stephen L. Edwards John Pebles Calvin Moore Michael Goodman Oran Eugene Douglas III Manuel Loggins Joshua Russell Ismael Mena George Ellefsen Joseph Crist Sammy Weaver Markell Lamarr Bivins Kevin T. Brunson Michael Terry Smith Malice Green James Thompson Larry Hill Gregory Stampley MONTANA Carolyn "Sissy" Adams Gordon Marks Samuel Jason Marquez Francisco Carvajal Carlos García George A. Lenczewski Adam Perez Eric Szczerbiak James Eugene Burgess Samuel John Jarolim Ervin Fanning Robert Harvey Rinehart Harvey Lee Duke, Jr Keara Crowder Floracita Sonobe Christopher Joseph JoeyTucker Robert Edward Endrizzi John Raymond Pestana Randy Matheny Michael Moore Billy Charles Hyde Ernest Duenez, Jr Trenton Lohman Maria Ruvalcaba Kyle Miller Fernando Esteban Samuel Thomas Cunningham Vicki Weaver Ryan Keith Bolinger Tonya Michelle Buggs Tevon Smith John Thompson Romell Hill Jenni Stebleton Tahir Adams Desean Cathcart José "Kiko" Garcia Kevin Leo Donald Taylor Melissa Anne Jenkins Dallas Shatley Joseph Finley Donald Alton Rozelle Keith Jamarcus Durham Susan Benta Marquise Edward Jones Jesse Turnbow Alvin Euell Troy D. McQueen Earl Glenn Morrow Monroe Isadore Raymond Eacret Roberto Lombana Kim Saelio Jorge H. Febles, Jr Gerald Wayne Daniels David Zepeda Marilyn Denise Boyd Parrish Michael Spinoso Deven Guilford Terry Nick Tillinger Richard Hiltner Jacob T. Stellmach Gregory Baumann Alissa Allen Jay McAllister Kevin Cedeno Juan Carlos Garcia Stephanie Lindboe Frank Pérez Karl Taylor Danny Johnson Cedric R. Sheppard Hassan Haamid Mari Lyn Sandoz Frederick Cory Ellis Tracy Lynn Daniel Domingo Berlanga Megan Jones Mario Soto Michael Valent Eric Blaine Evans Steven V. Petersen Charles A. Miller Daniel Murphy Marvin Glenn Johnson DeJuan Eaton Jessie Long Ventura Saenz Manuel Moreno Delgado Craig Ferguson Alex Davis Nicholas Ryan Brickman Shawn Corey Cannady Norman Stamp Lamont Gulley Samuel Torres Wilfred Hines Cody Swanson Pierce Norman Beach Kevin Allen Christopher McKissick Kevin Cerbelli Roberto Garcia Louis Liranso George Perez Oleg Tcherniak David Johnson Ian Sherrod Danny Harmon Dale James Saunders Vamond Arqui Elmore Juan Lorenzo Daniels Abel Bernal Perry Jones David Spence Andrew Vialpando Duong Pham Lisa Renee Miller Donald Nabors Obataiye Edwards Andy Lopez Sergio Salazar Robert Daniel Murphy Corey "C-Low" Footman Alfaigo Terrell Davis ILLINOIS James Allen Cave Gregory Stegall Dalon Gunn Carl Tatum Andrew Blake Gregory Alli Abelino Montoya Kenneth Chamberlain Sonia Garcia Kyam Livingston Rene Javier Perez Travis Tellone Patrick Tracy Burris Javan Hezekiah Johnson Elizabeth Ann Shipman Steven Harms Aimo Kallio Savuno Brad Evans Anthony Davenport Steve Bernard Serenity Jones Devon Christopher Spencer David Walker Bradden W. Ferber William Pio, Jr Harvey E. Oates my own newspaper research and compiled the results. When I could, Randy Joe Nelson Jerry Kane Kathleen Eklund Angel Lopez Charles Salinas Adrian Perales Brenda Forester Erik Von Davis Bruce Coenen Angel Chiwengo Clarence Edward Stewart Jacob M. Haglund Freddie Vela Bill Hogetvedt Akeron Thomas Michael Brandon Amanda Anderson Vincent McConnell Grant Montoya Manuel Chamelta Eric Garner Rashaun Lloyd Moshe Pergament Dario Tena Todd Brent Burroughs Shannon Johnson Michael Blake Sipes Dwayne Harris Terry Schmidt Mark Monroe Evans David Bertrand Albert Juarez Tadarel St. Julien Wade Ward David Taiese Fesili Randy J. Piotrowski Reginald Owens Joe Kane Jazmyne Eng Antonio Lopez Luis Salinas Gustavaus Jody Francis Ponda Davis Qing Chang Tyler Comstock Monpreet Chona Milton Hall Robert Villareal Renardo A. Holmes Amanda Thomas Daniel Brawley Michael Anglin Jr. Arthur McDougald Richard Lee Nicholds Jennifer Chauvin David Garvin Carleton Lockhart Timur Person John Terzani Talana Salissa Cain William Mark Jones Takim Skipper James Harris Eric Allen Shannon Lucas M. Felkel Lorenzo Davis Derrick Birdow Waseem Jung Cedric Stephens Kelly Wark Ronald Ficker Viniamin Polevoy Steven Lewis Pfalzgraf Marcus Lovell Alejandro Erazo Ismael Lopez Noel Salinas Lewis Pollard Angilo Freeland Trevion Davis Desirae A. Daniel Sidney Clanton Richard C. Stern Linda Ann Haney Carlos Walker Sam Holmes Andre Thomas Roger Allen Chandler Juan Arroyo Rickey L. McFadden Kevin Dale Odom Gregory Chavis Joseph Gasparro Michael Londonio Calvin Peters Antwon Thomas Kay Frances Campbell Damon Kearns Brandon Devone Smith Marvin Hendrix Anthony Shaw Kenneth Brian Fennell Terrence Dawson Gerald Black Derek Jason Kaeseman Teddy Stranghoener Damon Weems Gary Kevin Fitzpatrick John Porter Thomas J. Picard Demarco Rhymes Rick Escobedo Mariano Fernandez Lopez Byron San Jose Spencer Posey Arlix Fuentes David Anthony Dawkins Rodney Craig Richard Dankert Brandon Clark Anthony Stoakley Brian Hangsleben James R. Waller William Holt James Parker Coogler Kashad Ashford Kevin Michael McGlyn Christoval Quintana Tyre Chisholm Denise Gay Carlos Lopez Dason Peters Terrence Thomas Luke Cardenas Angealize Kendall Clarence Smith, Jr Mike Hill Douglas Fischer Cinque D'Jahspora Douglas Blackson Mark Karnuth Reginald Lee Sumbler Gary Wheeler Patrick Charles Folk Raymond O. Porter Michael Lamar Robinson Bobby Moore Jose Escubido Johnny Lozoya Abraham Sanchez Roman Rael Osiris E. Galan Clarence Dorris Louis Decquir Julian Dekeuninck Donald E. Coates Erik Demond Stokes Chad L. Harris David Antjuan Ware Melvin E. Horton Michael Regnar Tray Judd Edward Daniels Keith Atkinson, Jr Manual Ramirez Thomas Cipolla Gregory Gehan Georgy Louisgene Dylan Samuel Peters Patricia Thompson Ronnie Dubose Carr Terrance Kennedy Courtland Benjamin Smith Billy Wayne Simms Joseph Glenn Folsom, Jr Steven Dodd Daryll Eugene Blair Colleen Kelly Aisha Gyrfas Summers Cody Allen White Andrew M. Fox Carnell Porter, Jr Calvin Lee Robinson, Jr Timmy Dewayne Myrick Richard Fredrick Ris-Mil Estrada Albert Sanchez Mark Andrew Reed Eduardo Estuardo Garcia Wesley Ann Doyle Jose Diaz John Bior Deng Sydney Jorgens Anthony Harrison Marcel Washington Frankie Howard Michael Max Truchinski Raymond "Thane" Davis Freddy Baez Darnell McNeil Alfred Redwine D'andre Darnell Cisco Herve Gilles Theauther Love Zale Thompson Hubert "Doug" Carrillo Earlie Lee Kepley, Jr Esteban J. Smith Stephen Horton Benjamin Allen Skinner Charles Dove Winston Blake Diann Kemp Gregory Summers George White Gregory Garner Jason Poss David Romanoski Caleb Ryan Donald O'Fallon O'Shaine Evans William Lusk Arthur Sanchez Frank Dean Rodríguez Billy George Herman Eugene Dyer Flint Farmer Michael Ervan Disbrowe James Edward Coleman Desmond Taylor Janice Harrison Jordan West-Morson Kerry Howk Lloyd Hodgson Tschohl Stanley L. Downen Lewis Baker Eric McNeil Amy Reyna James Clark David Glowczenski Willie Lucas Patrick Heslin Phelan Kevin Thorpe Adam Wade Carter Michael Anthony Kerr Kevin Donald Smith Malcolm Hoyle Bradley Alan Smith Chazsten Noah Freeman Hernandez Dowdy Sandra Bland Startle Summers Danielle Willard Edward Lee Post Michael Kelly Silver Randy Joe Sanders, Jr Chris Sample Alfred Farrar Richard Lyniard Carlos Antonio Sanchez Gregory Eugene Rodríguez James Eppinger Bogdan Fryzlewicz Robert Michael Dooley Jacai Colson Donald Lee Thompson (or Williams) Troy Hart Wayne L. Wheeler Todd Hubbell Kenneth Umpierre Daniel Paul Easterly Richard Bard Ismael Miranda John J. Rogers Michael Wayne Clark Anton Goldenburg Richard Luke William Phifer George Tillman Amber Nashay Carter Timothy Shyler Kincaid Rodney Rodriguez Smith Shirley Jackson Rachel Soto Julius Cecil Freeman Mary Jean Borst Sophia King Hollywood Sylvia Brian Wood Prince Jamel Gavin Amanda Smailes Ananias Shaw Othel June Striplin Durrell Feaster Andrew MacEarchern Luis Sanchez Ryan Ronqullio Kiandre Graner Kevin Fee Pedro Gonzalez Charles Dudley, Jr Kevin L. Cooper Tony L. Thompson Kevin William Hassell Rahaab White Maria Inamagua Patrick Uzalac James Daniel Erickson Issac Mims Myles RoughSurface Ronald Clemons Jonathan Lynch Dagoberto Pichardo Jayson Tirado Tameika Carter Adrian Eugene King Marcus Snead Richard Jacobs Gerald Arthur Stowell, Jr Robert Morgan Garrison, Jr Sandy Joe Duke Edward Bradford Bobbie Lane Koresh Lorraine Sylvia Ty Worthington Robert Good Norman Pribnow Charles E. Smith Nicolas Andrew Smith Brandon Rennie Turner Carlos Casillas Fernandez Brian Macias Miguel Sanchez, Jr Kevin Ryberg Michael Andrew Gregg Bruce Fender Myron Goodall Samuel Cosby Marquies Dajour Timberlake Gary Hatcher Eric Williams Anthony Ingli Edward Van Kleek Nicholas Tyson Frazier Etoine Baucum Rasheed Fuquan Moore Bernard Saiz John Clune Paul Goldreyer Tian Ma Charmene Pickering James C. Tomlin Jimmy Dean Cash Carl Devince King Aron Jones Patricia Sweeney Brian H. Gavin, Sr Aaron Dumas Fred Bradford Cyrus Koresh Rachel Sylvia Edward Gover Dennis Lee Snyder II William Russell Smith Carleton J. Wallace Mariano Lopez Fernandez Pete Carlos Madrid Rodney Sandberg Lawrence Sanchez Richard Guarine Anthony Fortson Phil Hayes Leighton C. Fitz Ronald Melvin Cox William E. Tinkler Johnny Lee Henderson Janet Wilson Kieber Jacome Ntxuam Vang Earl Bayard Alfred Moton Benjamin Salgado Larry Cobb Sima Gonik Christopher Malone Fred Pilataxi James Torres Adrian Castaneda Robert Wickson King John Bonnell Snyder Correy Major James Raymond Talley Patrick Graham Richard LaMark Dunn Margarito Brito David Koresh Loc Quang Ta VERMONT William Gravel Vu Hong Quach Jackie Spalding, Jr Fletcher Ray Stewart Deon Williams Pedro Fernandez Carl Maggiorini, Jr Michael Lewis Sanders Yvon Guerrier Samuel Frazier Mark Haynie Chester Joseph Crestwell, Jr. James Dejay Toliver Johnnie Hickman Derek Womack Abu Kassim Jeilani Shoua Vang Douglas Francis Harper Andrew Murnieks Marshall Smith, Jr Nathaniel Cobbs Richard Gonzalez Delano Maloney Raul Pinet, Jr Donna Towe Brent Taylor Catoe Lisa Knelson Drew Marian Spencer Audrey Marshall Gene Amos Tawney Aaron Gray Javario Shante Eagle Rachel Koresh Elisei Borlovan Glenn Graves Bryce Rae Shon Aaron Spencer John Williams Josh Ferreira Michael Maguire Julio Sandoval Louis James Skelly Anthony Harrell Darryl Fuller Brandon J. Haywood Kimberly Frazier Cochise Ornandez Daughtry Ricardo Mason Nathan Thomas Rodney Hamilton, Jr Robert Edwin Eaves Kevin Brown Star Koresh Robert Taylor Randy Green Patrick Raimond Curley Edward Spry Bennie Lee Tignor Dennis Richard Fiel Eric Mahoney Ronnie Paul Sandoval, Jr Jack "J. Marie Tuck" Snynder Vincent Harris Justus Howell Jonathan Tyler Gossman Rebecca Miller Victor Torres-Elizondo Zachary Hammond Anthony Michael Edwards Phillip Brown Nolton Joseph LaFleur III Lawrence Taylor George Demarais Steve Grieves Kevin Rangitsch Mark Toney I contacted family members for their version of events. I have yet to Christopher Jerome Thomas CALIFORNIA Joaquin Figuerora Eric Mandell Bradford Sarten Damien Steil Roy Maurice Heaton Jeremiah Humphrey Rashad Greer Bruce Robert Day, Jr. Steve Moore Richard Townsend Sidney Hardy Eddie Ray Epperson Terrance Alvin Brown Dontell Terrell Jeremy Groom Ted Rathbun Lawrence Edward Vaughan Christopher Ray Tompkins Derrick Abernathy Rod Fiorini Joshua Maravilla Guillermo Saucedo Christopher Trewet Mario Hernandez Walter Gay, Jr Niko Husband Shawn Dewayne Dean Josh Nicholas Gary R. Tull Delois Epps Daniel Brumly Richard Latour Michelle Jones Thibodeau Sam Laframboise Brian Grooms Robert Raucci William Keith Waldron Johnie Kamahi Warren Joel Mathew Acevedo Woody Fix Mitchell Marien Greg Saulsbury Gerald Houser Pierre George Pierre M. Jackson Larry Hawkins Michael Pipkins John Harris III Codi Bullard Darrell Lauderdale Charla Thomas James Lamont Terry Grubham Charles Rawson Charles Warren Wickline A'Donte Washington Alexander Acosta Jack Schlesinger Bobby Ray Valdez Brian Keith Giddens Joey Kopleck Ryan Charles Deitrich Margo S. Prade John Van Allen II Patrick Eugene Harris David Fish Joseph Cain Reginald LaVergne Daniel Christopher Thomas Thomas Guinn Douglas Reagan Cedric Williams Shane Watkins Alberto Acosta, Jr Ismael Flores Edward Valdez III Jairo Gomez Gus Kukulas Jeremiah Eldon Johnson George Waldum Clyde Harvey Leon R. Fisher Herbert Caldwell Gabriel Demoise Ledet Kenneth Wayne Thomas Jonathan Martel Robert Wayne Guy, Jr Horace Register Michael Bosworth Yurish Carlos Williams Deshawn Adams Jaime Flores Sergio Sedillo Jacob Vanderbeek Joseph Ingrassi Ronald Gordon Hector Leyva Randall D. Kimsey Albert Duane Denton James Rhodes Ronn Merel Ward Chinue Tao Hashim Lonnie Flemming Joe Lee Calloway Ciara Lee Laketha Thomas Macadam Mason Rosa Hammer Christopher Rentz Walter Williams, Jr Anthony Aguilar Jose Flores David Sequioa Theodore Dennis Vanosdall Torrey Davon Jacobs Jerry Love Eric Harold Lockwood Kendra Diggs Tamir Rice Eddie Hollins Danny Floyd Jose Manuel Camacho Dale Lemoine Robert Tolan Richard O'Bert Sandra Harms Elsie Delos Reyes Robert Young Armando Aguilar Jesus Flores-Cruz Oscar Sermeno Gregory Max Jemison Ronald Hale Luther Mitchell, Jr Steven Tyrone Mallory DeOntre Lamontz Dorsey Zobeyda Rivera Sineth Yin James Madison Foster, Jr Francisco Javier Campero Robert Lerma David Medina Torres Robert Glenn Harrison Dennis Rice WISCONSIN Noel Enrique Aguilar Detrick Ford Juan Serna Eric Younger Michael Hammond Mary Jeanne Onderdonk Brian Keith Doukas Timothy Russell Marvin Young Larry Steve Howard II Vanessa Kathryn Free Esteban Carlon Leonard Lewis Doroteo Torres Gerald J. Peterson, Jr Mylo Harvey Kurt Ridener Laura Sue Ackland ALASKA Phillip Daniel Aguilar Ezell Earl Ford Brandon Mason Yanira Serrano-Garcia Leonard Zuchel Lawrence "Bo Pete" Johnson Maurice Hampton Miguel Palomo Jonathan McCourt Queonna Zophia Edmonds Jermaine Sanders Roland Vincent Carnaby Javier Torres Robert Reid Damian Henderson Guadalupe Rios Brian J. Ackley John Aguilera Leonel Mateos Mariano Vargas Servin Gordon Randall Jones Tessa Teesee Hardeman Amit A. Patel Rodney Deron Edwards Steven Singler PENNSYLVANIA Amos Frerichs Deshaude Carr Rose Marie Treadway Theresa Henderson Aaron Roberts Jason Karlo Anderson Sam Alexi, Jr Jihad Alim Akbar Eric Daniel Foster Richard Sharp CONNECTICUT Amanda Junco Larry Gene Harrell Darius Penix Taleb Hussein Yousef Salameh Lindsay Cyndle Eldessoky Calico Rice Smalls Conrad Africa Nelson Gray Hyman III Norman Fuller Byron Carter Juan Longoria Aladino Trejo Jason Schumann Vendell Henderson Phillip Lee Roberts Luke Daniel Anderson Joseph Amaktoolik Salvador Zepeda Alarcon Dnary Fowler Cedric May David Sal Silva Antonio Antolini Jeremiah Kelly Robert Edward Hart Angel Perez Michael Smith Delicia Africa James W. Jennings Michael Shannon Gaby John Frank Carter Noah Lopez James Turner Kenneth Stephens Joseph M. Henninger Robert Ian Robison John Bartholomew Herman Bean, Jr Frank Filomeno Alejo Victoria Fox Kendraey McCall Joshua Adam Sisson Bradley Bell Nathan Andrew Kerr Larry Hartstein Alicia Pierce Tyrone Seals David Brian Evans Michael Thomas Smolira Frank James Africa Blakely Jernigan Roy Glenn, Jr Juan Antonio Lopez-Loera Lisa Marie Hensley Jouan Manuel Rodriguez Brent E. Brozek Michael Bonty Julian Alexander Eddie Franco Tommy McClain Donny Gene Simmons, Jr Gregory Bendas Steven Earl Kerr George Harvey Eric Shaw Dennis Tate Katricia Africa Adam Jurgen George Golden Levon Leroy Love Margarida Vaega Randy Wiggin Ron Hicks Shawn M. Roe Rene Campos Carl Richard Bowie III Jerriel Da'Shawn Allen Mallard Frazier Kevin McCoshum John Sloan Miriam Carey Lewis Shanks King Marquez Hayes Julie A. Riggs Henry Charles Simmons Sylvester Tate Merle Africa Jeremy Lorenza Kelly Randall Gordon Henry Castoreno Gilbert Leeadam Luis Neal Vaega Wendell Wilcox Herbert Hightower David Terry Roehr Charles G. Carll Randall Clevenger Eddie R. Alvarado John Fulchiero Shawn McCoy Ernesto Donald Smith Cynthia Cheatham-Hearst Kathy Kirby Arthur Hayse Dan Schroeder Paul Simmons Kevin P. Ferguson Larry Thomas Phil Africa Kimber Key James Greenwell Desmond Luster Christopher Valle Gerald "Dusty" Woodburn Ben Hillare Herbert Roland Kimberly Carr Lois Cleveland Valeria Alvarado Derrick Gaines Kendrec McDade Paul Smith Victoria Cooper Efren Hernandez-Ayala Edward Siepak Martavis Simpson Patrick John Fischer II Andre Tony Raymond Africa Kenneth Killingsworth David Greenwood John Henry Cervantes Tobias Mackey Phillip Vallejo Robert Woodward King Ramses Hoover William Rosemond Donnell L. Carter Terrence L. Cloyd Edgar Alvarez Ashley McDonald Timothy Gene Smith Bryant Davenport Charles Knight Demetrius Tremayne Hillery Vivian Siepak Autumn Mae Steele Edward V. Uhnak Rhonda Africa Roger Allen Kirby Joshua William Grubb Bradley Cherry Jimmy Madeley Paul Javier Vara Shawn Howell Ariel Rosenfeld Mario Cenin Conn Wayne Duncan Emmanuel Alvarez Daniel Garcia Moses McDowell Naser Solis Jesus Espinosa Pal Krasniqi Carulus Hines Billy Kash Smith Ryan James Swearingen Daniel T. Williams Theresa Africa Anthony Lee Lamboy Miranda Michelle Guy Michael Clark Kevin Magirl Andres Vargas VIRGINIA Joseph Bernard Hradec Jose Cesar Contreras Joseph Gannon Isaias Alvarez Erik Garcia Brent McKinney Frank Soliz Yusef Kareem Gause Hydra Lacy, Jr Darryl Hobbs Donnell Strickland Melissa Sue Toillion Joseph Alfonso Forrest Malissa Williams Thomaso Africa Melvin Lawhorn Timothy Hardwick Brian Claunch Jose Mares Sheila Vawter Kevin Arnold Brian Edmond Hull William Wayne Rowton David L. Cross Daniel Glover Emiliano Amaya Ezequiel Garcia David McMahon Sinn Sor Malik Jones Timothy Hood Damien J. Fox Robert Williams Paul Leatherwood Rodney Eugene Harris Brian Cloud Livingston Malcolm Herbert Vences Anthony Michael Bland John M. Hull Ryan Allen Rozsonits Nickolos Cyrus Sheila Amaya Israel Garcia Terrance Mearis Kevin Lawler John Wayne Howell Taitoun Williams Steven Jon Vogel Russell Nelson Freeman, Jr. Ronnie Williams Michael Barnes Laura Lemieux Torris Harris Pablo Cohen Stephen Malone Omar Ventura James Bryant Michael Darwin Hull Paul Rushing Antonio Davis, Jr 15 “Operation Ghetto Storm” available at http://www.operationghettostorm.org/. Kenneth John Richard Carlos Anguiano Julio Garcia Javier Mendez Saul Soriano Mack Lucky Dennis Michael Leach Nathaniel Hutchinson Terry L. Williams Kyle Wasson Darren Friedman Napoleon H. Woods III William Baylor Richard Lance London Michael R. Haynes Devon Contreras Esau Marin Edgar Vera Patricia Cook Elmer L. Ingram Shaun Rutledge Reinhold Deering Jay Allen Johnson Susanne Antuna Marcos Garcia Daniel Mendoza Jaden Edward Soto Noel Mendoza Eric William Irby Henry Wolk Adam John Williams Korryn Gaines Gregory Stephen Bayne Senovio "Novi" Maldonado Samuel A. Held Charley Edward Cook Joel Marquez Tony Vernon Brian Cox Isaac Nicholas Ryan Manfred M. Eisenheim Frederick Jones Carlos Arevalo Mark Garcia Frank Al Mendoza Idriss Stelley Ernesto Morales Alicia Lewis Herman Jackson Randall David Wright Andrew Jay Worsfold Sean Gamble OKLAHOMA Neil Begin Ingrid Mayer John Eric Henderson Julian Dawkins Lynne Dale Iszley Francisco Ramos Salcedo David Fowler Larry Kobuk Abdul Arian Nahun Garcia Joshua Stephenson Joseph W. Parsons TyRon Lewis Jerry Jackson Ali Eisa Abdalla Yahia Joey Benton Robert Timothy McAlister, Jr Gregory Herrell Norman Lee Cooper Jose Vieira Marlon Jermaine Dixon Antonio Jackson Jackie Salyers Keith Gabriel Patricia Kruger Manuel Armenta Omar Garcia Douglas Merjil Kami Stevens Franklyn Reid Avonchalene Keisha Liptrot John Albert Jackson INDIANA Michael Lee Zubrod Becky Garnet Phillip Wayne Bailey Craig Berner Deborah A. McCollum Alonzo Heyward Johnny Cornell Marnell Robertson Villarreal David Gandy Devon Jackson Eric G. Sampson Andy Gill Theodule LeJeune, Jr John Christopher Armes Victor Garcia Peter Mestler Peter Stewart Eric "Winky" Richardson Reginald Lively JonRynn Avery Ralph Edward Boaz, Sr Gary Beto Sharon Rebecca McDowell Paul Dickson Voncolditz John Geer Michael T. Jacob Ricky Owens Sampson Eddie Gill Joseph Arres Marvin Gardner Mark Miles Paul Lawson Storey Aquan Salmon Clement Lloyd Adam Jenkins Joe Banks KANSAS Peter Jerome Gebbia Michael Bonner Maneia Bey Clint Evans McKinney Holli Jean Hough Kennith "Kenny" Harris Michael Jenkins Jon Sanders James Ray Guerrero Joseph Murphy Gerardo Arvallo Jose Millan Dontaze Storey, Jr Erico Christopher Logan Robert Edward Jenkins Marcus Bell Ernest Blackwell Samuel E. George Harrod Boyd, Jr Stoney Bey Dennis Richard Mickel Kristopher Howard Gril Couch Bobby Walker Robert Harris Jesse Jerome Ralf C. Sanjurjo Calvin D. Harrington, Jr Vincent Nageak III Anthony Ashford Robert Garth Philip Miller Floyd Neamiah Strong John Spignesi Mark Anthony Longo Kathryn Johnston Jadzia Bobek Daniel E. DeLong Cornell Gilbert Gerald Coleman Raynard Bloxson Antonio Mijangos-Canela Randy Howard Gary Lee Crenshaw Jerry Wallar Joshua Hathaway Brian J. Jim Brian Edward Scaman Darold Vanden Huevel Andres Avila Ralph Peter Gawor Maurice Milligan Asa Sullivan John Valluzzo Fernando Louis Isaac Jolley Rekia Boyd Milton Foster, Jr Elijah Glay Kenneth Dewayne Cooper Angelo Boria Travis Jerome Miller Steven Lee Henry Cruz Glenn Ward Courtney Andrew Hollomon Jose Ramirez Jimenez Miles Schulmeister Thomas Jackson Jon Ployhar Daniel Robert Avila Anita Gay Lovelle Mixon Daniel Sylvester Seth Victor Carl James Lowery Christopher Kenney LaJuanzo Brooks Travis Maupin Antoine Duane Goodrum Steven Michael Brill Timothy Milliken Troy Dale Brandon Washington Joshua Johnson Pedro Jo James Dean Schultz James L. Knee Casey Gordon Porter Marco Ernesto Avila Derrick Gaynes Brian Tacadena Ronald Wagner Michael Manigoult Roman Khaimov Mamie Burrell Mark Orland McKee Dajuan Graham Robert Brooks Alexis George Mishtowt Carolyn Daniels Ray Washington Nicholas Allen Kaelber Donald R. Johnson Anthony P. Scontrino Jeremiah Krubert Vincent Purdue Julio Ayala Ryan George Francisco Mondragon-Saucedo Carnell Lanair Williams Edwin Mason Christopher Knight Ocie Butler John M. Pannell Kendall Grant James Dylan Gonzales Thomasina Brown Ajani Mitchell Pamela Hutcherson Jermaine Darden Paul Watson Samuel Johnson Brian Lamb James Robert Richards Ricardo Badillo Andrea Nahorro Gionet Elias Monge Antonio Tafolla Kevin Koester, Sr Jimmell Cannon Icarus Randolph Freddie Gray KILLED BY U.S. LAW ENFORCEMENT Fernando Gonzales-Ceniceros John Carter Wayne Joshua Mitchell Elijah Jackson Johnnie Davidson Shawn Watson Linwood R. Lambert Jr. Chauncey Lee Jones David L. Seago Darrius Jamal Lowery- Harry Smith DELAWARE Teresa Mae McAbee Kevonte Jernigan Abedowalo Davies Ashley Shaddox Ronald Ball Glennel Givens Jose Monteon, Jr Edenar Talens Gregg Sevier Jarrel Gray Mah-Hi-Vist "Red Bird" Brian Anthony Costley Michael Moore Robert Weaver Daniel Lewis Jones Joshua Smith Casper Banjo Christopher Glass Bryan Moore Jovon Talley-Ford Clayton Lewis Anthony Arroyo Nicholas Simonitch Christopher Devon Hale Goodblanket Donta Dawson Darrell Morgan Michael David Jones Bertrand Syjuan Davis Eddie Welch Evan Newsom Gregory R. Jones Tyler M. Shaw Deborah J. Meyer Adrian Spindler Evaristo Barajas Kenneth Gomez Cheri Lyn Moore Jonathan Taylor Gary L. Bliss Joseph Kevin McGrotha William G. Lloyd Jim Kenneth Bailey Ryan L. Stokes Charles S. Hall William Henry Torbit, Jr. Mikey Hill Steven Russell Jennings Yee Vang Bryan Reyes Havard Jacqueline Becker Gerald "Skip" Tyrone Murphy Andy Snider John Cochran Adam James Goodman Maghfoor Mansoor Cuong Tran Michael Clark Lorenzo Knights-McWhite Joe Spruill, Jr Darryl Dean Codyus Naville Morris Theodore Jones IV Tracy L. Dear Jaydean Wendell Jack L. Palmer Marylou Jones Kyle Sheets Demetrik Moore Shane Tasi Monty Wayne Barker Marco Gomez Jesse Moore Sylvester Taylor Shawn McMillan Marty Logan Shawn Walter Bair Danny L. Walsh Mya (Ricky Shawatza) Hall Daniel Alain Vail Roy Hoskins DeAngelo Woods Patrick Glenn Jeske Darwin Vivar Thomas Hilger Craig Berner John Murray John Sollars Christopher Colberg Victor Gordon Thomas Pizzuto Travis Trim Tsombe Jashon Clark Shannon Knox Moises DeJesus Julian Deleon Carlos Mata Mark H. Wendell Karen Louise Powell Richard Jones Anthony James Shuster Wade Michael Page Debra L. Torrey Leroy Barnes, Jr Jaime Gonzales Andrew Moppin Victor Francisco Tejeda Charles A. Campbell Gilberto Mejía-Leyua Cesar Wilfredo Lopez Kevin Welsh Anthony Hammond Dwayne K. Waiters Sadiq Bishara-Abaker Idris Billie Joel Woolford Robert Jerome Jeske Amit Bornstein Chakhan Nance Daniel Tillison Elena Cole Marcellus Graham Melinda Podesta Maria Tripp Ronald Eugene Cobbs Wanda Finch Knox Bryan Augustus "Fluke" Stallings Dennis Hammond Anthony DiDonato Kong Nay Byron "Big B" Kelley Eli Montesinos Delgado Mike Matson Samuel West David Jerome Pryor Crystal Judson Benites Saimon Sichiro Corwin Lee Vent Edgar Gonzalez Feras Morad Shonchy Thaopraseuth Cory Croom Augusto Melendez Clarence Lyons Darryl Harcum William Roy Walls, Sr. Edward Swan Worthy Dale Johns Ramsey Edward Jay IV Dominic M. Neal Alejandro Torres John Collado Mary Celine Graham Colleen Marza Noel Polanco Chester Coburn Andrew Mark Krolikowski Walter Garland Steele III Michael Sharp Johnson Charles Dixon Donte Adaryll Noble Louis Kimbro Juan Deltoro Rodney Paul Wickware Bruce Vincent Quagliato Joel Silvesan Shawn Rieves Tristan Vent Gabriel Lopez Gonzalez Fred Moraga Alesia Thomas Erle Dobson Leonardo Mercado Jaime Benavidez Veronica Harding-Perkins Jonathan M. Washington Caso Jackson DeShawn Wright Donald P. Johnson Dean Randolph Jess Gary Boyd, Sr Ronald Neal Russell Dean Wells Jose Colon Ramarley Graham Kenneth Mingo Mason Dante Pomar Howard Tucker Tobias Lampkin Erica Stevenson Anthony Darnell King Dwayne Dixon Rebecca Lynn Oliver Michael Kyle Cesar Delvalle-Gonzalez Juan May Robert "Jack" Williams Allen Kinder Sambo Sim Tony Robinson Victor Becerril Ignacio Rangel Gonzalez Alberto Cornelio Morales Kelly Thomas Maurice Faulkner Josue Mesidor Mario Beristain KENTUCKY Hans Harrer Joshua T. Waterman Makiah Jackson Keith Allen Johnson Thomas Vosburgh Michael Kamp Keith Briscoe James Eric Nelson Vincent Wood Julio Colon Gregory Grant Rodney Mason Gary Porter Michael Deangelo Laney Mitchell Allen Street James Travis Laucks Michael Ellerbe Michael D. Oswald Roger Dean Lansdown Christopher James Donnan John-Mark McBean Marion Wilson, Jr Jonathan Robertso Sourisack Simmavong Ricky A. Taylor Cassel Williams Marjorie Annmarie Bell Julien Gonzalez Oscar Morales Robert Thomas Angel A. Feliciano Michael Miguel John A. Massey Melvin Bledsoe III Benjamin Henry Burba Eric Harris Warren S. Watkins Michelangelo Jackson MINNESOTA Jason Jones Wang Moua Vue Mark Keckhafer Corey Brown Michael Newkirk Reynaldo Colon Kimani Gray Deonarimec Matan Lawrence Ports Garland Tyree James Mark Coggins Kashawn Leonard Lori An Strickland Hopper David Adam Patrick Maher Mark Ellis Shamir Terrel Palmer Travis Lay Shari Doyle Jacquinn McClinton Ethan Wulfmeyer Gregory Rosson, Jr Richard Wayne Sims Clarence Michael Thurman III Evan E. Williams, Jr Herbert Benitez Xavier Gonzalez-Torres Christopher Moreno Jeremy Lee Foos Marcillus Miller III James L. Borden Fidencio Campos-Cruz Warren Harris Alan James Gary Abeln Kenneth Kahle Joshua Walker Mark Andrew Keeley Lonnie Newton NEW YORK Ricardo Colon Darryl Green Jose Mateo, Jr Renardo Powell James Tyson Daniel Boyd Cole, Jr William Lewis Peyton Strickland Shawn Evans Joshua Layne Emile Duhamel Kendrick McDaniel Kemal Yazar John LaBossiere Bikram Singh Gregory Velasquez Detlef Wulf Darnell Bensen Carol Anne Gotbaum Eli Morillo Richard Tims Christopher Wayne Gary Ervin Bernard Maynard Ronny Bowling Charles Collins Jameel Kareem Ofurum Harrison Perry Webb William John Jennings, Jr Hannah Abukar Walter Kangas Jeremiah Robert Wall Thomas Kyros Najee T. Brown Richard Nordstrom Sherly Colon Damien Greenslade Ernest Prather Dallas Antwan Connor Clay Alan Lickteig Vinson Ray Strickland Clyde McSlann David Farries John Earl Pepper Patrick Lee Donn Ralph Eastman Erick McDonald Richard Young Henry Simmons Cecil D. Lacy, Jr James L. Slater, Jr Benjamin Zeckovic Johnny Berry John Goudeaux Peter Morillo Aaron Torres James Lamont Green Julio Mirabel Charles Aaron Broussard Leslie Cox Marie Leanne Edith Hartman George Wells Floyd Johnson Ronald Adamson Thomas Leo Kanter William Wallace John Barry Marshall Vincent Owens Jason Aiello Shawn Greenwood Paul Anthony Maxwell Derek D. Prindle Kenneth Urmston Billy Ray Cook Navon L. Ligon Allan Stroud Oral Allen Murray Anthony Galla James Lindsey, Jr Michael John Egan Kelvin Dewayne McDowell Raymond G. LaMadeleine Adam J. Smith Atom Ziniewicz Lonnie Graham Donovan Morris Everardo Torres Derek Hale James McCrary Hoover Brown, Jr Howell Durwood Culver Allen Harvey, Jr Tyrone West James Monroe Johnson Zachary J. Adrian Hosie Walton, Jr Shawn Brown Phillip Pannell Abdo Al Qotaini Gary Conrad Timothy Griggs Jason Mayo Joseph Priolo Marcus Coppedge John Livingston Kenneth Suggs Jason Nichols Johnny Gammage David Edward Powell, Jr Charles Livingston III Beverly Elliot UTAH Darnell Lee Tinsley David Lewis Lambertsen Robert E. Smith Timothy D. Wing Oscar Grant Hector Torres Reginald Hannah Gustavo Molina Dwight McKelvie John E. Brown Joseph Harvey, Jr. Victor White Rondle Lemont "Moon" Johnson Robert Aho Michael Kirvelay Lillian Weiss Tommy Miller Christopher Burgess Leonardo Parera Arthur Alalouf Patrick S. Conway Alcadio Guerrero Michael McBride Khazyier Pugh Vionique Valnold Tino Coppotelli Hugh Locklear David Wayne Summers Wendell Oliver Niles Jonathan Kane Garay Bernard Brandon Powers Perry Long Lenny Ellis Robert McIntosh Marcus Agrillo Delma Towler Eric A. Larsen Steven Smith ARIZONA Jason Bitz Shurron Grant Steve Motley Jose Torres Bryshon Harris Jorge Luis Morales Derek McKinnon Jason Bryant Jeremiah Fraley Jason C. Hendrix Arthur Williams Samuel Johnson Alden P. Anderson Adam Jo Klimek Michael Harold Wessels Douglas Charles Morrison Pablo Burrios-Salas William Parisio Wilson Alba Khiel Coppin Akai Gurley Pamela McCarthy Floyd Quinones Miguel A. Valoy-Núñez Francis Cortez Royce A. Owings James K. Maher Albert Chavez Enriquez Michael Mcknight Jussein Al-Rekabi James William Wallace Shawn Larson Thomas Roy Smith WYOMING Rafael Salas Adame Antonio Bland Ilda Grasso David Michael Moya Juan Hector Torres Deomain Hayman Andrew Morello Buddy Merck Steven Byrdo Luis Arturo Hernandez, Jr. Arvel Douglas Williams Aiyana Mo'Nay Stanley Jones Chris Anderson Raymond Kmetz Gordon Wheeler James Marlowe Ness Barry Lee Bush John Parham Selven Alberto David Guzman Joan McHugh Angel Ramirez Mark Van Kleeck John Cousins, Jr Kim Lee Long Raymond Peters Jarred Brown Garnham Kevin McCoullough Angel Erera, Jr Jason Medina Siale Angilau Jerome J. Walton Roger C. Lawhorne Willie Smith III Vincent Alvarez Alan Blueford, Jr James "Nate" Greer Lazaro Muniz Nestor Torres Dennis Hicks Joseph Mule Kimberlee Carmack John Michael Keen Dwayne M. Williams Andre Jones Shaun Askelin Eric Kirk Kolski David White Trevor New Raymond Peralta- Israel Alicia, Jr Vincent Cordaro Raymundo Guzman Steve McCumber Roberto Ramírez Eric van Reid Charlie Crowder Adam Daniel Lopp Sidney Templeton Simon Paschal Ramirez Douglas Marrickus Rainey James Christopher McCown, Jr Luis A. Escalante Tony Menchaca Kent Ashworth Shane Whitworth Joe R. Lawson Charmine Sneatlum Hector Leon Aoah Ernest MartyAtencio Zaim Bojcic Mark Gregg Fridoon Zalbeg Rawshan Nahad Noel Torres Javar James Fred Lawrence Murray Andrew Messina Bruce Carroll Thomas McClanahan James Hill Emanuel T. Williams Cora Bell Jones Joseph Azuz Chase Kolstad Duante Lashun White Sean O'Brien Michael Byrd Alexis Perez Carlo Alcis Angel Cordero Isaiah Hampton Karem McDonald John Rasanen Aurea Bonnie Vargas Pedro Cruz-Amado Harry Luther Lowman, Jr Jaqwan Julius Terry Tel Levi Rodgers Lucinda Randolph Ransom Duane McCoy Alfonso Escamill Miguel Mendoza Elwood Rayvon Lee Charles Snipes Shawn Eli Armajo 63 Moses Baeza Glen Boldware Cary James Grimé Andrea Najarro Cau Tran Diane Nelson Snapper Mitchell Joshua Christ Breanna Shane Noe Keith Devi Hill Michael K. Wilson Mark C. Backlund Map Kong T.J. White Timothy Patrick Oscar Camacho Omar Perry Michael Aldridge Felix Coss Daniel Hanrahan Daniel McDonnell Maliki Raymond Dawshawn Vasconcello Jose Adan Cruz Ocampo Linsay Erin Lunsford Ronald M. Teu Bobby Henry Rogers Devon Grimmit Alton Reaves Tommy McCoy, Jr Luis M. 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Fischer Gary Wissinger James Calvin Youngblood Andre Stenson Mark Anthony Gonzalez David Lee Quintana Aaron Hunter Jerome Carter Dale Hughes Lucky Phounsey Glen Willis Edward Thomas Anderson Tate Emogene Thompson James Lockhart III Robert Staley Spencer Lee McCain Richard Lee Mongar David Croud Tycel Nelson Mitchell Virgil Darryl Daniels Alfred Toe Sean Bell Jonah Drisdom Thomas Jackson Pammi Mroczek Granson Santamaria Jose Luis Zarete Michael Tyrone Gallagher Delicia C. Myers Aaron Winchester Marvin Donald Free Barron Wright Roger David Street Jerry Gray Richard Ramos Michael Johnson Fernando Casares Richard Hughes Roman Gallius Pierson Stephen Willis Roland Antonio Wells Andrew Robert Tolmie Alrahiem Tolbert Alexander Philip Long Alton Sterling Kevin McCarter MICHIGAN Lamar Dashea Moore Rocco Dandrea Cacedric White JaQuill Fields Steve Bell Gilbert Drogheo Walwyn Jackson Mujahid Muhammed Vladimir Santana Marilyn Zeh Omar Garcia Fernandez John Lindsey Myers LaKenya Latrice Winchester Bryan French SOUTH DAKOTA Jack Allen Stevens, Jr Kenneth Green Nugent Raspberry J.R. Kvernes Casimero Casillas Tyrone Hughes Woodrow Player III Charlie Wilson Antonio Lamont Williams José Torres Vincent Turner Mack Long Don White Aaron Nathaniel McCoy Luqman Ameen Abdullah Damita Morton David Daniels Erik Nylen Jermaine Williams Thomas Lars Domagala Brian Fillmore Joel Torres Jason Beller Allan Duarte William "Corey" Jackson Santos Mulero Alex Santos Alan Zelencic Ratmir Gasanov Joel Vance Nash Darryl C. Wiggins Steven Clark Foster RHODE ISLAND Lucas Ghost Bear Darrius Stewart Stephen Paul Greene Korey Lavale Rawls Isaac Lankisch Ernesto Castaneda Leopoldo Huizar Richard Poccia Kenny R. Wilson Ronald James Turner Antonio Tyler Joseph W. Love Victor White III Rajsaun McCray Bernard A. Adams Charles Muse III Robert D. Davis Jordan K. Willis Patrick Heki Michael Gabriele Roger S. Duchnik Prince James Tim Mulqueen Jose Santos Ahmed Zia Brian Gentry Tywain Neal Devaron Ricardo Wilburn Paul L. Froats Jason Arcaro Jamie Lee Braveheart Larry Stone James Guerra Randy Redd Hector Lara Jaime Castellanos Antoine D. Hunter Albert Polencia FLORIDA Frank Valdez Chuck Vicha Terrell Lucas Tyris Wilkerson Keith Harrison McLeod Lou Adkins Kenneth Muse Roger L. Davis Stacey Wright Mike Smith Lonnie James Robert Tuite, Jr Joseph Bernazard Shawn Dukes Mauricio Jaquez Jose Muniz Orlando Santos Ousmane Zongo Lee Aaron Gerston Leeanna Codespot Newman Daniel Michael Wilkerson Christopher J. Capps Allen Quintez Swader Robert Guerrero Lee Redoux Donald Lininger Juan Castellanos Wilford Hunton Brownie Polk John Winkler Arlene Adams John Robert Vogelle Michael McKinney Abdul Akbar Jacqueline Nichols Carolyn Lisa Dean Thomas Opalinski Southaly Ketmany William Gainous Zach Bingert Morris Duncan Charles Q. "Tuna" Jennings Vishwaja Muppa Victor Santos Stephen Ryan Gibson Timothy Wayne Newton Peter C. Gilbaugh Robert Bergeson Sarah Lee Circle Bear Kenneth Brian Releford from the masses, to the masses

come across an eyewitness account which corroborates the police version of events.

I soon joined up with the [SLP]. With a grant from the San Francisco Foundation and a gift of fscal administration from the Sonoma Coun- ty Center for Peace & Justice, I collaborated with Project Censored at Sonoma State University and began a search of LexisNexis and other national newspaper databases for cases of police brutality for the year of 1997. That search produced approximately half of the cases listed in this edition.

Simultaneously, public service announcements flmed by artists and families of victims aired on MTV. Organizations such as Physicians for Social Responsibility contributed funds to air the announcements on [BET]. These announcements called on people to send any information they had about someone who’d been killed by police to the [SLP]. Many individuals and organizations, among them the Center for Con- stitutional Rights, spread the word about Stolen Lives. Victims’ families and friends, lawyers who handle police brutality cases, and local civil rights groups sent in stories. These were some of the many ways we uncovered these cases.16

Cheng reiterates the arduous nature and novelty of such grassroots organizing and research:

Nothing like this had existed before. The research and documentation were being done in a time before anyone could easily just conduct a Google search to fnd cases of police homicides. Physical fles of newspaper clippings and handwritten notes were among the sources of documentation, and three-ring binders of loose-leaf paper functioned as the documentation. Submission forms were mailed in from all around the country from loved ones of Stolen Lives as well as anyone who cared that a case was included in the documentation. In preparing for publication, volunteer editors were given foppy disks of the data to work with. Collaborations with and contributions from people around the country with diferent skills, experiences, resources, and access to resources made the documentation and the publication of the more 16 National Lawyers Guild, Anthony Baez Foundation, & October 22 Coalition to Stop Police Brutality, Stolen Lives: Killed by Law Enforcement (Second Edition) (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999), iii.

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easily accessible book possible. For many families and other loved ones of those killed by police, the truth of what happened, how it happened, and how no one was ever going to answer for the death was fnally being publicly revealed. There was also now something that countered how their loved one was being depicted by police and media. For them and the many others who have felt and experienced the brunt of police violence for much if not all of their lives, there was fnally evidence for how much of a national epidemic police brutality is.17

Quetzal also speaks to how the SLP—and, in particular, Stolen Lives: Killed by Law Enforcement (Second Edition)—served to redeem victims of police killings whose humanity had been distorted by media and police:

The particularity of the Stolen Lives book was that it was more from [the perspectives of] the families, because their kids got killed by the police, and then they got killed again by the media. The media would say these terrible things about their kids…. That’s why the Stolen Lives book actually print [from the perspective] of the family.

Speaking more to the exhaustive independent collection of data that was undertaken by the SLP when the Internet was only in its infancy, Quetzal describes how students played a role. She mentions that at every school—even those in afuent, predominantly white areas such as Beverly Hills—and in every classroom there was at least one student who knew someone who had been brutalized or murdered by police. “This is how we did a lot of Stolen Lives [documentation],” Quetzal says, “we had a form that we gave to these kids to fll out…. This is something that really spoke to their day-today life experience.” As the SLP became a more formal endeavor, so too did members begin developing more formal teams that were tasked with collecting data and conducting grassroots investigations into cases of Stolen Lives. Quetzal describes some early experiences on her part as a member of one of these Stolen Lives investigation teams:

17 Kathie Cheng, “The Stolen Lives Project Online: A Digital Humanities Project,” (PhD diss., St. John’s University, 2018), 6-9.

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We united with the National Lawyers Guild, and they turned over cases [from] around the country that they were working with, …but then we started these Stolen Lives teams, and in LA, we were trying to fgure out how [to conduct investigations]. At the time, …in South Central there was only one hospital—Martin Luther King[, Jr. Community] Hospi- tal—and so I just went there with some students [and] people I knew, and we stood outside with clipboards and we started just talking to people. We started talking to the nurses and the doctors, but also just people that were in the lobby, and just started asking them, “Do you know somebody that got killed by the police?” you know, like, “Who are they? What’s their names?” and try to get as much information down [as possible].

Many of those we spoke with referenced being initially drawn to O22 after having seen ads, banners, and/or fyers displaying the thousands of names of people murdered by police since 1990 or having been introduced to Stolen Lives: Killed by Law Enforcement (Sec- ond Edition), revealing the SLP’s utility as an organizing tool in the struggle against police brutality. More than anything, however, the SLP served three interrelated purposes: (1) it publicly established the epidemic and systemic nature of excessive and unwarranted police violence, (2) it helped to break the silence and stigma of families cop- ing with the loss of a loved one at the hands of law enforcement, and (3) it restored the humanity of those to whom media added insult to grievous injury through its routine distortion of the characters of the dead in a manner meant to suggest that their homicides were justifable.

undaunTed: The dynamIc oF resIsTance/repressIon/more resIsTance Predictably, events and individuals associated with O22 were the recipients of a great deal of repression as the Coalition fought to combat the epidemic of police brutality. Rather than intimidating those involved, however, instances of repression often steeled their convictions and inspired others to join in the struggle. Revolutionary

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Worker described eforts of repression across a number of cities in the build-up to 1998’s NDP as well as on the Day itself:

In several places, the authorities tried to silence the people. In [NYC] it was the attempted denial of a permit. In [LA], the morning of October 22, the police staged a sweep through the Nickerson Gardens housing projects of Watts an hour before people gathered for the march—stop- ping and handcufng organizers for the Day. In Chicago’s Cabrini Green, police descended on the young men and women waiting for the busses, ordering them to their knees, frisking and insulting them one after the other for almost an hour—ordering them to disperse and an- nouncing that it was “dangerous” and not-allowed for people like them to gather in one place. Police attacked an [O22] beneft concert at Club Soda in Washington, DC and concert-goers sat down in the street and read out loud from the Stolen Lives book. Fifteen people were arrested in San Diego[, California].

But police actions did not—could not—stop the message of [O22] from going out across the US. Everywhere, people from the ghettos and housing projects dared to hook up and speak out. And the brutal police attack on the Matthew Shepard memorial in [NYC], right on the eve of October 22, made many people even more determined to act and forge new unities in the face of the police.18 19

Revisiting the militancy of LA’s NDP in 2000, Revolutionary Worker painted a harrowing picture of the police response to protesters’ plans to encircle LAPD headquarters:

There were signs that the police were preparing for an assault. When the march reached the front of Parker Center, riot cops were out in

18 Matthew Shepard was a 21-year-old gay university student who was beaten, robbed, tied to a fence, and tortured by Aaron McKinney and Russell Henderson in October, 1998 near Laramie, Wyoming. Left to die by his assailants in near-freez- ing temperatures, he was later found by a cyclist who initially mistook him for a scarecrow. He succumbed to his wounds at a hospital in Fort Collins, Colorado, and his death garnered national media coverage while prompting a larger debate over hate crime legislation and LGBTQ rights. 19 “Thousands March to Stop Police Brutality: October 22: 3rd National Day of Protest,” RW Online, last modifed November 1, 1998, https://revcom.us/a/v20/980- 89/980/1022rep.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).

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full force with clubs drawn. “They’re over there with their rubber bullets, waiting to attack you, like they did at the DNC, like they do in dark alleys,” a young revolutionary told the crowd. “They know we’re watching them. They know we’re here in numbers, united, putting our diferences aside and fghting for this cause. Show them.” As the youth marched to surround the building, they were blocked by police, who disregarded the march permit. The police launched their attack without warning and the POP, POP, POP of rubber bullet guns echoed blocks away.

Dozens of people were hit with rubber bullets, some seriously in- jured—including a student from [the University of California, Los Angeles] who sufered permanent damage in her eye. Cops on horses advanced on the crowd, hitting people with their long riot batons. Riot cops on foot beat and pushed people while others shot into the crowd. Hundreds of people were pushed back into the main rally area while others were forced down side streets and out of the area when they found many of the streets leading back to the rally blocked by cops.

The families of the Stolen Lives were on the stage speaking about their loved ones killed by the police when the police opened fre—hitting some family members in the back with rubber bullets as they tried to protect the children. Sofa Saldaña, whose son Juan was murdered by the notorious Rampart cops, said, “Now I know what my son must have felt like surrounded by these dogs—I thought they were going to try and kill us.” At least four people were arrested—three face misde- meanor charges and one faces a felony assault with a deadly weapon charge.

But the people stood strong, especially the youth who stepped out to protect the rally from the advancing cops. Young women were right up in the faces of the police, calling them out as murderers. Hundreds of youth sat down directly in front of the advancing cops, blocking them from sweeping into the rally. And the rally went on, as family members bravely spoke out—joining people across the country who took the streets, held memorials, marched, sang, and shouted to bring out the truth about how the police had killed their children, brothers, uncles, sisters, and cousins.20 20 “October 22, 2000 5th National Day to Stop Police Brutality: In the Streets for Justice,” RW Online, last modifed November 6, 2000, https://revcom.us/a/v22/1070-

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Heyward, Sr. and Young on the NDP in NYC, 2005. Among the general strategies deployed against social movements by the bourgeois state are the intensifcation of repression to meet the actual or perceived threat of a heightened or radicalized resistance and the targeting of individual leaders as a means to de- stabilize or dishearten the movement as a whole. O22 experienced more than its fair share of harassment as it mobilized for the NDP over the years, but the most consistent targets of repression were those most visible and vocal leaders within the Coalition: the families themselves. Revolutionary Worker reported on one such incident involving Heyward, Sr.:

Since his 13-year-old son was murdered by a housing cop in 1994, …Hey- ward, Sr. has become an outspoken organizer against police brutality. On October 22, 2000, as Nicholas was preparing to MC [the NDP], the police arrested him at his home at 6 [AM], charging him with failure to pay a ticket for not having his dog on a leash! Lawyers and activists immediately located Nicholas, demanding his release, and escorted him to the rally to speak.21 79/1077/ndpy2k.htm (accessed May 1, 2019). 21 Ibid.

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In the aftermath of that year’s contentious NDP, the bourgeois state took its attempts to silence voices of dissent to a new level by attempting to declare an executive board member of O22 mentally unft after she courageously refused to accept a settlement for the murder of her son by police. Revolutionary Worker detailed the experience:

The authorities employed another method of attack against Arnetta Grable of Detroit, Michigan. Following October 22, 2000, the state of- fered her $2.5 million to settle her lawsuit against the killer cop who murdered her son Lamar. When she refused to accept the ofer—determined to take the case to court and expose the brutal killing of La- mar—the authorities tried to declare her insane.

“They wanted to declare me incompetent,” Arnetta explained, “put a strange person that I had never seen in charge of my son’s estate, re- move me as head of the estate and with the pretense of looking out for the best interests of my son’s daughter and my minor daughter. They were going to accept the money in the name of the children and just move me out of the way.” Supporters packed the courtroom and the authorities’ plan to have…Grable declared incompetent was defeated.22

Among the families and organizers associated with O22, Young was undeniably visited with the most extreme and persistent repression, which is a testament to her determination and tirelessness in pursuing justice and putting an end to police brutality. “When [police] feel people is a threat to them,” Young says, “they harass them to no end.” She recalls some of the many instances of harassment she has experienced over the years:

They started just continually harassing my family. I took O22 to [my] house [and] did a press conference telling the cops to back of my family, but they wasn’t even listening. They wanted me to stop going around talking about what they did [to my son], but I would talk about what they did plus what they did to other families, because by the time I got involved, I started meeting so many other families that this had 22 “O22 Holds National Strategy Session for 2001: Stop Police Brutality, Repression and the Criminalization of a Generation!” RW Online, last modifed March 4, 2001, https://revcom.us/a/v22/1090-99/1093/ndp.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).

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happened to….

They would come to my house, knock on the door, [ask] me if I know such-and-such a person, [and] I said, “I’m not opening the door.” Then they would come back, and they would literally break into my door, and kept on about [how] they had a warrant, and they didn’t have no warrant. They would search and break the furniture in my house, talking about they looking for drugs. I’m like, “What?!”

One day they came to my house, they broke in, [and] they took my baby son, talking about [how] they found all these drugs in his window…. I went to the courthouse, [and] I couldn’t fnd any [evidence of drugs] nowhere. He came home that afternoon and said he never saw no drugs…. That case was thrown out; they know they never had no case.

Another time, my daughter needed to go to the hospital, …and when the police came—they know they’re not allowed in my house—so they stood outside waiting for the ambulance. The ambulance came, and while they was talking to my daughter, the police came in. When I came out of my room, I’m like, “Why are y’all in my house?” They said, “We got a call to come here.” I said, “We don’t need you; can you leave?” They wouldn’t leave. We got into an argument. Like three, four cops threw me into the room, [and] beat me so bad [that] I don’t even know to this day how I got up. They left me in the room, and then, when I was able to stand up, I got up [and] I went and stood in the doorway of the kitchen. I was so angry. I had a container of sweet potatoes on the microwave—I took them and threw them down at the foor. They said I threw it at [them, so] they jumped me again. Then they arrested me.

Among her health issues, Young sufers from asthma and has been legally blind since she was a teenager. Despite knowing her condition, arresting ofcers seldom—if ever—attend to her medical needs, as was the case on this day. Young continues:

I told them, “I can’t breathe! I can’t breathe!” They didn’t pay me no attention. So when we got to the precinct, the lady who [shared my] cell said, “I’m not gonna stay in here while this lady’s dying, but she’s dying!” A little while later, the ambulance came, and then another ambulance came. And then [Emergency Medical Services personnel] said, “Let’s go! Let’s go! Let’s go! We don’t got no time left; let’s go!” They

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said, “How long have you been like this?!” They had to rush me to the hospital….

Luckily, Jacobi [Medical Center] knew me, …and they got me back straight. And they said, “What happened to her?!” One [cop] said they didn’t know. Another one told them I beat up a cop. [A nurse] said, “If we let you go, [do] you gotta go with [the second cop]?” I said, “Proba- bly.” She said, “[Then] you ain’t leaving here!”

Despite attempts on the part of medical personnel to keep her safe, police insisted that so long as Young stayed in their care, she be guarded and handcufed. One morning at approximately 3 AM, she even had her ankles shackled by ofcers. “It was incidents like that that I had to go through,” Young says.

In yet another instance of harassment, Young and her family were illegally evicted from their apartment in the South Bronx by her landlord, a former New Jersey police ofcer. She describes the context surrounding the event:

I was evicted, ‘cause the landlord was a cop from New Jersey, …and there was a [police brutality] case in Jersey, and we went, and we went right up against the cops; we didn’t back down. [I] come to fnd out some of those same cops knew this cop, and when he found out, he told my [apartment] supervisor, and the super told me, “You know you is in trouble.” I’m like, “For what?” He said, “The landlord is mad ‘cause you was in Jersey making trouble.” I’m like, “Yo…” Then they got it all over the front page of newspapers: me going at it with the New Jersey cops.

So [the landlord] made up some bullmess of a lie—even the judge told him, …“She don’t owe you [$11,000 in unpaid rent]; Section 8 stopped paying you rent because of the violations in that apartment.” He said, “If you want your money, you let her back in there.” [The landlord] said, “No….” So that’s how I got evicted from that apartment. When [O22] heard what was going on, they was right there.

Members of O22 and the RCP’s former youth group, the Revolu- tionary Communist Youth Brigade, immediately traveled to Young’s apartment building and assisted her family with their move.

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Encountering repression on this scale at both the individual and organizational levels helps clarify the efcacy of and need for a united front to combat police violence. By winning the support of broad sections of people—including lawyers—O22 was able to utilize a variety of resources and talents to defend those who came under attack during its struggle against police brutality. Anticipating the targeting of families, in particular, O22 always provided security for them as they participated in and exited the NDP, but as a people’s coalition, it did not turn to an outside source; it relied on the people themselves.

In summation, to organize resistance against armed killers can be daunting, to say the least, and O22 saw no shortage of repression in the course thereof. Its response to this harassment, however, was not to back down or to make appeals to the same authorities that they were protesting, but rather, to defend against it and expose the harassment as yet another form of repression. Thus, these intimida- tion tactics were transformed into fuel for the fgurative fre, allowing the Coalition to consciously make use of the openings they provided to ratchet up the struggle and steel the convictions of those involved. Chants became more militant, demands became more forcefully de- livered, and protesters marched with a more palpable rage, which carried them through the streets before arriving at police stations, where they would confront their oppressors undaunted.

The InFluence oF maoIsm and The reVoluTIonary communIsT parTy, usa To better frame the nature of O22’s unique approach toward organizing, it is necessary to explore the politics from which it drew in- spiration. As has been referenced above, the RCP was an initiator of the Coalition, and its infuence over O22’s decision-making process cannot be understated. “The [Revolutionary Communist] Party was a big initiator,” Quetzal says, “it wouldn’t have happened if the Party didn’t initiate it; you wouldn’t have an O22. That’s just plain and sim-

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ple.” Aside from establishing its foundations, the RCP was decisive on many of the most crucial questions that confronted O22, including for what and for whom the Coalition should exist, what types of groups and individuals to reach out to for support, which voices should be most prominent at the NDP, and who should provide security for the families. Quetzal explains that this wasn’t done in an authoritarian manner, but rather, through patient and principled struggle. The RCP set the bar high by demanding an end to police brutality while struggling with other Coalition members who sought to limit its scope by calling for more moderate reforms, like appealing to the bourgeois state to institute civilian review boards. Another opening for struggle arose around censoring the people themselves. While some members of O22 felt that the “colorful” and vitriolic language directed at police by the more proletarian protesters was unnecessary, the RCP struggled to ensure that people were provided a platform from which they could speak honestly and openly. “The Party, from the beginning, fought…to bring the voices of the masses to the forefront,” Quetzal says. In essence, she explains, “the Party fought for what [O22] should be: a spotlight on police brutality,” a means to resist it, and a voice for those it afects most.

The RCP was a Marxist-Leninist-Maoist party, and while its methods and associated philosophy in regards to organizing have altered considerably since playing its leading role in the Coalition at its height, one can clearly see evidence of a Maoist political line running throughout much of O22’s work. A central tenet of Maoism is what is referred to as the mass line, which begins from the premise that “The people, and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world history.”23 This understanding is readily apparent in O22’s overall approach, from its basis in and among the people— most notably, Black people and the proletariat—to its insistence and reliance upon the people to liberate themselves from police brutality, in stark contrast to the multitude of organizations that look to and rely on civilian review boards, the Department of Justice, “good” dis- 23 Mao Zedong, “Quotations from Mao Tse Tung: Chapter 11,” https://www.marx- ists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/red-book/ch11.htm (accessed May 1, 2019).

74 kites #1 trict attorneys, and other “saviors from above.” Nwangaza discusses this further:

I think another part of [O22] was…the concept of the empowerment of the people—the training of people to be able to tell their own stories and giving them the space and the support to tell their own stories…. So it wound up with the survivors of police violence being the experts on their stories [and] developing expertise on the system, while the others of us used [our] greater understanding of the system to support them and to challenge the system.

It is far from coincidental that the centerpiece of the NDP— families sharing their pain and rage over the injustices visited upon them by police—also resembles the Speak Bitterness campaign carried out in accompaniment with land reform laws in revolutionary China circa 1950. During these meetings, peasants and tenant farm- ers were encouraged to express their anger and share stories of the brutality and exploitation they experienced at the hands of former landlords, which enabled them to identify a common enemy and recognize the system behind their oppression.

The focus of the mass line is on relating to the masses directly and becoming integrated with them in order to better comprehend their experiences and struggles. According to Mao Zedong:

all correct leadership is necessarily “from the masses, to the masses.” This means: take the ideas of the masses (scattered and unsystematic ideas) and concentrate them (through study turn them into concentrated and systematic ideas), then go to the masses and propagate and explain these ideas until the masses embrace them as their own, hold fast to them and translate them into action, and test the correctness of these ideas in such action. Then once again concentrate ideas from the masses and once again go to the masses so that the ideas are per- severed in and carried through. And so on, over and over again in an endless spiral, with the ideas becoming more correct, more vital and richer each time.24

This is also refected in the work undertaken by O22 in its heyday: 24 Ibid.

75 from the masses, to the masses by going to the masses and hearing their stories of police brutality and repression, organizers began to realize the extent of the epidemic. They then concentrated and systematized these stories in order to propagate and explain that these were not isolated incidents, but threads in a larger fabric of police violence that spans the entirety of the US. O22 then mobilized the masses for the NDP, when they would take action by collectively confronting the epidemic nationwide and sharing their stories with the support of a broad coalition of people.

In comparison to most organizations both then and now, O22’s distinguishing faith in, immersion among, and love for those at the bottom of society are further expressions of the infuence of the mass line. These characteristics are inspired by Mao’s recommenda- tion ffty years prior:

to be vigilant and to see that no comrade at any post is divorced from the masses. [The Chinese Communist Party] should teach every comrade to love the people and listen attentively to the voice of the masses; to identify himself with the masses wherever he goes and, instead of standing above them, to immerse himself among them; and, according to their present level, to awaken them or raise their political consciousness and help them gradually to organize themselves voluntarily and to set going all essential struggles permitted by the internal and exter- nal circumstances of the given time and place.25

While O22 was not a communist organization, it was guided by communist principles and served communist aims, providing an example of a revolutionary organizing model with which to bring forward and develop a revolutionary people. For communists, building mass resistance through vehicles like O22 that are based among the proletariat, in particular, and organizing resistance against oppression, in general, play important parts in preparing the ground—and the people—for revolution. Certainly, many mass leaders from the proletariat like Heyward, Sr. and Young came forward politically through O22, and resistance to police brutality was signifcant-

25 Ibid.

76 kites #1 ly strengthened. However, if mass movements are to play a part in building toward revolution, they must be steered in that direction by communist leadership. Within these movements, the most politically advanced must be developed into communists and recruited into the vanguard party, strengthening the subjective factor in advance of—and in order to build toward—a revolutionary situation.

In this regard, the RCP fell short of its objectives by failing to develop a broad and deep revolutionary consciousness within the core of the movement or recruit a substantial number of communists out of O22. The challenge of building and leading mass movements in the present while connecting them with the larger, more protracted objective of revolution is considerable, and fraught with the potential for errors to be made. One error, referred to by communists as econ- omism, is to regard these movements as ends in and of themselves, disconnected from revolutionary objectives. Another error is failing to fnd living and relevant ways to connect revolutionary ideology and objectives with mass resistance against the particular forms of oppression that people are subjected to under capitalism-imperialism. This error is referred to by communists as dogmatism. Econo- mism characterized much of the RCP’s work in the late 1990s, the period during which it devoted substantial resources to O22. Rather than rectify this tendency, the RCP veered toward dogmatism, and in doing so, drastically scaled back its involvement in and leadership of the Coalition in favor of other pursuits. This dealt O22 a heavy blow from which it has yet to recover.

challenges and legacy More than twenty-three years after its founding, O22 continues to operate, and while many of the families involved continue fghting for justice, the Coalition’s actions and eforts are far more modest today than they were at its height. The frst of two challenges contributing to its decline was the RCP’s shifting of focus and resources away from O22 post 9/11. The RCP correctly saw the need to orga-

77 from the masses, to the masses nize resistance to the George W. Bush administration’s juggernaut of war and repression after 9/11, but in doing so, tilted its focus toward the petty bourgeoisie and away from the proletariat. Then, around 2004, the RCP began to greatly emphasize establishing a “culture of appreciation, promotion, and popularization” around its leader, Bob Avakian, and concluded that time and resources could be better devoted toward pursuing that goal. In a word, during O22’s heyday from 1996-2000, the RCP had committed a substantial amount of its people and resources to making the Coalition into what it was, so predictably, O22’s organizational capacity and potential greatly di- minished once support was withdrawn.

The second challenge contributing to O22’s decline was the chill- ing efect of 9/11. The events of and government propaganda after 9/11 convinced many that all police are heroes, and that to condemn their actions in the face of a common, foreign enemy is misguided, ungrateful, and unpatriotic. Cheng describes the contradictions presented while attempting to organize the NDP in NYC in the immediate aftermath of 9/11:

First of, we were meeting [to mobilize for the NDP] downtown, so we [didn’t] have a place to meet, ‘cause that [was] ground zero; we [couldn’t] even go there…. There were already a lot of events that were being cancelled, …so we were thinking, “Do we need to cancel?” And, of course, people were still getting beaten and killed by cops during that time we were fguring this out. We were like, “No, we still have to move forward.” There were meetings where some of the lawyers that worked with us were even saying, “Maybe you should do something in- doors,” like something quieter, you know?... There was this one mother whose son was killed in Queens, whose other son was saved by a cop in the Twin Towers, so she had a lot of mixed feelings…. So there were a lot of discussions. A core group of us were like, “We’re defnitely doing something; we’re not gonna not have an NDP,” you know? And when we had national conference calls, it was just so surreal, because the other areas didn’t have the same problem; they weren’t feeling any pressure to not do something, because they weren’t in New York…. So it was very difcult to organize, but I felt like [it was] one of the most

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triumphant NDPs…. We were up against so much.

According to Young, the contentious decision of whether or not to organize the NDP ultimately fell on the families involved, as is consistent with O22’s general approach. She recalls the controversy:

Before 9/11, police brutality was at its highest, and then, all of a sudden, ...they was like, “You can’t do that,” and, “Other people are sufering….” [A journalist for the New York Post referred to Young as a] “Deranged mother,” that’s what he called me, because I wouldn’t back down of of what the police did to my family and lots of other families.26 [Some organizers] were like, “No, we can’t do [the NDP] this year.” I said, “We doing [the NDP] this year,” and they say, “You serious, Juanita?” They said, “Well, we gonna let the parents call it.” I said, “Well, we called it; we are coming out this year.”

Despite inheriting a changed political landscape post 9/11, O22 continued its work, integrating the new reality into its existing frame 26 Rod Dreher, “These Pathetic, Lying Losers are a Sick Joke,” New York Post, last modifed October 10, 2001, https://nypost.com/2001/10/10/these-pathetic-lying-losers-are-a-sick-joke/ (accessed May 1, 2019).

O22 challenging the narrative of police heroes in the post-911 era. from the masses, to the masses of analysis. In response to the heightened level of violence against and vulnerability of Muslim, Arab, and South Asian immigrants, the Coalition helped organize a National Day of Solidarity, as previously referenced. Cheng recalls, “We focused a lot on the USA PATRIOT Act, too, ‘cause we were looking at the infringement on civil liber- ties as another form of oppression.” In keeping with its tradition of linking outrages to the brutal functioning of a larger system, many members of O22 were also quick to condemn and correlate the US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq with the ongoing repression and violence perpetrated by police and other state agencies in the US itself.

Though relatively few people today know of O22, they are un- knowing benefciaries of its legacy. Smith suggests that without the painstaking work undertaken by O22, our awareness of and capacity to track statistics relating to police violence would be greatly impacted. While this is important in its own right, it is also signifcant given that the current movement against police violence sprang from a recognition of these statistics. Smith says:

Through the work of O22, not only the Black community, but the community at large has become aware of the seriousness of police brutality in this country, and that these incidents are not isolated. There’s a growing movement; people are aware today of police brutality, and people are raising their voices against police brutality. This all stems from the groundwork that O22 has done for the past twenty-plus years. That’s the most signifcant outcome of the groundwork that O22 laid, because that’s the frst step: you have to be aware of the problem frst…. We’ve planted the seeds.

What else might people involved in the movement today learn from O22? “Some humility, to start of with,” says Nwangaza. She continues:

My father used to say to us in the ’60s and ’70s that we were arrogant. He would say, “You all behave as if you invented the Civil Rights Move- ment; what do you think we’ve been doing all of these years?” And I think that young people and organizations today would do well to...

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recognize that what we’re dealing with is a continuum [that]—at a min- imum—has gone on for the past 500 years, and that each generation… (as it’s been said by one of the continental African freedom fghters, Franz Fanon)...is presented a challenge and a question as to whether or not it will meet it or it will abandon it…. Each generation builds on the work of the previous generation in the struggle to reestablish a sane and just world, or to establish one if we feel that one never existed.

Like Nwangaza, Young also sees the need for the movement to recognize this as a protracted struggle, and that this new generation of activists needs to reach out to and learn from experienced fghters. She says:

Black Lives Matter want to see results right now, as opposed to trying to see how we can get this done. O22, we plan…. A lot of Black Lives Matter is more of a younger age—which is good—so they can build for the next generation. But, at the rate they’re going, they not gonna be teaching that next generation. They lack the experience. They could learn that rallying, getting to the problem and trying to expose the problem…is defnitely one of the ways to do it. Having workshops around, say, the police brutality issue, workshops around why cops are so aggressive in these schools, …because whenever you dealing with a situation that’s so bad that it’s hard to focus, then when you not focus- ing clearly, you gonna defnitely make mistakes. And if you not dealing with somebody that’s got some kind of knowledge in doing what you doing, you just gonna get nowhere.

Quetzal hopes to impart her knowledge on the importance of organizing the proletariat in the struggle today:

The oppressed got a voice and a certain legitimacy to their concerns [through O22]…. That’s what people need to learn: going to people at the bottom of society, listening to their legitimate concerns, and speaking to their legitimate concerns…. It’s good that [the current movement] is out there, but it’s not going out to the bottom of society.

Finally, noticing a pattern of petty sectarian squabbles as organizations vie for leadership and ownership over the movement, Cheng recommends they forego their respective egos and focus—frst and

81 from the masses, to the masses foremost—on the mission at hand:

I would hope being inclusive [is something today’s activists can learn from O22’s approach]. I’m seeing less and less of that these days…. I’m like, “C’mon, just work together for this one day!” One shift I’ve ob- served…is that it does seem that people want to have more ownership [over] the movement or the work now than before…. I don’t know if it’s a branding thing or what…. I guess part of it is identity politics, and part of it is nongovernmental organizations and nonprofts, [who are more concerned with] who’s supporting what or who’s getting paid for what, but it’s looking kinda ugly in terms of being able to be united. It’s kinda painful to observe.

Sharing Cheng’s concern over the motivations of the careerist, nonproft-organization activists who are so eager to be the faces and voices of the movement today is Tory Russell, a lead organizer in the Ferguson rebellion and Mission Director of The International Black Freedom Alliance. Refecting on the Ferguson rebellion and its aftermath on the fve-year anniversary, Russell writes plainly about his disappointment:

We were in the streets, attempting to construct the narrative of us, to share our truths, to heal, protect, and build our Ferguson; while our so- called movement brothers, sisters, and allies were building their plat- forms on our backs and redirecting resources to their pockets.

We have been forced to watch the movement turn away from the masses of Black people activated by [Michael Brown]’s death and become mainly focused on lucrative mainstream acceptance from white media and white funders....

The clout chasers are all but gone now. Most have bolted for major, liberally-funded, social-justice cities or to white institutions to be on the other side of case studies. Gone with them are the resources and capital, both fnancial and social. And the media, both Black and mainstream, still go back to them over and over again even though they know that they haven’t lived, organized, or protested in Ferguson in years.27

27 Tory Russell, “Notes on an Uprising: Refections of a Ferguson Organizer 5

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In contrast, O22 maintained its presence among the masses and its insistence that their voices be most prominent in the struggle against police brutality. It demonstrated the capacity, willingness, and necessity to bring forward those most deeply oppressed to serve as the backbone in the battle for a better world. In doing so, O22 further established to other participants that the struggle against police violence and state repression is not merely a question of “fghting the good fght,” but for many, a matter of life and death. It demonstrated the capacity to mold—through political practice and training—committed fghters and leaders from among the most oppressed communities in the US who have little to no formal political experience. O22 demonstrated the capacity to develop and draw upon the strength of a broad, united front of academics, activists, artists, community and religious leaders, lawyers, and others to stand in solidarity with the most oppressed members of society. It demonstrated the necessity to recognize police violence as systemic, a form of political repression meant to control populations whose wretched conditions make them potentially rebellious. Finally, O22 demonstrated the necessity of a correct theoretical orientation to guide political work. Owing predominantly to its communist/Mao- ist organizing model, O22 insisted that the oppressed themselves be the most visible and vocal members of the Coalition, giving them a deeper sense of ownership and control over its decisions. In contrast with many groups today, rather than asking for an end to police brutality, murder, and repression, O22 demanded it, and rather than appealing to politicians or directing people to seek redress through ofcial channels, it asked them to rely on nobody but themselves and nothing but their collective determination.

Years After the State-Sanctioned Killing of Mike Brown,” Essence, last modifed August 9, 2019, https://www.essence.com/feature/ferguson-mike-brown-5-years-tory-russell/ (accessed October 10, 2019).