The World Heritage Site: A Nature-Culture Approach to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage along the Southern Coast of journal or JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES publication title volume SPECIAL ISSUE 2019 page range 29-37 year 2019 URL http://doi.org/10.15068/00157683 JOURNAL OF WORLD HERITAGE STUDIES・SPECIAL ISSUE 2019・DISASTERS AND RESILIENCE ISSN 2189-4728 The World Heritage Site: A Nature-Culture Approach to the Conservation of Cultural Heritage along the Southern Coast of Sri Lanka

Wijerathne Bohingamuwa Department of History and Archaeology, University of Ruhuna, Matara, Sri Lanka; 81000; +94 (0)714176869, [email protected]

■■Abstract

This paper focuses on the Galle Fort World Heritage site, assessing current practices and issues related to heritage conservation concerning disasters. The purpose is to highlight the importance of understanding nature-culture links for the conservation of coastal heritage sites, exposed to natural conditions, such as sea breeze, sea erosion, and hazards like tsunamis. The Galle Fort is strongly connected to its larger cultural landscape, for which the conservation of the entire ecosystem is required. This paper suggests the development and implementation of integrated and people-centered policies involving all stakeholders in conservation plans, giving due consideration to nature-culture linkages.

KEY WORDS: Sri Lanka, Galle fort, Coastal cultural heritage, Nature-culture links, People-centered conservation

■■1. Introduction 210; Lilley 2013).

1.1 Overview of the heritage site These discussions are highly relevant to the Galle Fort World Heritage site, as well as the heritage in The distinction between nature and culture as the Southern Coastal Belt of Sri Lanka (hereafter separate entities, and rigid categorizations based referred to as the Southern Coastal Belt). The unique on arbitrary divisions, as seen in various charters cultural landscape of this region is partly a result and conventions on heritage (see Askew 2010: 19- of the area having been under the control of the 44; UNESCO 1972), are now being challenged and Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English, from 1505 the traditional definitions and scope of heritage are to 1948. The Old Town of Galle and its fortifications also being reconsidered (see e.g., Harrison 2015: (Galle Fort) have been a UNESCO World Heritage 24-42; 2013). The symbiotic relationship that exists Site since 1988. It was built and maintained by all between nature, culture, and people is increasingly three colonial powers, and is multicultural in its emphasized and reinforced. Similarly, heritage character, termed as ‘heritage of dual parentage,’ sites, cultural or natural, are no longer considered like many other heritage sites along the Southern as isolated entities, but they are identified as being Coastal Belt (Da Silva 1992). interconnected to and interdependent on people, landscapes, and the accompanying ecosystems In this context, the present study focuses on (Larsen and Wjesuriya 2017: 42; Leitão 2017: 195- the Galle Fort World Heritage site to assess

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current practices and issues related to heritage historic city by the same name [Fig. 1]. The Southern conservation in relation to disasters. The Galle Coastal Belt has a rich biodiversity, including lagoons Fort is constantly exposed to the sea breeze, sea with numerous maritime species, mangroves, and erosion, and natural hazards, such as tsunamis, forest covers with specific maritime vegetation in addition to human-induced hazards. However, (Jayatissa 2009; Dahdouh-Guebas 2005) which its architectural and planning characteristics, as are used daily by people. The cultural evolution well as coral and boulder/granite reefs, protect in the region is a result of human interaction the site from disasters, as is shown by the reduced with this environment. The Galle Fort is a great impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. The manifestation of this interaction over the centuries. Galle Fort is, therefore, an example to be further The unique coastal environment provided distinct analysed of how cultural heritage relates to the living conditions for its dwellers which brought natural environment in the context of disaster risk together diverse belief systems, along with the management. This study is based on the author’s historical conditions cited above, that led to the long-term observations made at the Galle Fort, as development of this distinct cultural landscape. a member of the Management Board of the Galle Therefore, the author considers that the nature- Fort Heritage Foundation, a survey undertaken culture linkages existing in the Galle Fort, as well after the 2004 Tsunami (cf. Poisson et al. 2009), and as the traditional livelihood of the communities interviews conducted between July and August who have demonstrated resilience to threats 2018 with various stakeholders of the Galle Fort1. and used opportunities provided over the years, need to be safeguarded. This paper highlights the 1.2 Brief description of the landscape potential of the Galle Fort to be a model of nature- culture linkages and resilience to disasters in the The Galle Fort is part and parcel of a larger Southern Coastal Belt, provided that an integrated ecological setting and its values and meanings are management approach is developed. derived from the greater cultural landscape of the Southern Coastal Belt. Consequently, neither nature ■■2. Significance of Galle Fort nor people can be separated from the fort, which is located in the District of Galle, adjacent to the Located in a distinct natural setting, the Galle

Figure 1: Map showing Galle and Matara Fortresses and other main heritage sites in the region. (Source: Author)

1 The author consulted and interviewed a number of stakeholders involved in the cultural heritage conservation in Sri Lanka as well as an expert involved in heritage conservation and training at international level.

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Fort has important values and meanings to its Burghers, and Malays. All of these communities users (Ministry of Culture and Arts Government have lived in harmony and practiced their faiths of Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 2015:13-14). The for centuries, leading to the development of multi- Galle Fort represents the European expansion in culturalism within the region. The Galle Fort has Asia and thus it can be used to read the history of remained a living monument throughout its history. the colonial occupation of Sri Lanka. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its unique This fort has many attributes that need to be historic and architectural value (Da Silva 1992). It preserved. For instance, fortifications, grid streets, was first built by the Portuguese in 1588 and was street houses with frontal veranda and backyards, modified and used by the Dutch starting in 1649 public and private buildings, and an underground until it was captured by the English in 1796 (Kuruppu sewer system all still display originality in their and Wijesuriya 1992). This fort encloses an area of form and design (Ministry of Culture and Arts 52 hectares and houses a large number of buildings, Government of Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 2015: such as courts, churches, temples, mosques, 14, 16). The sewer system functions as a drainage and warehouses. The fortification contains 14 system even today and some of the tsunami bastions, a gateway, and a clock tower. Some of floods reached the Fort through it in 2004. The these architectural works are great examples of the architectural design of the Galle Fort owes much blend of European and Asian designs and concepts to its local geomorphology. The ramparts of the (Bandaranayake 1992) [Fig. 2]. This fort is also a fort, for example, follow local topography, while the living heritage site, which is inhabited by over 1,686 bastions are located at the most strategic points people2, and for those living there, heritage is a daily in sea and land fronts (Ministry of Culture and Arts experience. Government of Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 2015: 73), protecting it from natural hazards. The social formation in this area is a result of the cross-fertilization of various ethnic and In addition, the Galle Fort is located religious traditions over centuries: the fortress adjacent to the Rumassala hillock which gives an has places of worship for Buddhists, Christians, astounding scenic beauty to the setting of the and Muhammadans, and is home for various Fort. The biodiversity observed in Rumassala, the ethnic groups, such as Sinhalese, Muslims, Tamils, coastal vegetation, and the sea around the fort,

Figure 2: Galle Fort UNESCO World Heritage Site; Front view (Photo credit: Amila Bandaranayake)

2 Number as at 31.12.2018, Performance report Galle Heritage Foundation 2015.

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as well as the uninterrupted oceanic view from the fort, make this heritage site inseparable from nature [Figs. 3 & 4]. Moreover, Rumassala is also associated with Ramayana myths (Ravi Prakash 1998). The Buona-vista Coral Reef, which was once identified as having the greatest marine biodiversity among all coral reefs in Sri Lanka, was located at the base of the Rumassla hill. This reef, along with the Closenburg Reef, is destroyed now, largely due to human intervention, including port expansion. The Galle Fort Reef, located close to the Galle Fort wall, Figure 5: Stilt fishing/Ritipanna (Photo credit: M.A.U. is the only living coral reef around the fort today Rukshan) (see Karunarathne and Weerakkody 1996). These reefs are part of the Galle Fort heritage and need However, due to population pressures and the to be included in its conservation planning. Coral increasing demand for luxury living, the heritage reefs along the Southern Coastal Belt are a major sites are being modified. Many traditional houses attraction for marine eco-tourism. The Coral reefs in and public buildings have been modified into guest Sri Lanka as a whole are, however, endangered due houses and even as luxury hotels, and in some cases, to mining and the deterioration of water quality, this is causing considerable damage to the heritage. and therefore, need a proper conservation and Moreover, the site is permanently exposed to the management plan. sea breeze and sea erosion, in addition to having been hit by the 2004 Tsunami. Coastal heritage, thus, is vulnerable to decay and destruction from natural and human activities and needs the constant attention of heritage managers [Fig. 6].

Figure 6: Effect of sea erosion at Galle Fort (Photo credit: Amila Bandaranayake)

■■3. Current management arrangements

There are a number of institutions and policy frameworks in place in Sri Lanka to deal with the Figures 3 & 4: Galle Fort, View from the sea and conservation of natural and cultural heritage. Rumassala (Photo credit: Rasika Mutukumarana) Legislature concerning both cultural and natural heritage has been in place in Sri Lanka since the The fort is also intimately connected with the 1940s. The National Archaeology Policy (2006) everyday life of the fishing community, who still and the Antiquities Act No. 09 of 1940, and its practice sustainable traditional fishing techniques, subsequent amendments (Act No 24 of 1998) are which are currently great tourist attractions. the main legal and policy framework made available Ritipanna, or stilt fishing (fishing while sitting on a for the protection of cultural heritage. Until the narrow pole tied to a stick installed in the seabed), 1980s, the main state institution that dealt with is one such technique uniquely found along the cultural heritage, except the Department of National Southern Coastal Belt [Fig. 5]. This tradition, Museums, was the Department of Archaeology. The however, is endangered due to the overexploitation 1980s were a turning point in heritage research and of marine resources and becoming less economical. conservation, with the expansion of institutional arrangements and the establishment of the Central

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Cultural Fund and the Postgraduate Institute of deals with these aspects are a major issue. At the Archaeology. At that moment, the conceptualization Galle Fort, where nature, culture, and people are of heritage took a broader perspective, new policy inseparably linked, this rigid institutional division frameworks were introduced, and international creates conflicts of interest, both in the planning agreements, such as the 1972 UNESCO World and implementation of policies. Even among the Heritage Convention, were ratified. Coastal Conservation Department, the Department of Wildlife Conservation, and the Ministry of Currently, the Department of Archaeology Fisheries, which deals with natural heritage - marine and the Central Cultural Fund are the main bodies life, coral reefs, mangroves, and landforms, conflicts that undertake cultural heritage conservation. of interests arising from overlapping territorial Legislature, such as the Heritage Foundation Acts, and subject areas are noted. This leads to issues established to deal with specific sites, are also in in managing the ecosystem around the Galle place. The Galle Heritage Foundation, established Fort. Similar situations occur in managing of the under the Galle Heritage Foundation Act No. 7 of cultural heritage at the Galle Fort, where several 1994, manages the Galle Fort. This Foundation is agencies, such as the Department of Archaeology, represented by 14 different institutions, including Central Cultural Fund, and the Galle Fort Heritage the Department of Archaeology and the Central Foundation, are involved. The main focus of the Cultural Fund3. In addition, there is also a Civilians’ Galle Fort management has been on its tangible Collective (forum of residents) at the Galle Fort. heritage. This leads to the negligence of intangible Although these institutions consult each other in heritage, such as the traditional livelihoods and carrying out their respective duties, there is a lack belief systems of the communities, as well as the of coherent and integrated policies at national- natural environment, of which the fort and the level planning and understanding between various built heritage is only a part. This leads to inefficient stakeholders and residents in the heritage site. disaster responses and recovery, such as to threats like tsunamis. The Ministry of Tourism Development, Wildlife and Christian Religious Affairs, through its ■■4. Current State of Conservation and Challenges departments, such as Wildlife Conservation, deals for Continuity with natural heritage, including the Rumassla Forest Reserve. The Coastal Conservation Department The author examined the entire area affected by the is responsible for marine life around the Galle Bay 2004 Tsunami, between the Nilwala river in Matara and the coast. However, concerns have been raised to the Walawe river in Ambalantota in Southern Sri about the proposed Expansion Lanka (Bohingamuwa 2004, see also Bohingamuwa Project (2007), and the management of the 2009). This study was undertaken as part of the Rumassala Forest Reserve (Goreau 1998). conditional survey initiated by ICOMOS Sri Lanka, in collaboration with the Ministry of Higher Education. In relation to the integration of disaster risk The author also examined the Galle Fort as part management in cultural heritage conservation, Sri of a social, economic, and cultural survey project Lanka is yet to integrate international instruments, initiated by the Galle Heritage Foundation. The such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster objective of this survey was to assess the state Risk Reduction (2015) and the Strategy for Risk of the conservation of the property, including Reduction at World Heritage Properties (2007). the impact of the tsunami, and to recommend At the local level, there are a number of state- necessary conservation methods. The entire level arrangements to deal with disasters. While Galle Fort was surveyed and the residents were the Ministry of Mahaweli Development and interviewed using a questionnaire prepared by the Environment is the main ministry that deals with author (Bohingamuwa 2006). In 2018, the author environmental conservation, climate change, and conducted a new survey and interviews to reassess biodiversity, the Ministry of Disaster Management the heritage management of the Galle Fort. deals with disasters specifically. It was found that during the 2004 Tsunami, However, there are gaps and issues in much of the damage to human life and heritage was these arrangements. Lack of understanding about due to the weaknesses of disaster preparedness the nature-culture link among the agencies that and risk reduction mechanisms. The coastal

3 Other key institutions involved are, Galle Municipal Council, Urban Development Authority, Coast Conservation Department and Ports Authority.

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communities neither had any prior knowledge or experience of such disasters nor had they been part of any Disaster Risk Reduction programmes. This resulted in causing complete shock and panic among them during the disaster. However, they overcame material and emotional losses within a short period and either resumed their traditional livelihoods or adopted new strategies. The coastal ecosystem that was devastated by the tsunami recovered even faster, illustrating greater resilience and adaptability.

The 2004 Tsunami tested the state’s preparedness and capacity, including the strength and efficiency of heritage agencies that deal with such disasters. In their sincere efforts to recover, reconstruct, and restore affected properties and human life, both the government and non- government actors and agencies, as well as individuals, acted to their fullest capacity. However, the author’s active involvement in the post- tsunami Archaeological Impact Assessments and Figures 7 & 8: Galle Fort, Granite boulders that protect heritage conservation activities allowed him to Fort from sea waves (Photo credit: Rasika Mutukumarana) perceive the lack of coordination between these actors, which caused considerable damage to considerable damage in Galle. In the city of Galle, cultural properties. For instance, the Municipal 497 people perished while another 412 people Council, the Urban Development Authority, and went missing due to the tsunami (cf. Department of the other state agencies that deal with everyday Census and Statistics 2005). The Southern Coastal needs of the people, acted fast to restore the Belt was the worst affected area. The case of the affected infrastructures before heritage agencies Galle Fort, therefore, is an exception in the Southern could put in place conservation plans. Even the Coast area, illustrating that much can be learned findings of the ICOMOS Sri Lanka post-tsunami from the past- wise use of local conditions- and from study on the affected sites did not lead to making heritage for increasing resilience and developing any comprehensive and concrete conservation Disaster Risk Reduction programmes for the rest programmes. of the region. Conservation of the natural coastal environment - mangroves, coastal sand dunes, and The Galle Fort itself only received limited coral reefs - are vital for the conservation of the impact from this tsunami, primarily due to its strong Galle Fort and coastal heritage as a whole. Jayatissa high wall and the coral and boulder reefs around (2009) and Dahdouh-Guebas (2005) discussed how it [Figs.7 & 8]. The selection of the location and mangroves acted as natural barriers against the architectural planning of the fort, with minimal 2004 Tsunami, protecting both cultural heritage and intervention to the natural coastal environment, humans living in vulnerable areas. Understanding saved both properties and lives within the fort. traditional knowledge and passing that on to future Tsunami water entered the fort mainly through generations would help protect nature, culture, and the entrances situated on the land side. No loss human lives along the coast. of life was reported from the fort and only some cultural properties were affected. In contrast, the Nevertheless, the Galle Fort and the coastal adjacent historic city and the surrounding area were heritage, in general, is vulnerable to decay and devastated by the tsunami waves that came from destruction due to exposure to sea breeze and either side of the Fort. erosion. The growth of algae and fungi on Buddhist temple paintings, peeling of wall plasters, corrosion The natural landscape on these sides of the of metal objects, and the decaying of roofs, which fort have been modified for augmenting the Galle results in leaking rainwater and cracked walls, are Sea Port and a waterway. Approximately 70 % of the the main state of conservation issues noted in the buildings located on the coastline were destroyed Galle Fort and other sites in the Southern Coastal and at least 30 % of those up to 1km inland suffered Belt. Moreover, movable cultural properties, such

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as the Ola Leaf Manuscripts4, require constant management of heritage at the Galle Fort and along monitoring. the Southern Coast Belt. An active role of heritage managers is vital in such efforts. Illegal construction and modifications made to heritage buildings are reported from A number of positive initiatives have been the Galle Fort World Heritage Site, threatening its undertaken in the recent past and some more integrity. The encroachment of the buffer zone efforts are being made to safeguard the heritage, of the Galle Fort prompted the UNESCO World like the preparation of an Integrated Management Heritage Committee to request that Sri Lanka Plan for the Galle Fort. However, a number of issues, prepare a comprehensive Integrated Management such as deeper understanding about the nature- Plan for the Galle Fort in 2010 (The WHC decision culture linkages and a people-centered approach to 34COM7B.72). This plan was approved by the heritage conservation, remain largely unaddressed. UNESCO World Heritage Committee in 2016 This highlights the need for fresh thinking and (Ministry of Culture and Arts Government of integrated planning at a national level to bring all Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka 2015). In keeping with stakeholders together for the effective functioning these requirements, the Antiquity Ordinance, as of heritage management. Key to achieving any well as the Galle Heritage Foundation Act, are being success in these efforts depends on training an amended (Mandawala 2015: 6 and Pers. comm. adequate number of heritage managers and 2018). involving local communities in heritage protection.

■■5. Lessons learned and Recommendations ■■Acknowledgements

The challenge to all heritage stakeholders is to The author would like to express his gratitude to protect both properties and human lives from the residents and specialists who agreed to be both natural and human-provoked hazards. The interviewed for this work. He thanks Mr. Amila exploitation of natural resources and developmental Bandaranayake, Rasika, Muthukumarana, and Dr. activities have caused considerable damage to Wasntha Senadeera for their assistance in the the ecosystem and landscape along the Southern field, photography, and preparation of maps; Dr. Coastal Belt and around the Galle Fort, exposing Kaushalya Gunasena for reading and commenting communities, as well as cultural and natural on early drafts. heritage, to natural hazards, endangering people’s livelihoods. The impact of the 2004 Tsunami exemplifies the power of nature, as well as the resilience of both coastal communities and the natural environment in their ability to overcome such disasters. However, the impacts on cultural heritage need to be dealt with by heritage managers, whose role was largely overlooked in this disaster. The 2004 Tsunami showed the limitations of the disaster risk preparedness and disaster recovery system of Sri Lanka.

Yet, the Galle Fort showed to be an exception, resistant even to threats from the tsunami. The resilience of properties and coastal communities in other areas could be increased by protecting the coastal landscape and mangroves which act as buffers against the threats of nature. Understanding and respecting the nature-culture and people linkages and educating and involving communities in heritage management and disaster response programmes are the way forward for the

4 Ola leaf is a palm leaf prepared for writing in ancient Sri Lanka. Ola leaf manuscripts written on various subjects such as Buddhism, traditional medicine and horoscopes, are found in the island.

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