Journal of Transport Geography xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Transport Geography

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jtrangeo

Bike-sharing systems and congestion: Evidence from US cities

⁎ Mingshu Wanga, , Xiaolu Zhoub a Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA b Department of Geology and Geography, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In the past decades, there has been a resurgence of public bike-sharing systems (BSSs). While it is claimed that Bike-sharing systems social and environmental benefits are associated with the implementation of BSSs, few empirical studies have Congestion investigated the actual congestion reduction effect of BSSs on cities. To fill such gap, this paper aims to examine ff ff Di erence-in-di erences whether the launch of BSSs can reduce citywide congestion. With a panel dataset of 96 urban areas in the US Fixed effects model from 2005 to 2014, we employed a difference-in-differences model with two-way fixed-effects panel regression. United States The results suggested that the introduction of BSSs shows a significant mixed impact on congestion in general: Larger cities get better off but richer cities get worse off. Such results are consistent with both subsample re- gression with propensity score matching and different congestion measures. Post-hoc analysis reveals that BSSs have a significant positive effect on reducing rush-hour congestion. Finally, implications, limitations, and future work directions are offered

1. Introduction health benefits, including but not limited to congestion and emission reductions, flexible mobility, consumer financial savings, and positive A resurgence of (public) bike-sharing systems (BSSs) has been wit- health outcomes (Midgley, 2011; Shaheen et al., 2010). Despite above- nessed around the world in the past decades. Although the idea of BSSs mentioned benefits of BSS, there are at least two concerns about the has been around for almost half a century, it is only recently that such effectiveness of the BBS functionality from previous studies. First, cy- systems have been strategized as sustainable transportation means cling itself rather than the BSS, in general, provides many of the ben- worldwide. For example, public bike docking stations, which were efits above (Handy et al., 2014; Pucher and Buehler, 2012). Although hardly seen in Asia, Australia, and the Americas before 2008, have been one of those objectives of BSSs is to promote cycling, such effect cannot a recognizable feature in many cities nowadays (Midgley, 2011). In- be taken for granted. The improvement of bike lanes and the increase deed, the number of cities with a BSS has increased from 13 in 2004 to docking stations can also facilitate cycling activities. In other words, it 855 as of 2014 (Fishman, 2016). While Europe continues pioneering may not be necessarily through the launch of BSSs to achieve such BSSs and has begun to adopt a new generation of BSSs, North America benefits. Second, the achievement of such benefits relies heavily on the is at an early stage but gains rapid growth of BSSs (Parkes et al., 2013). effectiveness of BSSs. For instance, the benefits of mobility, financial Most common BSS can be described as a public program, which offers savings, and health depend on the actual participation level of BSS bikes that can be picked up and returned at docking stations for free or users. The social and environmental benefits of congestion and emission a small fee across an urban area. Trips using BSSs are usually of short reduction depend on the degree of modal shift from automobile to the duration (e.g., 30 min). Contemporary internet and communication real use of BSSs. In other words, the launch of BSSs may not be suffi- technologies (ICTs) are typically embedded into BSSs to facilitate pro- cient to achieve such positive outcomes. Although a few previous stu- gram management and operation. For instance, smartphone apps are dies examined the environmental benefits associated with the BSS developed and provided to the end-user to enable bike check-out and (DeMaio, 2009), very few empirical studies examined the effect of return. The global positioning system (GPS) units are also adopted in congestion reduction related to the introduction of the BSSs across the some BSSs to track bike locations. Geographic information system (GIS) US. In a recent study, Hamilton and Wichman (2017) found that BSSs has also been introduced to monitor and allocate bikes across different can reduce congestion at neighborhood scale in Washington, D.C. docking stations. Therefore, we aim to expand the scope of cities and provide a high-level Although the explicit goals of the introduction of individual BSSs assessment of the relationship between the launch of BSSs and con- may be different, BSSs are associated with social, environmental, and gestion through a difference-in-differences (DID) model that examined

⁎ Corresponding author at: University of Georgia, Geog-Geol Bldg, 210 Field Street, Rm 204, Athens, GA 30602, USA. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Wang). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.10.022 Received 3 May 2017; Received in revised form 24 October 2017; Accepted 26 October 2017 0966-6923/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Wang, M., Journal of Transport Geography (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2017.10.022 M. Wang, X. Zhou Journal of Transport Geography xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx the congestion over ten years (2005–2014) in 96 urban areas in the US. 2.2. Purported benefits of BSSs To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study to examine whether the launch of BSSs has an impact on congestion using DID. There are a number of purported social, environmental, and health With the DID method, the two-way fixed-effect panel regression results benefits of BSSs. Shaheen et al. (2010) and Shaheen et al. (2013) indicate that the introduction of BSSs has significant mixed effects on summarized as (1) congestion, emission, air pollution, and noise re- congestion. Our results are robust to subsample regression with pro- ductions; (2) flexible mobility, transportation connection improvement; pensity score matching and different measures for congestion. Post-hoc (3) health promotion; and (4) consumer financial savings. Many of the analysis reveals BSSs have a significant positive impact on reducing benefits mentioned above count on the assumption that the im- peak-hour congestion. Based on our findings, policy implications are plementation of BSSs has encouraged users to switch to BSSs for trips discussed. Next, we provide the background of BSSs and related lit- previously made by car. However, empirical evidence has not reached a erature in BSSs and congestion (Section 2) before introducing our data consensus about whether such assumption is indeed based on reality and empirical strategies with difference-in-differences methods along (Midgley, 2011). with robustness checks (Section 3). Section 4 presents the results. Fi- The first strand of studies shows general agreement with the as- nally, Section 5 discusses implications and limitations of this work. sumption that the launch of BSSs has demonstrated an increase in overall cycling activities in urban areas. For example, after launching the BSSs, the percentage of trips made by bike grew by 1% from 2005 to 2. Background and related work 2007 in Barcelona, by 1.5% from 2001 to 2007 in Paris, and by 1.5% from 1995 to 2006 in Lyon (Garcia-Palomares et al., 2012). Further- In this section, we first briefly summarize the history of the four- more, a study of the BSS (OYBike) in London revealed that 40% of users generations of BSSs. Second, we present a retrospective of empirical shifted from automobiles to the BSS (Noland and Ishaque, 2006). works dealing with the benefits and concerns of BSSs. However, Pucher et al. (2010) argued that such results were con- founding because, despite the fact that cycling has increased in cities 2.1. A brief history of BSSs since the introduction of the BSSs, the growth of bike mode share might be because of the overall improvement of biking facilities. Nevertheless, The world's first BSS, namely the “White Bike”, was launched in DeMaio (2009) explicitly showed that the BSS in Montreal had suc- Amsterdam in 1965. It failed relatively quickly due to theft and vand- cessfully reduced greenhouse gas emissions by over 1300 tons since its alism, as those bikes were not equipped with any security features inception in 2009. A recent study by Hamilton and Wichman (2017) (DeMaio, 2009). According to Parkes et al. (2013), this also marked the revealed that BSSs reduced congestion of neighborhoods in Wa- first-generation of BSSs, which was characterized by no payment or shington, D.C. Moreover, studies indicate that the increased cycling security functionalities. Established in Copenhagen in 1995, the second- behaviors due to the execution of BSSs are associated with significant generation of BSSs was upgraded with a coin deposit system. However, improvements in fitness and public health, such as reduced risks of it still faced the problem of theft (DeMaio, 2009). The emergence and heart disease and cancer (Cavill et al., 2006; Rojas-Rueda et al., 2011; prosperity of ICTs have enhanced the security functions and reduced Shaheen et al., 2010). In summary, most evidence that BSSs can in- the management risk of BSSs by enabling the tracking of bicycles and crease cycling behaviors is limited to individual cities. electronic payment systems. With fixed docking stations, ICT-enabled The second strand of studies seems to reject the assumption that the BSSs are also recognized as the third-generation of BSSs (Shaheen et al., implementation of BSSs has encouraged users to switch to BSSs for trips 2013). Meanwhile, there is a growing public policy interest in the previously made by car for varied reasons. First, many users of BSSs or benefits associated with BSSs (Midgley, 2011; Shaheen et al., 2010). bikes use them for leisure but not for commuting. For example, Noland Consequently, practices on the third-generation of BSSs have recently et al. (2011) conducted a statewide study and revealed that most people increased dramatically around the world. From 2004 to 2014, cities use bikes for recreational purposes in New Jersey, USA. In other words, with BSSs have surged from 13 to 855 (Fishman, 2016). Cities across BSSs promoted some trips which would not have been made in the the globe have adopted different operation and pricing schemes. For absence of BSSs (Ahillen et al., 2016). Furthermore, López-Valpuesta example, in Netherlands, there is a single nationwide bike sharing and Sánchez-Braza (2016) found that in Seville, Spain, BSSs and private program named “OV-fiets” with the requirement of membership sub- bikes were two complementary modes of transport and the mean dis- scription and “OV-chipkaart”—a contactless smart card. In London, tance of trips made by the former was 700–800 m shorter than that Barclays and then Santander have sponsored the Transport for London made by the latter. Second, there are concerns that the launch of BSSs for its BSSs, in which the first 30-min is free with a payment of 2 GBP and other bike facilities may just reinforce the behavior of existing access fee by credit card. In North America, a Montreal-based company bicyclists but not recruit new members who would switch transport named PBSC Urban Solutions has provided integrated BSS solutions mode to bikes. Buck et al. (2013) found that BSS members are not (including bikes, pay stations, locking systems and smartphone appli- frequent bike-share users, as 21% female and 13% male members in cations) to a number of cities, such as Montreal and Toronto in Canada, Washington, DC, reported no rides in a typical month. Schoner et al. Boston, New York City and Washington, D.C. in US, and Guadalajara, (2015) showed that bike lanes are more likely to attract existing bicy- and Toluca in Mexico. In South America, municipal governments, such clists to a neighborhood than to encourage non-bikers to shift transport as Buenos Aires, Argentina, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and Quito, Ecuador, modes. More recently, Mitra et al. (2017) reported that after the re- partner with local commercial firms to operate citywide BSSs. The development of bike facilities in downtown Toronto, Canada, young fourth-generation of BSSs is emerging now; it includes features such as people were still less likely to switch from a car trip to a bike trip. Third, dockless stations, better integration with public transit systems, and some scholars are concerned about the negative externalities associated power assistance (Parkes et al., 2013). In June 2017, Urbo began to with BSSs. The launch of a BSS is usually accompanied by certain operate dockless bike-sharing programs in Ireland and across Europe. In changes in bike facilities. For example, the installation of docking sta- China, the largest two BSS operators (i.e., Mobike and Ofo) have also tions occupies public space; prescribing bike lanes and increasing the adopted dockless stations. While Mobike became the world's biggest width of bike facilities reduces lane space for automobiles, which operator of BSSs in December 2016, Ofo had secured over 20 million consequently impacts the level of service of a road (Burke and Scott, users by March 2017 (http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-ofo- 2016). In a nutshell, many users of BSSs may regard BSSs at best as an fundraising-idUSKBN1683C9). For a more detailed overview of recent adjunct to their primary transport mode, and facilities associated with developments in BSSs, please see the review papers conducted by BSSs may impose adverse consequences. Such inconsistent arguments Fishman et al. (2013) and Fishman (2016). in the effect of BSSs on road congestion call for further empirical studies

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