A Review of the Development of Sport Hypnosis As a Performance Enhancement Method for Athletes

Journal of Psychology and Clinical Psychiatry

A Review of the Development of Sport Hypnosis as a Performance Enhancement Method for Athletes

Abstract Review Article

The purpose of this review was to trace the historical milestones in the emergence Volume 6 Issue 6 - 2016 of sport hypnosis from its earliest beginnings to the present time. The authors reviewed some important definitional conceptualizations of hypnosis from the William F Straub1* and John J Bowman2 1Sport Science International, Lansing, USA for the modern definitions of hypnosis and eventually of sport hypnosis. 2 work of Braid, Bernheim, Freud, Hull and Erickson. Erickson laid the groundwork Mind Plus Muscle Institute, Port Jefferson Station, USA psychological symptoms and problems” [1]. Attention was given to both research *Corresponding author: andClinical conceptual sport hypnosis literature was on defined the role as: of“helping hypnosis athletes in sport. overcome Contributions a variety of William F Straub, Sport Science Received:International, July Lansing, 10, 2016 USA, | Published: Email: workleading in sportmental psychologists, training, laid e.g., the Brucefoundation Ogilvie, for Lars-Eric sport hypnosis Uneståhl, were Terry presented. Orlick, Finally,Ken Ravizza, the future Brent of Rushall,sport hypnosis Robert was Nideffer, explored Kay as Porter, an empirically Maxwell demonstrated Maltz, whose November 01, 2016 methodology for expanding the range of mental skills training.

Keywords:

Hypnosis; Altered State of Consciousness; Flow; Performance; Enhancement; Sport Hypnosis; Mental training

Method for Athletes Considered the father of modern hypnotherapy, HippolyteBernheim [5] Whether it is overcoming a mental block, building a sharper popularized the view that hypnosis, induced by means of suggestion, is fundamentally a state Hypnosis has been helping athletes and coaches engage in an focus for mental imagery, or increasing self-confidence, Sport elusive but effective mental process to improve training and as induced sleep, Benheim indicated that this performance for more than 100 years. of heightened suggestibility. Defining hypnosis Hypnosis defined a peculiar psychicaldefinition condition was which too increases narrow a the meaning susceptibility of the to suggestion [5].word. Hyper-suggestibility, He defined hypnosis with oras “thewithout induction sleep, ofis

to aTo discussion understand of sporthow hypnosis hypnosis is it used is first in necessary to define hypnosis and then move the term he used to describe a wider definition of hypnosis [5].

sport psychology. From these definitions, Freud [6] used hypnosis as a vehicle for catharsis After studying with Bernheim, Sigmund dependinga definition on ofthe sport orientation hypnosis of the will hypnotist, evolve. and regression. After abandoning hypnosis, he And, although there are many definitions developed his own technique of psychoanalysis. According to the American Psychological Association’s Div. 30 When Freud returned to hypnosis, he decided a few definitions are of particular importance. that it might be necessary to combine the during which a health professional or researcher suggests while treating(Society someone, of Psychological that he or Hypnosis), she experience “hypnosis changes is in a sensations, procedure findings of psychoanalysis with the methods of perceptions, thoughts or behavior”. According to Robertson Charcot’s work inhypnotherapy. France and decided In 1885 toFreud study was with impressed him. Freud by was impressed by the therapeutic potential of hypnosis for neurotic disorders. As a result when he came home to Vienna, [2], one of the first definitions of hypnosis was proposed by he used hypnosis to help neurotics recall disturbing events James Braid, the Scottish physician and surgeon. Braid founded that they had apparently forgotten. After developing his system hypnotherapy and first discovered hypnosis in 1841. Originally, of psychoanalysis, including theoretical considerations, he mentalhe used andthe termvisual “Neuro-Hypnotism” eye, Braid [3] thought or nervous that hypnosis sleep to created describe a encountered problems in hypnotizing some patients. As a result hypnosis. Induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the peculiar state of the nervous system [4].

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strong cognitive and interpersonal components that affect an individual’s response to hypnosis. There is also growing support of a these school difficulties, of hypnosis Freud known discarded as Hypnoanalysis. hypnosis in Freud favor did of freenot for the idea that hypnotic communication and suggestions association. Eventually, Freud’s work led to the development effectively changes aspects of the person’s physiological and nature of hypnosis. According to Freud [6], it has been established neurological functioning. thatactually it is possible define hypnosis. by means Rather,of hypnosis he presentedto put a person a view into ona quite the peculiar mental state, very similar to sleep. Summary

at the Universities of Yale and Wisconsin, of hypnosis several themes emerge. First, hypnosis produces After tracing the history of the development of definitions helpedClark theHull [7],evolution a professor of ofhypnosis psychology by an altered state of conscious where the client is able to accept

In his text: Hypnosis and Suggestibility, now by concentration and focused attention. Presently, hypnosis suggestions from the hypnotist. Second, hypnosis is characterized consideredexamining ita fromclassic, a he scientific indicated perspective. that the characterized by receptivity to direction and heightened suggestibility”may be defined [1]. as “an induced altered state of consciousness only thing which seems to define hypnosis as practice of calling it a ‘state’ is its generalized hyper-suggestibility. Definition of sport hypnosis Hull desired to makesuch hypnosis and which an gives exact any science. justification And for after the examining the work of previous experts, he concluded: Despite Like hypnosis, there is considerable disagreement about how different theoretical orientations of the various writers and their varying and diverse interpretation of the phenomenon, most agree that hypnotic trance produces an elevated susceptibility to andsport sport hypnosis scientists should present be defined. a more Psychologists applied or coach seem oriented to favor suggestions. cognitive and behavior definitions. On the other hand, exercise

asdefinition. the use ofFor hypnotherapy. example, the Paccagnella American Psychological [9] agrees and Association, states that second year undergraduate when sportsDivision hypnosis 30, to enhance refer to theperformance, use of hypnotherapy sport hypnosis with athletesis defined to Clark In Hull 1923, delivered Milton Ericksonhis lectures was on a hypnosis at the University of Wisconsin – states that hypnosis in sport has therapeutic and performance enhancinghelp them performfunctions better, and describes i.e., enhance it as performance. mental training. She Leading further life and eventually the study and Madison. This event changed Erickson’s Hypnosis is helping athletes overcome a variety of psychological is often referred to as the most skilled authorities Edgette and Rowan [1] stated that: “Clinical Sport practice of hypnosis. Today,th Erickson hypnotherapist of the 20 century. hypnosis can help athletes acquire certain cognitive, psychological, behavioralsymptoms andand problems”affective qualities(p.3). They so also that suggest their physicalclinical sport and distinctive style of hypnotism, referred to mental capabilities are improved. According Wikipedia [10], sport Erickson is the originator of a novel and unconscious mind was always attending to stimuli and indicated thatas indirect “Ericksonian” suggestion [2]. or Ericksonwhat has [7,8]he called believed conversational that the sporthypnosis hypnosis is defined as a formas the of usemental of hypnotherapy training which with can athletescontribute in hypnosis that permitted the unconscious mind to participate toorder enhancing to improve athletic sporting performance. performance. Liggett [11] also defines actively in the therapeutic process. As a result, a normal conversation may induce a hypnotic trance or a therapeutic as: Hypnotism directed towards improving sports performance. change in the person. For purposes of conceptualization, he CertainFrom trance the above, phenomenon it appears make that hypnosissport hypnosis particularly may be suited defined to described the hypnotic trance as a state of increased awareness sports improvement. First is the enhanced vividness and clarity which the primary feature was suggestibility. might use sports hypnosis to vividly imagine doing the double axel and responsiveness to ideas (Collected Papers, vol. IV, 174) in of mental rehearsal or visualization. A figure skater, for example, American society of clinical hypnosis (ASCH) Using the metaphor: using a magnifying glass to focus the ray or flip or a baseball player might clearly image the perfect swing. andThe hypnosissecond phenomenon are both about is the focusing intensification attention, of vivid emotions sensory which and Clinical Hypnosis (www.asch.net physicalcan create experience self-confidence and positive and positive visualization. expectations. Finally, sport innerof the absorption, sun to make concentration it more powerful, and focused The attention. American As Society a result, of when our minds are concentrated), anddefines focused, “hypnosis we are as able a state to use of Discussion of hypnosis in applied sport psychology our minds more powerfully. While there is general agreement that Among the leading textbooks in sport psychology, only Van certain effects of hypnosis exist, there are differences of opinion Raalte and Brewer [12] include an article on sport hypnosis. within the research and clinical communities about how hypnosis Weinberg and Gould [13], in their classic textbook, devote two pages to sport hypnosis. They indicate that hypnosis is individuals to the degree they possess a hypnotic trait, i.e., traits works. Some authorities believe that hypnosis can be used by “a somewhat controversial and misunderstood technique for like those associated with height, body size, hair color, etc.” (p.1) reducing anxiety” (p. 273). Apparently other authors such as Others who study and research hypnosis indicate that there are Martens [14], Horn [15] and Williams [16] believe that hypnosis

Citation:

Straub WF, Bowman JJ (2016) A Review of the Development of Sport Hypnosis as a Performance Enhancement Method for Athletes. J Psychol Clin Psychiatry 6(6): 00378. DOI: 10.15406/jpcpy.2016.06.00378 A Review of the Development of Sport Hypnosis as a Performance Enhancement Method Copyright: 3/9 for Athletes ©2016 Straub et al. is too controversial to be given extensive treatment in their that a control group was not used. In other words, how would golf putting be affected if the hypnotic intervention was removed? antidotal and an abundance of case studies that show that documents. However, Cowan [17] indicates that there is extensive there have been many reviews of the literature on sport hypnosis. To address this limitation, Pates, Oliver, and Maynard’s [26] hypnosis may improve sport performance. Over the past 50 years conducted a follow-up investigation utilizing a single-subject hypnosis in enhancing muscular strength and endurance, better interventionreplication reversal was introduced (A-B-A) and design. then Theylater removed. demonstrated The A-B-A how motorFor example, coordination, Jacobs &Gotthelf and performance [18] examined in a thevariety effectiveness of athletic of designjump and allowed set-shot the investigatorsperformance towould establish be affected a baseline when assessment, hypnotic activities. They reported that there is extensive clinical evidence implement the hypnosis technique, and then withdraw the to support these claims but experimental evidence is lacking. intervention in to determine the effectiveness of the invention. hypnosis from empirical and clinical perspectives and reviewed and basketball shooting execution. When the experimental Morgan [19] was one of the first sport psychologists to address treatsThey foundwere removed, that the hypnoticthe performance intervention scores improved returned jumpingto near of practitioners, theories, case studies and clinical applications. such important topics as research and appraisal, qualifications and important investigation of the use of sport hypnosis by sport baseline levels. Grindstaff and Fisher [28] have also published improvingMorgan also the cites performance the empirical of a professional studies of Warrenbaseball Johnsonplayers [20] at the University of Maryland on the effect of hypnosis on consultantpsychology possessed consultants. experience Six sport and psychology training related consultants to hypnosis. (all indicates that most of the investigation have been conducted in DataPhDs) analyses conducted revealed in-depth a variety interviews of subthemes (semi-structured). and themes related Each laboratorywho was in setting a slump. and Inare his therefore appraisal lacking of research, in ecological Morgan validity. [19] to the practice of hypnosis. The guiding interview questions were: a. hypnosis experience and training, was that perception of effort could be systematically decreased orAn increased important systematically finding during by thehypnosis early during years of exercise sport hypnosis[20, 21]. b. misconceptions and stereotypes related to hypnosis, during this period was that ’demand characteristics’ were largely c. the use of hypnosis as a performance enhancement method, However despite some positive findings, a problem with research d. advantages and disadvantages of using hypnosis with by stating that direct hypnotic suggestions is not likely to result in athletes, and improvedignored. Morgan performance. concludes Presently, his analysis there of is therenewed research appreciation literature and interest in the use of hypnosis in sport setting. Today research e. cultural questions [29]. to improve athletic performance. the use of sport hypnosis warrant further discussion along with findings are much more positive about the usefulness of hypnosis Their findings indicated that ethical guidelines addressing research literature was completed by Taylor, Horevitz and consultants providing sport hypnosis to athletes. BalagueOne of[22]. the Their most paper thorough showed reviews the value of of the hypnosis conceptual in applied and a more stringent review of qualification standards for those Misconceptions about hypnosis sport psychology and addressed hypnotizability and other factors sport hypnosis back to its origins 100 years ago, they described exercise and sport setting is the misconceptions surrounding its ainfluencing rich tradition the effectivenessas well as a of history hypnotic of interventions.controversy in Tracing which use.One Duncan of the [30] main reported factors that that the limitdebate the over use hypnosis of hypnosis evolved in despite growing support for the use of hypnosis for athletes, little because of a lack of a clear understanding of how to administer formal consideration had been given to how hypnosis may be best applied to enhance sport performance [23]. They describe hypnosis is often viewed with suspicion and mistrust and in the hypnosis as a state of heightened focal attention where clients are hypnosis, i.e., how it works. “As a consequence, the topic of able to manipulate and modify attentional focus. However like of hypnosis as a sport enhancement intervention is the lack of field of magic not science” (p 1). Another limiting factor in the use of hypnosis on sport performance had produced mixed results, needed to perform hypnosis and are generally fearful that their Morgan, they note that experimental research about the effect clientsqualified will sport not hypnotists. accept it Manyas a mentalviable trainersmethod lack of performancethe expertise by stating that hypnosis is useful in applied sport psychology but enhancement. However despite sound methodological support, severali.e., the important data are equivocal issues must [24,25]. be addressed. They conclude For example, their review the the use of hypnosis as a means of enhancing sport performance has increased over the past several years [31]. ethical standards must be followed by all hypnotists, and third, therepreparation is a need of thefor hypnotistgreater methodological is of prime importance. rigor in the Second, conduction APA’s you, soon you would either drift off to sleep or you’d awake to see of sport hypnotic research. Recent empirical investigations have whatNo, is you going are on. in control. If the hypnotist stopped talking to with focused on experimental research designed to determine to what degree hypnosis can be used to enhance sport performance a. Will I express that something would embarrass me?

These investigators reported that participants, after receiving [26,27] studied flow states and hypnosis on golf putting execution. You are the one in control of what you do and say. Even in a hypnotic trance, you are aware of your actions. No! their golf putting performance. However, Grindstaff and Fisher b. What does it feel like to be hypnotized? the hypnotic intervention, each of the five participants increased

[28] cogently point out that a problem with this investigation was

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Personally, every time I was hypnotized I felt fantastic, i.e., effect of passive and active hypnosis inductions on reaction time like I had had a good night’s sleep. It is very relaxing but perhaps improve reaction time, she cited several outcome studies that uncaring about everyday concerns, relaxed and only vaguely with NCAA baseball players. Although her intervention did not awaredifferent of their for eachsurroundings, person. Mostfocused people on their report imagination, that they barely feel, hearing extraneous noises, a sense of lethargy, arms and legs supported the use of hypnosis [33]. In addition, Smith, Glass and either heavy or light. To a hypnotist, the person looks as relaxed therapies.Miller [34] Additionally, published meta-analytic Barker, et al. studies[35] found on sportsport hypnosis.hypnosis effectiveThey found in helping significantly athletes enhanced to develop effects and than maintain nonhypnotic the appropriate states of mind needed for peak performance as well as if she were asleep. In particular, the face is a little flushed and as increasing their actual ability to perform. They reported that becomes placid. The eye lids may flutter a little. sport hypnosis enhanced the focus of athletes, reduced muscle c. Sport hypnosis is only about anxiety reduction. not want or need to experience deep relaxation prior to or during Barker, Jones and Greenlees [35] used hypnosis to assess the theirIt isathletic the opinion performances. of Edgette Theyand Rowan continue [1] thatby saying most athletes that most do tension and increased motivation and self-confidence. immediate effect of soccer wall-volley performance and self- athletes in fact value the experience of being on edge, psyched up, and pumped-up. Too often in the psychological preparation who were assigned randomly to ether a video attention-control of players, there is a gross overemphasis on relaxation and the efficacy. The participant (N = 59) were college soccer players follow-up, a pretest-posttest design was used to assess the effects group (n = 29) or hypnosis (n = 30). With an additional 4-week athletesd. It feel is vitalthat theyprior will to performancebe ‘flat’ when for it is athletes time to tocompete. visualize a perfect performance. group,of the experimental who followed treatments. the intervention, A task-specific performed questionnaire more effectively was used to measure self-efficacy. Findings showed that the hypnosis but they believe that there is a gross over emphasis on the use stated that hypnosis may be used to improve wall-volley skill and of imageryEdgette to and enhance Rowan performance. [1]state that According visualization to these can be authors, useful and were more efficacious than the control group. Barker et al. experience of having a mental stance, or a process, or a strategy maintainAfter a self-efficacy. careful review of the research and conceptual literatures, that“most allows athletes them benefit to deal not with from the visualizing many personal a best and scenario team glitches but the it is evident that hypnosis may be used by athletes and coaches to thate. arise Another during misconceptionthe course of any is thatevent” sport (p. 22).psychology involves Layingenhance self-efficacythe Foundation and improve for Sport athlete Hypnosis---performance. Mental an extended period of therapy. Training Leaders carry-over from psychoanalytic and psychodynamic thinking. have made the mental training of athletes an integral part of Edgette and Rowan [1] indicate that this line of thinking is a These therapists believed that any problem, large or small requires theThere athlete’s are preparationa number of and outstanding have devoted Sport countlessPsychologists hours who to

remarkable men and women would endorse hypnosis as a an extended period of therapy. Thanks to the work of Milton recognize that most small problem and many large one can be trainingthe promotion modality; of sport however psychology their ideas as a laid science. the ground Not all work of these for Erickson’s conversation style of psychotherapy, hypnotherapists ameliorated in a relatively short time. the development of new and better mental training methods. The sport psychology profession is indebted to them for their that improving performance through therapy entails uncovering expertise and willing to explore the inner workings of the minds f. Another misunderstanding reported by Edgette et al. [1] is of players. thedeep sport psychological related problems issues that many are remotelytimes are but due definitely to a numerous related to the performance issue at hand. Edgette and Rowan [1] believes psychologistDr. Ogilvie towas use a pioneer assessments in the early and interventionsdays of sport psychology. to sport participants, The first sport Dr. factors, including: poor training, injury, lack of opportunity, habits, lack of confidence and other factors. misconceptions will disappear as athletes and coaches will speak publicallyAs the about field oftheir sport experiences hypnosis with develops, hypnosis many in ofpractice the above and Ogilvie is recognized for his many and competitive situations. diverse contributions. Ogilvie is often testedcalled the250 “Fatherrace car of drivers, North Americanskydivers andSport players Psychology”. from a Invariety the 1970s,of sports. he His research indicated that athletes in DoesAlthough Sport Hypnosis there is aWork? considerable antidotal data that show that hypnosis will help athletes improve their performance Taylor, et risky sports have emotional stability, superior intelligence, and al. [32] indicate that there is only limited empirical investigation independence when compared to those who did not participate efforts to minimize risks in the sports that they play. His research in these sports, Dr. Ogilvie also found that these participants make forthat example, supports Cowanthese reports. completed Since a Taylor’s doctoral review dissertation was completed on the also indicated that these athletes share certain characteristics. in 1993, new findings have emerged from the literature. In 2010 Race car drivers, for example, are very driven and need to be in

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control. To combat the stress, drivers are also abnormally sexually metal training, when coupled with physical preparation, is more effective than the use of either one alone. of people do not participate during the week in any activities Brent Rushall, a professor emeritus at thatactive. cause In another them toinvestigation, sweet. However, According attending to Ogilvie, sporting fifty percentevents, oriented scholar who was a leader in the spectators are very active cheering and praising their teams. San Diego State University, is a behavioral according to Dr. Ogilvie, may not be a passive pastime. Many development of mental training programs Continuing a line of research on people who attend or for players. During his distinguished career who watching sports use many social and psychological skills. articles dealing the behavioral aspects watch sports watch on TV, Dr. Ogilvie concluded that persons ofhe sport wrote psychology. 57 books andDr. Rushall published was 450 a considerable amount of thee male sex hormone, i.e., testosterone. According to Ogilvie, men while watching sports exude a Canada. The founding scholar in Behavioral provides a fantasy escape for that person and can be a form of hero four-time Olympic Team psychologist for Ogilvie suggested that when a person watches a sporting event, it science of coaching. At many world conferences, he was the Sport Psychology, Dr. Rushall was also a world authority in the modeling. Sporting activities, according to Ogilvie, provide people in retirement, Professor Rushall has received prestigious awards athletes,with a sense they wrote of social the meaning controversial and purpose.text titled: During Problem the Athletes 1970s keynote speaker for both academia and sport psychology. Now andwhen How Ogilvie to Handle and Thomas Them. Tutko began working with professional sport sciences. His book: Mental skills Training for Sports is a that recognize his accumulated contributions to the field of the professional and college/university sports teams. All toll, he classic (2008). Kay Porter was another early During his long career, Dr. Ogilvie consulted with many

Losworked Angeles with Lakers, a total of four NFL teams, nine NBA teams, and six. mentalpioneer training in the fieldtechniques of mental to training.enhance MLB teams. Some examples of those teams are the New York Mets. sportShe was performances one of the of first athletes women and to useher San Francisco 49ers, and the Dallas Cowboys writing of visualization scripts is well From 1960 until his death in 2003, Dr. Ogilvie was also an Olympic known. Based in the running capital of consultant for the United States.With all the increased attention given to sport hypnosis within the past several early video with Judy Foster where years, mental training programs have they showed the applicationthe world, of mental Eugene, training Oregon, to cross Dr. Porter’scountry been developed to enhance performance in actual athletic settings. As a young mentalrunner istraining a classic. techniques Her sport to psychology businesses, counseling school districts firm, Porter and that I heard of sport hypnosis was a talk Performance Systems, is located in Eugene, Oregon She teaches college professor, one of the first times teams. She has also worked as a consultant in sport psychology importantgiven by Dr. concepts Lars-Eric about Uneståhl sport hypnosis, at SUNY speakerto the University and has Ofmade Oregon many Athletic keynote Department, addresses theat the U.S. women Tennis his demonstration of theOswego. ‘Arm Bar” And method although he presented many Association and US track and Field. Dr. Porter is a talented

atin marathons business, Wellness in Houston, conferences, Boston, and Women’s Pittsburgh. Olympic Dr. Porter Marathon is an a young athlete to come to the front of the room and position his Trials, and sales conferences. She has been the sport psychologist armof out mind to thecontrol side still with stays elbow in extended.my thoughts. Then Dr. he Uneståhl proceeded asked to executive coach and psychotherapist in privateInner practice. Mental Training She has resisted. Then he had the athlete visualize his arm as a crowbar forauthored Women or, andco-authored Visual Athletics The Mental Athlete: Inner Training for push the player’ arm down toward the floor while the young man Peak Performance (Human Kinetics, 2003), (1990) W.C. Brown.The Dr. Mental Porter and he attempted to push the arm toward the floor again. This Athletehas co-produced”. Dr. Porters two has teaching also created videotapes, audiotapes “Change and CDs Your of guided Mind: time Dr. Uneståhl found it much more difficult to do so. Yes, the visualizationsInner Mental Trainingfor stress for reduction, women goalin Business, achievement, and “and healing havemind beenis very developed powerful to and help our athletes thoughts enhance influence their how individual well we andbehave. collective Since his performances talk at Oswego, and many improve mental their training quality programs of life. of sports injuries. psychologist, is one of the most theHowever, world promoting Dr. Uneståhl mental is recognized training as as an the important ‘Father’ component of Mental talentedTerry mental Orlick trainers [36], Canadian in the world. sport Training. Lars-Eric, as everyone calls him, has traveledCoaching all over His contributions to sport psychology with Mental Training: The ideal combination, spells-out his are legendary. Terry, as he likes to be theoreticalof athletic preparation.and applied His approach 2013 text to withathlete GregorSchill preparation. And called, is known for his humanistic style and ability to generate enhanced is that he has the data to support his statements. He has trained performance from athletes in a wide what is so interesting and important about the Uneståhl’s method variety of sport situations. He founded the Zone of Excellence and is world hundreds of Swedish athletes and has dramatically shown that

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renowned leader in coaching and teaching people how to

preparation leading up to the 2002 Winter Games in Salt Lake enhancedperform to performance,best of their ability. He has In brief,bridged Dr. Orlickmultiple puts disciplinesjoyfulness City. His contributions also include numerous books and scientific in the lives of his clients. A leader the field of focus training for journals on sport human performance and sport psychology. Dr. Murphy is the author or co-author of five books, including: “The musicians,for over 35 surgeons, years. Dr. athletes Orlick and has consultedcoaches, astronauts, with thousands dancers, of Sport Psych Handbook: Complete Guide to Today’s Best Mental operacorporate singers leaders, and professional other performing and Olympic artists, athletes, mission top classicalcontrol Training Techniques” (2005), “The Cheers and the Tears: Positive The co-founder of the Human Perfor- professionals, and many others person who are in high stress Alternative to the Dark Side of Youth Sports Today”. performance missions. Terry teaches the key psychological links world-renowned performance psycholo- to excellence that are required for quality living and exceptional gist,mance and Institute, the writer Dr. of Jim 16 Leor books (2012) including is a performance to teenagers, and children, and persons of all ages. his most recent, The Only Way to Win. And, His scien- much of his life to helping children and teenagers. Under his The Power of Full Engagement”. Despite his busy consulting schedule, Dr. Orlick has committed ce-based energy management training system“ achieved worldwide recognition by direction they grow and perform with self-confidence and an leading authorities. haveincreased sold senseover more of harmony than a millionand joy copiesin their of lives. copies The worldwide. author of Business Week, Harvard Business Review, Time, Fortune, Hismore best-selling than 200 articles, texts include: Dr. Orlick’s In Pursuit 8 audio of Excellence,CDs and his Embracing 24 books Your Potential, Positive Living Skills, Feeling Great, and others. Newsweek, US News and World Report, Success, Omni, and Ken Ravizza brought a unique and 0ther leading publications have written about his work. NBC’s humanistic style to his approach to Today Show, ABC’s Nightline with Ted Koppel, the CBS Evening mental training. A professor of Applied moreNews than with 30 Dan years Rather of experience, and CBS Morning Dr. Leor News believes and thethe Oprahsingle mostWinfrey important Show have factor had Dr.in Leor successful appear onachievement, their programs. personal After University at Fullerton, Dr. Ravizza isSport one Psychologyof the top atPeak California Performance State experts in the world. His educational thatfulfillment strength and is lifeimproved, satisfaction i.e., hard is the work. strength He has of one’sconsulted character with approach to performance enhancement hundreds[37]. According of world-class to Leor, character performers can from be developed the arenas the of same business, way uses mental skills that coaches, athletes and performers of all sport, law enforcement, medicine, including The FBI, Fortune 100 levels achieve success on a regular basis. Ravizza is a leading authority on stress management and coping skills and strategies, Institute represent hundreds of Fortune 500 companies including Dr. Ravizza is also highly skilled in mental training for Peak executives, and military Special Forces. Corporate clients of the Performance. As a consultant to numerous teams, Dr. Ravizza has worked with some of the best athletes and coaches in the world. Dell, Procter & Gamble, The Estée Lauder Companies, PepsiCo, FBI, GlaxoSmithKline, and Citigroup Smith Barney. A sampling Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Los Angeles Dodgers, Los Angeles of Dr. Leor’s clients include: Mark O’Meara and Justin Rose; Galaxy,Ravizzi’s and professional the Toronto sports Argonauts. clients Ravizza include: is also the one New of York the most Jets. medalMonica speed Seles, skate, Tim is Courier, perhaps and his Arantxamost favorite Sanchez-Vicario; client. Dr. Loehr Ray credentialsMancini; Mike are Richter impressive. and Eric He has Lindros. masters Dan and Jansen, doctorate Olympic degrees gold experienced consultants at the Olympic and international level in psychology along with a pleasing personality that enables him to establish rapport with clients from diverse backgrounds. He is Associationshaving worked for over with 20 the years. United States Olympic, Field Hockey, Softball, Equestrian, Baseball, Water Polo, and Figure Skating Dr. Shane Murphy is one of the most influential sport psychologists in getting a member of several prestigious scientific boards including the sport psychology practices off the ground. National Strength and conditioning Association, the American Shane is a licensed psychologist and Psychological Association, the American College of Sports A PhD graduate from V a n d e r b i l t associate professor of Psychology at Medicine, and the Association for Applied Sport Psychology. clinical and experimental psychologist. AtUniversity, the University Dr. Robert of Rochester, M. Nideffer he was is an a Consultants,Western Connecticut which teaches State University.business and He associate professor in the Department of sportis the founderorganizations of Gold the Medal competitive Psychological skills that lead to success. He has held many was also a part-time professor in the departmentPsychology andof physical Psychiatry. education Dr. Nideffer and outstanding positions, e.g., head of the U. S. Olympic Committee’s Sport Psychology Department from 1987 to 1994 and from psychology at San Diego professor and 1992 to 1994 he was associate director of the USOC Sport Professional Psychology. He has written seventeen books and a professor at the California School of Science Division. Dr. Murphy was sport psychologist for the U.S. authored over one hundred research and applied articles. Olympic Teams at the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul and the 1992 The Inner Winter Games in Albertville. He was also a worked with the U.S. Athlete Psyched to Win Described as “a landmark test”, Dr. Nideffer’s book: Olympic Committee on mental excellence for the 2000 Summer was published in 1976. In (1976), his Games in Sydney, and the USA Snowboard teams in mental

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second book, he provides information about how to develop these principles. Through his books and audio recordings, Dr. Bob Rotella’s insight and knowledge are available to the public. His best-selling test is: Golf Is Not a Game of Perfect your own mental training program. Dr. Nideffer is the founder ranked it among the ten best golf instruction books ever written. world,of Enhanced Australian Performance Institute, Systems.and Canada’s His consultingnational and experiences elite-level This book was followed by six other books, . eachSports exploring Illustrated a coachesinclude and work players. with theHe helps Olympic teams training develop Centers computer around software the different aspect of the game. and psychological assessment programs for athletes. At the

MentalWith increasing Training Programs interest in the applied aspects of sport and1984 military, Olympic andGames, multinational Dr. Nideffer corporations. was the sport Anpsychologist authority forin psychology, particularly mental training programs, within the last track and field athletes. He also serves as a consultant to police perception, Dr. Nideffer authored: Theory of Attentional and ten years there have been a significant number of MT programs is a self- Interpersonal Style. Psycho-Cybernetics for athletes. One of the first programs that I remember was helpbook, designed and implemented by Bruce Ogilvie, Tom Tutko and in 1960 and publishedbythenon- Leland Lyon, They developed the Athlete Motivational Inventory Psycho- written Cybernetics by Maxwell Foundation. Maltz eleven(AMI) atpersonality the Institute traits for therelated Study to of high Athlete athletic Motivation achievement, at San including,Jose State University.Drive, Aggression, According Determination, to the authors, Responsibility, the AMI measured and inprofit personal development, including, ZigMany Zigler, self-help Tony andRobbins motivational, Brian expertsTracy coach had each plyer complete the test and then mail it to the authorsLeadership. for Asscoring I recall, and the analysis. AMI was Coaches mailed would to coaches then andreceive the work. Psychocybernetics serves as the a written paragraph for the authors about how to handle each foundation for many ofhave the basedpsychological their techniques methods of on training Maltz’s elite athletes cognitive behavioral technique of teaching an individual how to regulate self-concept. itplayer. was taken Despite off thethe AMImarket. popularity, Rainer Martens, University of .in Dr. self- Maltz’s concept text is combines based on the the teaching of Prescott Illinois sport psychologist, questioned the validity of the AMI and Lecky with the cybernetics of and John von Maltz’s work Norbert Wiener Other Mental Training LeadersAnother in the sport psychology Neumann. The core in his book defines the mind-body connection as the core in succeedingvisualization in attainings personalto help them goals. get Some better. of A fellow of the American Psychological his patients had expectations that were not satisfied by surgery Association,movement was Dr. Dr. Charles Garfield Garfield was [39]. a so Maltz [38] so he used Clinical Professor of Psychology in He was a firm believer in goal setting and why they work. He the Department of Psychiatry at the proceduresalso used self-affirmation developed a positive and mentalinner goal visualization as a way of developing techniques to establish a connection between mind and body. Maltz’s University of California’s School of success is brought about by one’s inner attitudes. In summary, performance program was outlined in positive outer objectives. He believed that a person’s outer Peak PerformanceMedicine . atIn this San text, Francisco. states that His most peak the one visualized internally. athletes will acknowledge that 60 to 90 percent of success in Maltz indicated that a person’s outer success can never rise above sportshis1984 is book:due to mental factors and psychological mastery. Taking If you were to watch the trophy

you would hear the trophy winners thank the best practices and research from the USA, East Germany, and Dr.presentation Bob Rotella. at a majorHe is golfone championships,of the world’s elsewhere, Dr. Garfield designed a training program consisted outstanding sport psychologists and coach of six key lesson in mental training. They were: Lesson 1 Sports of high performance athletes. A reporter AthleticMotivation Poise, Analysis, and Lesson Lesson 6 Letting 2 Unveiling go. He suggested your Mission, that mental Lesson trainers3 Voluntary should Relaxation, speak slowly Lesson and 4clearly Mental and Rehearsal, speak in a Lessonsoothing 5 voice, keeping consonants soft described him as akin to a Sherpa, the does: He help athletesNepalese achieve guide performances who helps that mountaineers they could Washington reach the summit of Mt. Everest. That is essentially what Rotella sport psychologists the world’s preeminent sports psychologist and performance coach,not otherwise Dr. Rotella reach. indicates Essentially, that there’s he unlocks nothing their mysterious potential. about As Ronald Smith and his approach to performance enhancement. His philosophy is their attention on theFrank coaching Smoll focused of According to Rotella, these values were learned as a boy and high young athletes, schoolgrounded athlete in free in Rutland,will, persistence, Vermont. commitment,These values wereand confidence. reinforced i.e., Little League as he watched famous coaches like Red Auerbach and Vince Players. Over many sport, but too many endeavors. His client’s say that Rotella’s gift is Lombardi. According to Rotella, these principles apply not just to parentyears, Smith behaviors and Smoll on child have athletes done extensive and developed work in andyouth assessed sports. Most importantly, they have studied the effects of coaching and his ability to figure out how clients will best understand and adopt

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intervention programs for coaches and parents. Their emphasis is wide variety of sports in controlled environments and in actual that coaches should try and create a more positive psychological own creativity to show how hypnosis may be of value to individual teamcompetitions. members Sport and hypnotiststhe team asare a alsowhole. encouraged For example, to use mental their forenvironment coaches and for parents young on athletes. how to create Their a Youth motivational Enrichment climate in Sports Project and produced DVD-based instructional programs current work focuses on the use of assessment information from trainers may want to use hypnosis to help figure skaters do double that facilitates the well-being of young athletes. Dr. Smith’s axels,This spins, other flips, side Salchows, of hypnosis and isother less simpleknown. and Few complex people skills. know about the use of hypnosis in medicine, dentistry and controlling system as therapeutic feedback in psychotherapy. Currently, Dr. personality tests (e.g., the MMPI-2) and an online daily diary clients with psychiatric problems. For example, before chemical hisSmoll 35 addressesyears of research such important on coaching topics behaviors as: Can Coaches and their Increase effects anesthesia, hypnosis was used during surgery. Even today, Their Effectiveness? To answer this question, Dr. Smoll draws-on unable to take medicine to help alleviate pain. Hypnotism is now A Sport hypnotists go into dental offices and hypnotize patients who are Psychology Training Program and tested in effectiveness. The on young athletes. Smith and Smoll have developed forward, there is a growing perception that increased availability andrecognized awareness by the of American sport hypnosis Medical Associationcan take mental (AMA). Lookingtraining program, which is known as the Mastery Approach to Coaching, is to a higher level. An example of this can be seen by utilizing the only scientifically validated coaching-education program for young athletes. When it comes to youth sports, Smith and Smoll phenomenon are particularly effective in achieving a desired outcomesport hypnosis such as in helping specific athletes consultation re-create situations training where experiences trance Theare in aFuture league allof theirSport own! Hypnosis with greater clarity and richness than by employing memory

And as mentioned above, we see sport hypnosis as taking mental that this is particularly effective in assisting gymnasts who are trainingJohn andto a Ihigher are very level. excited From about our professionalthe future of experiences,sport hypnosis! we hamperedalone. It has by Balking been the experience of one of the authors (JB) both believe that sport hypnosis is more effective than mental reconnect to the enthusiasm and curiosity they experienced when training because athletes obtain a deeper level of relaxation so (freezing) when tumbling by having them that their minds may be programed. The importance of obtaining imagery to further enhance motor learning by heightening the deep levels of relaxation in order to get into trance has been found sensoryfirst learning awareness this skill. of Anotherthe learning example when would activating be using low-levelhypnotic to be more effective than traditional methods of relaxation. Goals neuromuscular innervations during mental rehearsal.

When in trance, visualizations appear to clearer, focused and In addition to the need for increased awareness of the value of stableset in trancethat when have used been in found traditional to be moremental useful training. (Liggett, According 2000b). to sport hypnosis it is also essential that the stigma of hypnosis as Liggett, the unconscious and the emotional right-brain functions become more available in trance. It should be point-out; however, moving forward including a “stage act” be overcome. Several factors can contribute to this that hypnosis is not a type of therapy, e.g., psychoanalysis. When i. establishing an evidence-based practice model where used by sport psychologists, hypnosis is a technique used to applications; their sporting experiences. practitioners can contribute to protocols for specific enhance performance and help athletes to enjoy and profit from ii. integrating hypnosis and hypnotherapy training by As cited above, there is a long history in the use of hypnosis in sport by coaches and sport psychologists at most all levels into sport psychology conferences; of athletics. For example, it was reported that during the 1956 professionals from the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis iii. increased visibility on the internet (websites/you tube/ hypnotists to the games. Countless examples could be cited, however,Melbourne it Olympicsis clear evident the Russian that sport team hypnosis took no is less growing than 11in popularity. However despite its long history, the future of sport vimeo) of basic information and models of sport hypnosis and Inits summary, benefits. sport hypnosis will continue to grow in both hypnosis depends on getting rid of the tarnishing image of the application and acceptance through the dedicated work of both researchers and practitioners in demonstrating its validity as a modality for change, growth and performance. quackingStage hypnosis, like ducks. i.e., a Thathypnotist is the walks image into that a crowdedmost have auditorium, stored in memorysnaps his when fingers the and word half ‘hypnosis’ the audience is mentioned. falls into tranceThis visualization and begins References 1. minds of athletes and others, who would like to use hypnosis to in sport psychology. Bethel, CT: Crown. of the Stage hypnotist instills fear and misunderstanding into the Edgette JH, Rowan T ((2003) Winning the mind game: Using hypnosis 2. alleviate fear, instill confidence or alleviate mental blocks. For organizations and famous hypnotherapists. The UK College of Robertson D (2002) Definitions of hypnosis by important evidencesport hypnosis and case to becomestudies morethat demonstrate useful, the image the usefulness of the Stage of Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy, London. hypnosishypnotist forhas athlete to be demystified. and coaches. What Additionally, we need weis more need scientific to show 3. how sport hypnosis may be used to control arousal levels, set in relation to animal magnetism and illustrate by numerous cases goals, eliminate blockage, image, and enhance performance in a ofBraid successful J (1899) applicationNeurypnology; in the or, rationalerelief and of curenervous of disease. sleep considered London: George Redway.

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Straub WF, Bowman JJ (2016) A Review of the Development of Sport Hypnosis as a Performance Enhancement Method for Athletes. J Psychol Clin Psychiatry 6(6): 00378. DOI: 10.15406/jpcpy.2016.06.00378