28946 Federal Register / Vol. 82, No. 121 / Monday, June 26, 2017 / Proposed Rules

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE individual, or received after the we find that substantial scientific or comment period ends. All comments commercial information in a petition National Oceanic and Atmospheric received are a part of the public record and in our files indicates the petitioned Administration and NMFS will post for public viewing action may be warranted (a ‘‘positive 90- on http://www.regulations.gov without day finding’’), we are required to 50 CFR Parts 223 and 224 change. All personal identifying promptly commence a review of the [Docket No. 170117082–7082–01] information (e.g., name, address, etc.), status of the species concerned, which confidential business information, or includes conducting a comprehensive RIN 0648–XF174 otherwise sensitive information review of the best available scientific submitted voluntarily by the sender will and commercial information. Within 12 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife; be publicly accessible. NMFS will months of receiving the petition, we 90-Day Finding on a Petition To List 10 accept anonymous comments (enter ‘‘N/ must conclude the review with a finding Species of Giant Clams as Threatened A’’ in the required fields if you wish to as to whether, in fact, the petitioned or Endangered Under the Endangered remain anonymous). action is warranted. Because the finding Species Act FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Lisa at the 12-month stage is based on a AGENCY: National Marine Fisheries Manning, NMFS, Office of Protected significantly more thorough review of Service (NMFS), National Oceanic and Resources (301) 427–8403. the available information, a ‘‘may be warranted’’ finding at the 90-day stage Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Commerce. does not prejudge the outcome of the status review and 12-month finding. ACTION: 90-day petition findings, request Background Under the ESA, a listing for information, and initiation of status On August 7, 2016, we received a determination may address a ‘‘species,’’ review. petition from a private citizen, Dr. which is defined to also include Dwayne W. Meadows, Ph.D., requesting SUMMARY: We, NMFS, announce our 90- subspecies and, for any vertebrate that we list the giant clams species, any distinct population day findings on a petition to list ten (excluding rosewateri) as species of as endangered or segment (DPS) that interbreeds when endangered or threatened under the mature (16 U.S.C. 1532(16)). A joint threatened under the U.S. Endangered ESA. The ten species of giant clams Species Act (ESA). We find that the NMFS-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service considered in this finding are the eight (USFWS) policy clarifies the agencies’ petition presents substantial scientific Tridacna species, including: T. costata, or commercial information indicating interpretation of the phrase ‘‘distinct T. crocea, T. derasa, T. gigas, T. population segment’’ for the purposes of that the petitioned action may be maxima, T. noae, T. squamosa, and T. warranted for seven species ( listing, delisting, and reclassifying a tevoroa (also known as T. mbalavauna); species under the ESA (‘‘DPS Policy’’; hippopus, H. porcellanus, Tridacna and the two Hippopus species: H. costata, T. derasa, T. gigas, T. 61 FR 4722; February 7, 1996). A hippopus and H. porcellanus. The species, subspecies, or DPS is squamosa, and T. tevoroa). petitioner also requested that critical Accordingly, we will initiate status ‘‘endangered’’ if it is in danger of be designated for Tridacninae extinction throughout all or a significant reviews of these seven giant clam species that occur in U.S. waters species. To ensure that the status portion of its range, and ‘‘threatened’’ if concurrent with final ESA listing. The it is likely to become endangered within reviews are comprehensive, we are petition states that Tridacninae giant soliciting scientific and commercial the foreseeable future throughout all or clams merit listing as endangered or a significant portion of its range (ESA information regarding these species. We threatened species under the ESA find that the petition did not present sections 3(6) and 3(20), respectively; 16 because of the following: (1) Loss or U.S.C. 1532(6) and (20)). Pursuant to the substantial scientific or commercial curtailment of habitat or range; (2) information indicating that the ESA and our implementing regulations, historical and continued overutilization the determination of whether a species petitioned action may be warranted for of the species for commercial purposes; the other three petitioned giant clam is threatened or endangered shall be (3) inadequacy of existing regulatory based on any one or a combination of species (T. crocea, T. maxima, or T. mechanisms to safeguard the species; (4) noae). the following five section 4(a)(1) factors: other factors such as global climate The present or threatened destruction, DATES: Information and comments on change; and (5) the species’ inherent modification, or curtailment of habitat the subject action must be received by vulnerability to population decline due or range; overutilization for commercial, August 25, 2017. to their slow recovery and low recreational, scientific, or educational ADDRESSES: You may submit comments, resilience to threats. purposes; disease or predation; information, or data, by including ESA Statutory Provisions and Policy inadequacy of existing regulatory ‘‘NOAA–NMFS–2017–0029’’ by either Considerations mechanisms; and any other natural or of the following methods: manmade factors affecting the species’ • Federal eRulemaking Portal: Go to Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the ESA of 1973, existence (16 U.S.C. 1533(a)(1), 50 CFR www.regulations.gov/ as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.), 424.11(c)). #!docketDetail;D=NOAA-NMFS-2017- requires, to the maximum extent ESA-implementing regulations issued 0029, click the ‘‘Comment Now’’ icon, practicable, that within 90 days of jointly by NMFS and USFWS (50 CFR complete the required fields, and enter receipt of a petition to list a species as 424.14(b)) define ‘‘substantial or attach your comments. threatened or endangered, the Secretary information’’ in the context of reviewing • Mail or hand-delivery: Office of of Commerce make a finding on whether a petition to list, delist, or reclassify a Protected Resources, NMFS, 1315 East- that petition presents substantial species as the amount of information West Highway, Silver Spring, MD scientific or commercial information that would lead a reasonable person to 20910. Attn: Lisa Manning. indicating that the petitioned action believe that the measure proposed in the Instructions: NMFS may not consider may be warranted, and promptly petition may be warranted. When comments if they are sent by any other publish the finding in the Federal evaluating whether substantial method, to any other address or Register (16 U.S.C. 1533(b)(3)(A)). When information is contained in a petition,

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we must consider whether the petition: indicates that the species at issue faces that the classification is based upon in (1) Clearly indicates the administrative extinction risk that is cause for concern; light of the standards on extinction risk measure recommended and gives the this may be indicated in information and impacts or threats discussed above. scientific and any common name of the expressly discussing the species’ status Analysis of the Petition species involved; (2) contains detailed and trends, or in information describing narrative justification for the impacts and threats to the species. We General Information recommended measure, describing, evaluate any information on specific The petition clearly indicates the based on available information, past and demographic factors pertinent to administrative measure recommended present numbers and distribution of the evaluating extinction risk for the species and gives the scientific and, in some species involved and any threats faced at issue (e.g., population abundance and cases, the common names of the species by the species; (3) provides information trends, productivity, spatial structure, involved. The petition also contains a regarding the status of the species over age structure, sex ratio, diversity, narrative justification for the all or a significant portion of its range; current and historical range, habitat recommended measures and provides and (4) is accompanied by the integrity or fragmentation), and the limited information on the species’ appropriate supporting documentation potential contribution of identified geographic distribution, habitat use, and in the form of bibliographic references, demographic risks to extinction risk for threats. Limited information is also reprints of pertinent publications, the species. We then evaluate the provided on population status and copies of reports or letters from potential links between these trends for all but a couple of species. authorities, and maps (50 CFR demographic risks and the causative The introduction of the petition 424.14(b)(2)). impacts and threats identified in ESA emphasizes that giant clam species have At the 90-day stage, we evaluate the section 4(a)(1). petitioner’s request based upon the Information presented on impacts or not been evaluated by the IUCN since information in the petition including its threats should be specific to the species 1996, and more recent information references, and the information readily and should reasonably suggest that one provides evidence of significant available in our files. We do not conduct or more of these factors may be population declines of all giant clam additional research, and we do not operative threats that act or have acted species range-wide, with increasing solicit information from parties outside on the species to the point that it may threats. The petition then provides the agency to help us in evaluating the warrant protection under the ESA. general background information on petition. We will accept the petitioner’s Broad statements about generalized giant clams as well as some limited sources and characterizations of the threats to the species, or identification species-specific information where information presented, if they appear to of factors that could negatively impact available. Topics covered by the petition be based on accepted scientific a species, do not constitute substantial include giant clam , natural principles, unless we have specific information that listing may be history, descriptions of Tridacna information in our files that indicates warranted. We look for information species (descriptions of Hippopus the petition’s information is incorrect, indicating that not only is the particular species are absent), geographic range, unreliable, obsolete, or otherwise species exposed to a factor, but that the habitat descriptions, life history irrelevant to the requested action. species may be responding in a negative (including growth and reproduction), Information that is susceptible to more fashion; then we assess the potential ecology (including their symbiotic than one interpretation or that is significance of that negative response. relationship with and contradicted by other available Many petitions identify risk their ecological role on reefs), information will not be dismissed at the classifications made by non- population structure and genetics, and 90-day finding stage, so long as it is governmental organizations, such as the abundance and trends. A general reliable and a reasonable person would International Union for the description of threats categorized under conclude that it supports the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the the five ESA Section 4(a)(1) factors is petitioner’s assertions. Conclusive American Fisheries Society, or provided and is meant to apply to all of information indicating the species may NatureServe, as evidence of extinction the petitioned clam species. This meet the ESA’s requirements for listing risk for a species. Risk classifications by section discusses the following threats: is not required to make a positive 90- other organizations or made under other habitat degradation (including day finding. We will not conclude that Federal or state statutes may be sedimentation, pollution, and a lack of specific information alone informative, but such classification reclamation), subsistence and negates a positive 90-day finding, if a alone may not provide the rationale for commercial harvest by coastal and reasonable person would conclude that a positive 90-day finding under the island communities for local the unknown information itself suggests ESA. For example, as explained by consumption as well as sale and export an extinction risk of concern for the NatureServe, their assessments of a for the meat, and curio trades, species at issue. species’ do ‘‘not inadequacy of existing regulatory To make a 90-day finding on a constitute a recommendation by mechanisms to safeguard the species, petition to list a species, we evaluate NatureServe for listing under the U.S. and impacts of climate change whether the petition presents Endangered Species Act’’ because (including bleaching and ocean substantial scientific or commercial NatureServe assessments ‘‘have acidification). A synopsis of and our information indicating the subject different criteria, evidence analysis of the information provided in species may be either threatened or requirements, purposes and taxonomic the petition and readily available in our endangered, as defined by the ESA. coverage than government lists of files is provided below. First, we evaluate whether the endangered and threatened species, and information presented in the petition, therefore these two types of lists should Species Description along with the information readily not be expected to coincide’’ (http:// Giant clams are a small but available in our files, indicates that the www.natureserve.org/prodServices/ conspicuous group of large bivalves that petitioned entity constitutes a ‘‘species’’ statusAssessment.jsp). Thus, when a are members of the cardiid bivalve eligible for listing under the ESA. Next, petition such classifications, we subfamily Tridacninae (Su et al., 2014). we evaluate whether the information will evaluate the source of information They are the largest living marine

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bivalves found in coastal areas of the porcellanus have the most restricted Life History Indo-Pacific region, and are frequently geographical ranges (bin Othman et al., The exact lifespan of tridacnines has regarded as important ecological 2010). not been determined; although it is components of coral reefs, especially as Anecdotal reports by SCUBA divers estimated to vary widely between eight providers of substrate and contributors and data from Reef Check (an to several hundred years (see original to overall productivity (Neo and Todd international non-governmental citations in Soo and Todd 2014). Little 2013). The most recent information organization that trains volunteers to information exists on the size at suggests there are 13 extant species of carry out coral reef surveys) include maturity for giant clams, but size and giant clams, 10 of which are considered records of giant clams beyond age at maturity vary by species and in this 90-day finding, including 8 previously defined geographical geographical location (Ellis 1997). In species in the Tridacna—T. boundaries, extending their known general, giant clams appear to have crocea, T. derasa, T. gigas, T. maxima, occurrence to near Cape Agulhas, South relatively late sexual maturity, a sessile, T. noae, T. squamosa, T. costata exposed adult phase and broadcast (formerly T. squamosina) and T. tevoroa Africa. Giant clam distribution is not spawning reproductive strategy, all of (formerly T. mbalavauna), and 2 species uniform, with greater diversity found in which can make giant clams vulnerable in the genus Hippopus—H. hippopus the central Indo-Pacific (Spalding et al., to depletion and exploitation (Neo et al., and H. porcellanus. 2007). A couple of recent sources have extended the known ranges of a couple 2015). All giant clam species are Taxonomy of species. For example, Gilbert et al. classified as protandrous functional Giant clam taxonomy (family (2007) documented the first observation , meaning they mature Cardiidae, subfamily Tridacninae) has of T. squamosa in French Polynesia, first as males and develop later to seen a surge in new species descriptions extending the species’ range farther east function as both male and female in recent decades (Borsa et al., 2015a), than previously reported. Likewise, in (Chambers 2007); but otherwise, giant and there is some disagreement in the our files, we found evidence that T. clams follow the typical bivalve mollusc literature regarding the validity of some tevoroa has recently been observed in life cycle. At around 5 to 7 years of age species. Two giant clam species the Loyalty Islands of New Caledonia, (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009), giant considered in this 90-day finding have whereas it was previously thought to be clams reproduce via broadcast been only recently described (T. tevoroa restricted to Tonga and Fiji (Kinch and spawning, in which several million and T. costata), but have been shown to Teitelbaum 2009). The petition claims and are released into the be junior synonyms of species described that several of the species occur (or water column where fertilization takes decades before (i.e., T. mbalavuana and historically occurred) in the United place. Giant clam spawning can be T. squamosina, respectively; Borsa et States and its territories or possessions, seasonal; for example, in the Central al., 2015a). Another species, T. noae, including: T. derasa, T. gigas, T. Pacific, giant clams can spawn year has been the subject of debate in terms maxima, T. squamosa, and H. hippopus. round but are likely to have better gonad of its validity as a species. However, T. The rest of the petitioned clam species maturation around the new or full moon noae has been recently resurrected from have strictly foreign distributions. The (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). In the synonymy with the small giant clam, T. NMFS Coral Reef Ecosystem Program Southern Pacific, giant clam spawning maxima, after additional molecular and (CREP) conducts routine Reef patterns are seasonal and clams are morphological evidence supported the Assessment and Monitoring Program likely to spawn in spring and taxonomic separation of the two species surveys in U.S. territories, but their throughout the austral summer months (Su et al., 2014). comprehensive monitoring reports only (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). Once fertilized, the eggs hatch into free- Range and Distribution include general information on Tridacna clams, not at the species level. swimming trochophore larvae for Modern giant clams are distributed around 8 to 15 days (according to the along shallow shorelines and on reefs in Habitat species and location) before settling on the Indo-West Pacific in the area the substrate (Soo and Todd 2014; confined by 30° E and 120° W (i.e., from The petition cites Soo and Todd Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). During the South Africa to beyond French (2014), stating that giant clams are pediveliger larvae stage (the stage when Polynesia) and between 36° N and 30° markedly stenothermal (i.e., they are the larvae is able to crawl using its foot), S (i.e., from Japan in the North to able to tolerate only a small range of the larvae crawl on the substrate in in the South; Neo et al., 2015) temperature) and thus restricted to search of suitable sites for settlement and excluding New Zealand and warm waters. Based on the broad and metamorphose into early juveniles , although there are reports that latitudinal and depth ranges of some (or spats) within 2 weeks of spawning at least two species have been giant clam species, they each likely have (Soo and Todd 2014). Growth rates after introduced in Hawaii (T. derasa and T. varying ranges of temperature tolerance, settlement generally follow a sigmoid squamosa; bin Othman et al., 2010). possibly similar to that of other coral (‘‘S’’ shaped) curve, beginning slowly, Although most extant giant clams reef associated species. Although giant then accelerating after approximately 1 mainly occur within the tropical Indo- clams are typically associated with and year and then slowing again as the Pacific region, three species (T. maxima, are prominent inhabitants of coral reefs, approach maturity (Ellis 1997). T. squamosa and T. costata) are found this is not an obligate relationship These rates are usually slow and vary as far west as East Africa or the Red Sea (Munro 1992). Giant clams are typically amongst species. (Soo and Todd 2014). Of all the giant found living on or attached to coral clam species, T. maxima has the most rock and rubble by byssal threads (Soo Feeding and Nutrition cosmopolitan distribution, which and Todd 2014), but they can be found According to Munro (1992), giant encompasses nearly the entire in a wide variety of , including clams are facultative planktotrophs, in geographical range of all the other giant live coral, dead coral rubble, boulders, that they are essentially planktotrophic clam species. On the other side of the sandy substrates, seagrass beds, (i.e., they feed on ) but they can spectrum, the more recently described macroalgae zones, etc. (Gilbert et al., acquire all of the nutrition required for T. costata, T. tevoroa, and H. 2006; Hernawan 2010). maintenance from their symbiotic ,

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Symbodinium. Nutritional requirements degradation caused by various tools of various sorts, and/or dragging and strategies vary significantly by anthropogenic activities.’’ While we and pulling to remove giant clams from species. For example, T. derasa is able agree that highly populated coastal areas the surrounding habitat) clearly has to function as a complete autotroph in are subject to anthropogenic impacts impacts to coral reef habitat as well. its natural habitat (down to 20 m), (e.g., land-based sources of pollution, However, it is unclear how the loss of whereas T. tevoroa only achieves this in sedimentation, nutrient loading, etc.), coral reefs in the may the shallower parts of its distribution the reference provided by the petitioner impact the status of giant clams (10 to 20 m). Tridacna gigas shows a refers to habitat degradation as a threat throughout their ranges, and aside from different strategy, comfortably satisfying to seahorse populations, with no T. gigas, the petition provides no all apparent carbon requirements from information provided in this reference species-specific information regarding the combined sources of filter-feeding specific to giant clams. The petition also habitat destruction for the other nine and phototrophy (Klumpp and Lucas asserts that because giant clams are petitioned species. 1994). In fact, Klumpp et al. (1992) associated with coral reefs, that all Therefore, while the information in showed that T. gigas is an efficient species of giant clams face all of the the petition suggests concern for the filter-feeder and that carbon derived ‘‘regular’’ threats that coral reefs status of coral reef habitat generally, its from filter-feeding in generally face, including coral reef broadness, generality, and speculative waters supplies significant amounts of habitat degradation, sedimentation and nature, and the lack of connections the total carbon necessary for its pollution. The petition cites Brainard et between the threats discussed and the respiration and growth. al. (2011), a status review report that status of the giant clam species was prepared by NMFS for 82 coral Giant Clam Status and Abundance specifically, means that we cannot find species under the ESA, as evidence of Trends that this information reasonably habitat destruction issues throughout suggests that habitat destruction is an The petition does not provide the range of the petitioned giant clam operative threat that acts or has acted on historical or current global abundance species. While this status review report each of the species to the point that they estimates for any of the petitioned clam thoroughly describes issues related to may warrant protection under the ESA. species; rather, the petition cites a coral reef habitat degradation in general, Broad statements about generalized number of studies that document local it does not discuss giant clams, nor does threats to the species, or identification extirpations of various giant clam it provide any substantial evidence of factors that could negatively impact species in particular areas to regarding a link between coral reef a species, do not constitute substantial demonstrate that all species of giant habitat degradation and negative information that listing may be clams are currently declining, or have population-level impacts to any of the warranted. We look for information declined historically, within their petitioned giant clam species indicating that not only is the particular ranges. We assess the information throughout their ranges. Further, the species exposed to a factor, but that the presented in the petition, and petition itself notes that while giant species may be responding in a negative information in our files, regarding each clam species are generally associated fashion; then we assess the potential of the petitioned species in individual with coral reefs, it is not an obligate significance of that negative response species accounts later in this finding. relationship. In fact, surveys in many and consider the significance within the ESA Section 4(a)(1) Factors areas suggest that adults of most species context of the species’ overall range. In of giant clams can live in most of the this case, generalized evidence of The petition indicates that giant clam habitats available in coralline tropical declining coral reef habitat is not species merit listing due to all five ESA seas (Munro 1992), with observations of evidence of a significant threat to any of section 4(a)(1) factors: Present or giant clam species inhabiting a diverse the individual petitioned species to threatened destruction, modification, or variety of habitats (e.g., live coral, dead infer extinction risk such that the curtailment of its habitat or range; encrusted coral, coral rubble, seagrass species may meet the definition of overutilization for commercial, beds, sandy substrates, boulders, either threatened or endangered under recreational, scientific, or educational macroalgae zones, etc.; Gilbert et al., the ESA. purposes; disease or predation; 2006; Hernawan 2010). Additionally, In addition to habitat degradation as inadequacy of existing regulatory while the petition describes the a result of various anthropogenic mechanisms; and other natural or ecological importance of giant clams to activities, the petition contends that manmade factors affecting its continued coral reefs, the petition does not provide climate change related threats, existence. We first discuss each of these any information demonstrating the including ocean warming and ocean threats to giant clams in general, and importance of pristine coral reef habitat acidification, are operative threats to all then discuss these threats as they relate to the survival of giant clam species. giant clam species and the coral reef to each species, based on information in Finally, the petitioner also notes habitat they rely on. The petitioner cites the petition and the information readily evidence from the South China Sea that Brainard et al. (2011) and NMFS’ available in our files. 40 square miles (104 sq km) of coral proposed and final rules to list Threats to Giant Clams reefs have been destroyed as a result of numerous reef-building under the giant clam poaching, with an additional ESA (77 FR 73219; December 7, 2012 Present or Threatened Destruction, 22 square miles (57 sq km) destroyed by and 79 FR 53852; September 10, 2014) Modification, or Curtailment of Its island-building and dredging activities. as substantial information to support Habitat or Range The petitioner notes that the main target these claims. While we agree with the The petition contends that all giant during these poaching activities is T. petitioner that coral bleaching events clam species are at risk of extinction gigas, because its large shell is have been increasing in both intensity due to habitat destruction. The considered a desirable luxury item in and geographic extent because of petitioner cites Foster and Vincent mainland China. Although directed climate change, and the information in (2004) and states that: ‘‘Giant clams poaching of giant clams would fall the petition suggests concern for coral inhabit shallow coastal waters which under the threat of overutilization, the reef ecosystems, we disagree with the are highly vulnerable to habitat means of poaching (e.g., explosives, petitioner’s broad and generalized

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application of this information to the approaches indicate that traditional particularly important given that giant status of giant clams. temperature threshold models may not clams do not have an obligate With regard to climate change related give an accurate picture of the likely relationship to coral reefs and, like threats to coral reef habitat, NMFS’ final outcomes of climate change for coral corals, occur in a wide variety of rule to list 20 species of reef-building reefs, and effects and responses will be habitats that encompass diverse corals (79 FR 53852; September 10, highly nuanced and heterogeneous physical environmental conditions that 2014) explains that exposure and across space and time (McClanahan et influence how a particular species response of coral species to global al., 2015). responds to global threats. Broad threats varies spatially and temporally, In addition to bleaching, the generalizations regarding climate based on variability in the species’ petitioner similarly implies that ocean change related threats and their impacts habitat and distribution. The vast acidification is a threat to giant clam cannot be applied as an equivalent majority of coral species occur across habitat (i.e., corals and coral reefs). The threat to corals and coral reef associated multiple habitat types, or reef petition cites Brainard et al. (2011) and species. In cases where the petitioner environments, and have distributions states: ‘‘ocean acidification threatens to provided relevant species-specific that encompass diverse physical slow or halt coral growth and reef information regarding climate change environmental conditions that influence building entirely if the pH of the ocean impacts, we consider this information in how that species responds to global becomes too low for corals to form their further detail below in the individual threats. Additionally, the best available calcite skeletons.’’ The petition further species accounts. states that bioerosion of coral reefs is information, as summarized in Brainard likely to accelerate as skeletons become Overutilization for Commercial, et al. (2011) and the coral final rule (79 more fragile because of the effects of Recreational, Scientific, or Educational FR 53852; September 10, 2014), shows acidification. However, aside from these Purposes that adaptation and acclimatization to broad and generalized statements The petition describes several increased ocean temperatures are regarding the potential impacts of ocean activities that may be contributing to the possible; there is intra-genus variation acidification to giant clam habitat (based overutilization of giant clams in general. in susceptibility to bleaching, ocean largely on information regarding ocean The petition notes that harvest of giant acidification, and sedimentation; at least acidification impacts to corals and coral clams is for both subsistence purposes some coral species have already reefs), the petition provides very limited (e.g., giant clam adductor, gonad, expanded their ranges in response to information regarding species-specific muscle, and mantle tissues are all used climate change; and not all species are impacts of ocean acidification for most for food products and local seriously affected by ocean of the petitioned giant clam species. consumption), as well as commercial acidification. In fact, some studies Additionally, as with coral bleaching, purposes for global international trade suggest that coral reef degradation Brainard et al. (2011) and the coral final (e.g., giant clam shells are used for a resulting from global climate change rule (79 FR 53852; September 10, 2014) number of items, including jewelry, threats alone is likely to be an extremely show that adaptation and ornaments, soap dishes). spatially, temporally, and taxonomically acclimatization to ocean acidification The petition discusses a number of heterogeneous process. These studies are possible, there is intra-genus commercial fisheries that operated indicate that coral reef ecosystems, variation in susceptibility to ocean historically, including long-range rather than disappear entirely as a result acidification, and not all species are Taiwanese fishing vessels and some of future impacts, will likely persist, but seriously affected. The previous local fisheries that developed in the with unpredictable changes in the discussion regarding spatial and 1970s and 1980s (e.g., Papua New composition of coral species and temporal variability regarding how coral Guinea, Fiji, ). According to ecological functions (Hughes et al., species respond to increasing Munro (1992), historical commercial 2012; Pandolfi et al., 2011). We have temperature also applies to how corals fisheries appear to have been limited to additional information regarding respond to impacts of ocean long-range Taiwanese fishing vessels, climate change impacts and predictions acidification. Despite the generally high- which targeted the adductor muscles of for coral reefs readily available in our ranking global threats from climate larger species (e.g., T. gigas and T. files, which indicates a highly nuanced change, including coral bleaching and derasa). This activity reached its peak in and variable pattern of exposure, acidification and considerations of how the mid-1970s and then subsided in the susceptibility, resilience, and recovery these threats may act synergistically, face of depleted stocks, strong over regionally and locally different only 20 of the 83 petitioned coral international pressures, and improved spatial and temporal scales, with much species ultimately warranted listing surveillance of reef areas (Munro 1992). uncertainty remaining. The literature under the ESA. This underscores the In response to declining activities by the underscores the multitude of factors fact that reef-building corals exist Taiwanese fishery and continuing contributing to coral response to within a wide spectrum of susceptibility demand for giant clam meat, thermal stress, including taxa, and vulnerability to global climate commercial fisheries developed in geographic location, biomass, previous change threats. Thus, at the broad level Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and the exposure, frequency, intensity, and of coral reefs, the information in the Maldives. For example, the Fijian duration of thermal stress events, gene petition and in our files does not allow fishery, which was exclusively for T. expression, and symbiotic relationships us to conclude that coral reefs generally derasa, landed over 218 tons over a 9- (Pandolfi et al., 2011; Putman et al., are at such risk from ocean acidification year period, with the largest annual 2011; Buddemeier et al., 2012; Sridhar effects as to threaten the viability of the harvest totaling 49.5 tons in 1984. The et al., 2012; Teneva et al., 2012; van petitioned giant clam species. petition cites Lewis et al. (1998) in Hooidonk and Huber, 2012). Evidence Finally, the petition provided no stating this level of harvest is ‘‘thought suggests that coral bleaching events will information or analysis regarding how to have removed most of the available continue to occur and become more changes in coral reef composition and stock,’’ but the authors actually stated severe and more frequent over the next function because of climate change pose that in 1984–85 there were still few decades (van Hooidonk 2013). an extinction risk to any of the abundant populations on various reefs However, newer multivariate modeling petitioned giant clam species. This is in the windward (Lau, Lomaiviti)

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islands but subsequent commercial international trade to the other nine , Tonga, and the FSM, harvest has considerably reduced these petitioned giant clam species. Based on producing an approximate average of numbers. Because of these rapidly the information presented in the 15–20,000 pieces of clams per year depleting local stocks, government petition and in our files, we (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). authorities closed the fisheries (Munro acknowledge that international trade Therefore, the international trade of 1992). The petition also noted historical may be a threat to some species (e.g., T. giant clams is complex, with many commercial overutilization of giant gigas), but we cannot conclude that facets to consider, including the clams (i.e., T. gigas and T. derasa) in international trade is posing an increasing influx of cultured giant clams . Hester and Jones (1974) recorded equivalent threat to all of the petitioned into the trade. We acknowledge that the densities of 50 T. gigas and 33 T. derasa species, as it is clear that some giant success of these restocking programs per hectare at Helen Reef, Palau, before clam species are more desirable and have been variable and limited in some these stocks were ‘‘totally decimated by targeted more for international trade locations (Teitelbaum and Friedman distant-water fishing vessels’’ (Munro than others. A more detailed analysis of 2008); however, given the foregoing 1992), although no further information available species-specific trade information, we cannot conclude that or citations are provided to better information presented in the petition international trade poses an equal describe the decimation. The petition and in our files can be found in the extinction risk to all of the petitioned discusses a few other studies that individual species accounts in later giant clam species. In cases where the document historical overutilization of sections of this notice. petition did provide species-specific giant clams in various locations, Although the petition does not information regarding commercial trade, including Japan, , , mention and hatchery we consider this information, as well as and Micronesia (Okada 1997; Villanoy programs, we found some information what is in our files, in the individual et al., 1988; Tan and Yasin 2003; and in our files on numerous giant clam species accounts below. Lucas 1994, respectively). Thus, it is aquaculture and hatchery programs Disease and Predation clear that in some locations, giant clams, throughout the Indo-Pacific, with particularly the largest species (T. gigas The petition states that predation is several species being cultured in not likely a threat to giant clam species, and T. derasa), have likely experienced captivity for the purpose of historical overutilization as a result of as there is no evidence to suggest that international trade and restocking/ levels of predation have changed or are commercial harvest. However, it should reseeding programs to enhance wild unnaturally high and affecting the status be noted that the large majority of the populations. Currently, a variety of of giant clam populations. We could information provided in the petition hatchery and nursery production also find no additional information in points to selective targeting of the systems are being utilized in over 21 our files regarding the threat of largest giant clam species, with limited Indo-Pacific countries (Teitelbaum and predation for any of the petitioned clam information on many of the other Friedman 2008), with several Pacific species. petitioned giant clam species. Therefore, Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) The petition asserts that because we cannot conclude that overutilization across the Pacific using giant clam diseases have been documented in a is contributing equally or to the same aquaculture and restocking programs to number of species and have likely extent to the extinction risk of all giant help enhance wild populations and increased in concert with climate clam species. Thus, any individual culture clams for commercial use/trade. change, they cannot be ruled out as a studies and species-specific information For example, the Cook Islands cultures threat. The petition presented some are discussed and analyzed in further giant clams at the Aitutaki Marine limited information on diseases (e.g., detail in the individual species accounts Research Center and exported 30,000 impacts of protozoans and parasitic below. giant clams from 2003 to 2006 for the gastropods on giant clams and other In terms of current and ongoing global marine aquarium trade (Kinch bivalves on the Great Barrier Reef of threats of overutilization to giant clams, and Teitelbaum 2009). In 2005, the Australia), but did not provide any the petition emphasizes the threat of the Palau National Government established species-specific information regarding growing giant clam industry in China, the Palau Maricultural Demonstration how diseases may be impacting giant largely the result of improved carving Center Program to conduct research on clam populations to the point that techniques, increased tourism in giant clam culture and to establish disease poses an extinction risk to any Hainan, China, the growth in e- community-based giant clam grow-out of the petitioned clam species. We could commerce, and the domestic Chinese farms. This program has helped also not find any additional information wholesale market (Larson 2016). The establish 46 giant clam farms in our files regarding the threat of petition also cites McManus (2016) to throughout Palau, with over two million disease for any of the petitioned clam note concerns that stricter enforcement giant clam ‘seedlings’ distributed (Kinch species. Therefore, we conclude that the of the trade in ivory products has and Teitelbaum 2009). At least 10 petition does not provide substantial diverted attention to giant clam shells. percent of all giant clams from each information that disease or predation is The petition points out that the giant farm are also kept aside to spawn a threat contributing to any of the clam (T. gigas) is the main target for naturally in their own ranched species’ risk of extinction, such that it international trade, as this species’ shell enclosures, thus reseeding nearby areas. is cause for concern. is considered a desirable luxury item, In addition to being used to reseed areas with a pair of high quality shells (from in Palau, the program exported Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory one individual) selling for upwards of approximately 10,000 cultured giant Mechanisms US $150,000. Therefore, the high value clams each year from 2005 to 2008 to The petition claims existing and demand for large T. gigas shells France, Germany, Canada, the United regulatory mechanisms at the may be a driving factor contributing to States (including and the international, federal, and state level to ongoing overutilization of the species. Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)), protect giant clams or the habitat they However, aside from T. gigas, the Korea, and Taiwan. Other major need to survive are inadequate. The petition provides very limited producers of cultured giant clams for petitioner asserts that not only are local information regarding the threat of export include the Republic of the and national laws inadequate to protect

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giant clams, but that international trade Malaysia represents a different Trade Regulations and greenhouse gas regulations are also proportion of each of the petitioned The petition asserts that international inadequate. We address each of these species’ overall range, the potential regulations, specifically the CITES, are topics separately below. inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms in inadequate to control commercial trade Malaysia will be assessed and Local and National Giant Clam of giant clam species. The petition Regulations considered for each of the petitioned explains that although all members of species in the individual species the Tridacninae family are listed under The petitioner notes that there are accounts below. Appendix II of CITES, implementation some laws for giant clams on the books Overall, the discussion of inadequate and enforcement are likely not adequate in certain locations, but only discusses regulatory mechanisms for giant clams and thus illegal shipments are not regulations from the Philippines and at the national/local level by the Malaysia and a separate issue of illegal necessarily intercepted. However, the petitioner focuses on , clam poaching in disputed areas of the assertions regarding illegal shipments without any information regarding South China Sea. The petition were made broadly about wildlife regulatory mechanisms throughout large acknowledges that all species of giant shipments in general, without providing portions of the rest of the ranges of the clam in the Philippines are protected as any specific information or clear species. However, we found regulations endangered species under the linkages regarding how CITES is failing in our files in numerous countries Philippine’s Fisheries Administrative to regulate international trade of each of throughout the tropical Pacific (e.g., Order No. 208 series of 2001 (Dolorosa the petitioned giant clam species. The and Schoppe 2005), but states that PICTs) and Australia regarding the petition cites a number of CITES despite this law, declines of giant clams harvest of giant clams. For example, size documents and states that these continue. However, the only study limits and complete bans on commercial documents ‘‘show wide disparities in presented on abundance trends since harvest are the most commonly used yearly giant clam trade figures,’’ which the law was implemented in 2001 was fisheries management tools for giant suggest that some countries have failed conducted on one reef (Tubbataha Reef; clams throughout the PICTs (Kinch and to exert control on the clam trade (bin Dolorosa and Schoppe 2005). Dolorosa Teitelbaum 2009). Several countries, Othman et al., 2010). However, the and Schoppe (2005) specifically stated including French Polynesia, Niue, petition did not provide any additional that they could not conclude a Samoa, and Tonga, have size limits details explaining how these trade continuous decline of tridacnids was imposed for certain species. Some figures demonstrate a risk of extinction occurring because the much lower PICTs, such as Fiji and New Caledonia, to any particular species. density observed in their study was both of which have active high volume Overall, the discussion of the based on data taken from a single tourist trades, allow up to three giant inadequacy of CITES is very broad and transect. Prior to the study conducted by clam shells (or six halves) not weighing does not discuss how the inadequacy of Dolorosa and Schoppe (2005), the only more than 3 kg to be exported with international trade regulations is quantitative information presented was Convention on International Trade of impacting any of the petitioned species from studies conducted in the 1980s Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and to the point that it is contributing to an and 1990s (Villanoy et al., 1988; Salazar Flora (CITES) permits. Other PICTs, extinction risk, with the exception of T. et al., 1999). Therefore, based on the such as Guam and New Caledonia, have gigas and the growing giant clam foregoing information, we cannot imposed bag-limits on subsistence and industry in China. For example, the conclude that the aforementioned commercial harvest of giant clams. petition points out that the shape of the fisheries law is inadequate for Papua New Guinea has imposed a ban large giant clam shells (T. gigas) makes mitigating local threats to giant clams on the use of night lights to harvest them highly desirable for making large, and slowing or halting population giant clams. There are also community- intricately carved scenes. In fact, the declines in the Philippines. However, based cultural management systems in petition itself emphasizes that T. gigas illegal poaching for some species does many PICTs like the Cook Islands where is the main giant clam species targeted seem to be an issue in some areas of the a local village or villages may institute and poached in the South China Sea for Philippines, notably in the protected rahui, or closed areas, for a period of this particular trade. Therefore, from the area of Tubbataha Reef National Marine time to allow stocks to recover information in the petition and our files, Park. For example, hundreds of giant (Chambers 2007). Finally, the following it is clear that some giant clam species clams (T. gigas) were confiscated from PICTs have complete bans on are more desirable and targeted for the Chinese fishermen who poached in the commercial harvest and export, with the international trade than others, and thus Park in the early 2000s (Dolorossa and exception of aquacultured species: FSM, require more restrictive regulations to Schoppe 2005), indicating that Fiji, French Polynesia, , Palau, ensure their sustainability. As discussed regulatory mechanisms (e.g., the , and (Kinch previously in the Overutilization for protected area) may not be adequate to and Teitelbaum 2009). Therefore, Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or protect that highly sought after species. without any information or analysis as Educational section above, we The petitioner also notes that to how these regulatory measures are concluded that, for giant clams in Malaysia’s Department of Fisheries has failing to address local threats to giant general, the information in the petition listed giant clams as protected species, clams, we cannot conclude that there is and our files does not constitute but cites Tan and Yasin (2003) as substantial information indicating that substantial information that evidence that giant clams continue to regulatory mechanisms for all of the international trade is posing an decline despite this protective petitioned giant clam species are equivalent threat to all of the petitioned regulation. The petition provides no equally inadequate such that they may giant clam species. Therefore, while we details regarding when this law was be posing an extinction risk to the acknowledge that international trade implemented or what specific species. Where more specific may be a threat to some species, and protections it affords giant clams in information is available for a particular existing regulations may be inadequate Malaysian waters, nor could we find species, we consider this information in and warrant further investigation, the these details in the reference provided the individual species accounts later in assertion that inadequate regulations for (Tan and Yasin 2003). Given that this finding. international trade is an equivalent

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threat to all of the petitioned giant clam Asia. The petition then describes several sites and multiple major bleaching species is not supported. studies on the physiological effects to events (Hobbs et al., 2013). Based on giant clams from bleaching and ocean this example, generalized statements Greenhouse Gas Regulations acidification, with the large majority of about bleaching impacts to all The petition claims that regulatory these studies conducted on T. gigas. organisms that have symbiotic mechanisms to curb greenhouse gas However, while the petition provides being analogous are not emissions and reduce the effects of some evidence that giant clams supported by the best available global climate change are inadequate to experience bleaching as a result of information. protect giant clams from the threats increased temperature, there is no Without species-specific information climate change poses to the species and discussion regarding how giant clams on how ocean warming-induced their habitat. The petition goes on to tolerate bleaching or the extent to which bleaching affects each of the petitioned explain that climate change threats, bleaching leads to mortality for the giant clam species (e.g., mortality rates including bleaching and ocean majority of the petitioned species. For and evidence of negative population acidification, represent the most example, the petition discusses a study level effects), we cannot conclude that significant long-term threat to the future by Leggat et al. (2003), in which the bleaching caused by ocean warming of global biodiversity. Information in symbiotic zooxanthellae in T. gigas may be acting equally on all of the our files and from scientific literature declined 30-fold during the 1998 global petitioned species to the point that the indeed indicates that greenhouse gas coral bleaching event, leading to a loss petitioned action may be warranted. emissions have a negative impact to reef of the nutrition provided by Where the petition provides some building corals (NMFS 2012). However, zooxanthellae in ways very similar to species-specific information regarding as we discussed in detail previously, the effects on stony corals; however, the the effects of temperature-induced beyond this generalized global threat to petition failed to present any discussion bleaching, we consider this information coral reefs, we do not find that the or analysis as to how this stressor is in more detail in the individual species petition presents substantial linked to mortality of giant clams or accounts below. information indicating that the effects of population declines. In fact, the main Ocean Acidification greenhouse gas emissions are negatively conclusion of the Leggat et al. (2003) Similar to the effects of ocean affecting the petitioned species or their study states: habitat such that they may warrant warming, the petitioner discusses ocean Despite this significant reduction in acidification as a threat contributing to listing under the ESA. In particular, the symbiont population, and the consequent information in the petition and in our the extinction risk of all of the changes to their carbon and nitrogen budgets, petitioned giant clam species. The files does not indicate that the loss of the clams are able to cope with bleaching coral reef habitat or the direct effects of events significantly better than corals. During petitioner asserts that the effects of ocean warming and acidification is the recovery of clams after an artificial ocean acidification will likely accelerate contributing to the extinction risk of the bleaching event only three out of 24 clams the bioerosion of giant clam shells and petitioned species (refer back to the died, and personal observations at Orpheus lead to their increased fragility. To Island indicated that survival rates of Present or Threatened Destruction, support this assertion, the petition cites bleached clams were greater than 95 percent two studies. One study (Waters 2008) Modification or Curtailment of its under natural conditions. This is in contrast looked at cultured specimens of T. Habitat or Range section above and the to reports indicating coral mortality in some maxima in a lab experiment and found Other Natural or Manmade Factors species can be as great as 99 percent. that T. maxima juveniles exposed to section below). Therefore, with the Therefore, although giant clams and pCO concentrations approximating exception of species for which species- 2 stony corals can experience similar glacial (180 ppm), current (380 ppm) specific information is available bleaching of their symbiotic and projected (560 ppm and 840 ppm) regarding negative responses to ocean zooxanthellae, this does not necessarily levels of atmospheric CO (per the IPCC warming or acidification, inadequate 2 equate to analogous impacts of IS92a scenario) suffered decreases in regulatory mechanisms controlling widespread bleaching-induced mortality size and dissolution, and this occurred greenhouse gas emissions are not from ocean warming. As discussed for below thresholds previously considered considered a factor that may be another reef-dwelling organism in the detrimental to other marine organisms contributing to the extinction risk of the orange clownfish 12-month finding (80 in similar conditions. We discuss these petitioned species. FR 51235), anemones also have results and implications in further detail Other Natural or Manmade Factors symbiotic zooxanthellae, but literature in the T. maxima species account Affecting Its Continued Existence on the effects of ocean warming on below. anemones show results that are not The second study (Lin et al., 2006) Ocean Warming and Giant Clam necessarily analogous with corals either, did not specifically evaluate impacts of Bleaching and in fact show high variability ocean acidification but instead involved The petitioner discusses the climate between and within species. Even mechanical tests on the shells of conch change-related impacts of ocean individual anemones can show varying (Strombus gigas), giant clam (T. gigas), warming and giant clam bleaching as an responses across different bleaching and red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) for extinction risk to all the petitioned giant events. Although observed anemone a comparison of strength with respect to clam species. In terms of giant clam bleaching has thus far been highly the microstructural architecture and bleaching, the petitioner argues that variable during localized events, the sample orientation. The study found giant clams are like stony corals, in that overall effect of bleaching events on that although the structure of the T. the Symbodinium zooxanthellae in giant anemones globally (i.e., overall gigas shell had the lowest level of clams are subject to bleaching and other proportion of observed anemones that organization of the three shells, its sheer effects from high temperature. The have shown ill effects) has been of low size results in a strong overall system petitioner provides a number of studies magnitude at sites across their ranges. In (Lin et al., 2006). The petitioner claims documenting giant clam bleaching in fact, only 3.5 percent of the nearly that because T. gigas has the lowest various locations, including the Great 14,000 observed anemones were flexural shell strength relative to the two Barrier Reef in Australia and Southeast recorded as bleached across 19 study other types of shells tested, that any loss

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of shell material or strength from the information, we consider this this species. He cites Shelley (1989) effects of ocean acidification may have information in further detail in the who found second sexual maturity in H. a greater negative effect on giant clams individual species accounts below. hippopus at Orpheus Island, Great than on other large molluscs. However, Individual Species Accounts Barrier Reef, at a shell size of 145mm this statement is speculative, and no which equated to 2 years of age for additional information or references Based on the information presented in males and 4 years of age for were provided to support this claim. the petition and in our files, we made hermaphrodites of the species from the Overall, while we agree that ocean 10 separate 90-day findings, one for study area. He cites Stephenson (1934) acidification is likely to continue and each of the petitioned giant clam and Shelley (1989) who reported that H. increase in severity over time within the species. We first address the seven hippopus spawns in the austral summer ranges of the giant clam species, species for which we have determined months of December to March on the resulting in various detrimental that the information presented in the Great Barrier Reef, which is also impacts, additional information in our petition and in our files constitutes files also underscores the complexity substantial information that the supported by Munro (1992) who found and uncertainty associated with the petitioned action may be warranted (i.e., spawning of H. hippopus to be various specific effects of ocean positive 90-day finding). Because we restricted to a short summer season in acidification across the ranges of giant will be addressing all potential threats the central region of the Great Barrier clams. There are numerous complex to these species in forthcoming status Reef. In Palau, Hardy and Hardy (1969) spatial and temporal factors that reviews, we will only provide reported that H. hippopus spawned in compound uncertainty associated with summaries of the main threat June. In a detailed study of early life projecting effects of ocean acidification information in these species accounts as history in Guam, fertilized eggs of H. on coral reef associated species such as opposed to addressing every ESA hippopus had a mean diameter of 130.0 giant clams. Further, as explained in the (4)(a)(1) factor. Then, we address the mm (micrometers; 13 cm; Jameson 1976). final rule to list 20 reef-building coral remaining three species for which we According to the same study, settlement species under the ESA (79 FR 53852; determined that the information in Guam occurred 9 days after September 10, 2014), projecting species- presented in the petition and in our files fertilization at a mean shell length of specific responses to global threats is does not constitute substantial 202.0 mm (20.2 cm) for H. hippopus. complicated by several physical and information that the petitioned action is Juveniles of H. hippopus in Guam first biological factors that also apply to the warranted (i.e., negative 90-day finding). acquired zooxanthellae after 25 days petitioned giant clam species. First, In these species accounts, we address and juvenile shells showed first signs of global projections of changes to ocean every ESA (4)(a)(1) factor individually. becoming opaque after 50 days (Jameson acidification into the future are associated with three major sources of 1976). uncertainty, including greenhouse gas Species Description Range, Habitat, and Distribution emissions assumptions, strength of the climate’s response to greenhouse gas The petition does not provide any The petition includes a range map for concentrations, and large natural descriptive information for H. hippopus. H. hippopus that was excerpted from variations. There is also spatial and We found some information in our files bin Othman et al. (2010). bin Othman et temporal variability in projected describing this species. Its shell exterior al. (2010) note that data from Reef environmental conditions across the is off-white with a yellowish orange Check (www.reefcheck.org) indicate that ranges of the species. Finally, species- coloring and reddish blotches arranged there are populations of giant clams specific responses depend on numerous in irregular concentric bands; the shell beyond the species-specific boundaries biological characteristics, including (at a interior is porcelaneous white, described by the references on which frequently flushed with yellowish minimum) distribution, abundance, life the range maps within bin Othman et al. orange on the ventral margin, and the history, susceptibility to threats, and (2010) are based, although no further mantle ranges from a yellowish-brown, capacity for acclimatization. detail is provided for any species. This In this case, the petition did not dull green, or grey (Kinch and provide sufficient information regarding Teitelbaum 2009). Maximum shell applies to all species for which range the likely impacts of ocean acidification length for H. hippopus is 40 cm, but it maps based on bin Othman et al. (2010) on specific giant clam species or their is commonly found at lengths up to 20 are provided in this finding. The range populations. Without any analysis of cm. It can be found on sandy bottoms map for H. hippopus provided in the how ocean acidification may be of coral reefs in shallow water to a petition does include several U.S. negatively impacting each of the depth of 6 m. Smaller specimens (up to Pacific areas including Guam, petitioned giant clam species (with the about 15 cm in length) are often Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana exception of T. maxima and T. attached to coral rubble by their byssal Islands (CNMI), and Wake Atoll. squamosa), we cannot conclude that strings, while large and heavy According to the petition, H. hippopus substantial information was provided to specimens are unattached and lack a also historically occurred in Singapore indicate effects of ocean acidification byssus (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). (Neo and Todd 2012b and 2013) and the may be acting on all of the petitioned Life History United States, although locations in the species to the point that the petitioned United States are not specified and no action may be warranted. In cases where The petitioner provides some reference is provided. the petition did provide species-specific information on life history specific to

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According to Munro (1992), H. . Upon review of this hippopus declined by 97 percent in hippopus occurs in the widest range of reference, more specifically, the authors Tubbataha Reef Park in the Philippines habitat types of all the Tridacninae found many small shells of H. hippopus from 1995–2005 based on a survey by species. This species is seemingly but no living specimens in their survey Dolorosa and Schoppe (2005). However, equally comfortable on sandy atoll area of seven island transects in Central upon closer review of this reference, the floors or exposed intertidal Java, Indonesia. The authors noted that data in Dolorosa and Schoppe (2005) habitats, and similar to T. gigas, which because of time constraints, it was not indicating a substantial decline in H. is found in many habitats (e.g., high or possible to cover more than a very small hippopus density was taken from a low islands, , or fringing reefs; proportion of the total area suitable for single transect; as such, the authors Munro 1992). clam growth in Karimun Jawa. Thus, concluded that a continuous decline of confining the survey to such a small the Tridacnids (including H. hippopus) Population Status and Abundance area could have affected the results. could not be confirmed. Finally, Salazar Trends Hernawan (2010) found small et al. (1999) did a stock assessment of Although an overall population populations and evidence of giant clams (including H. hippopus) in abundance estimate or population recruitment failure in the six species the Eastern Visayas of the Philippines trends for H. hippopus are not found during a survey of Kei Kecil, and found most of the populations were presented, the petitioner does provide Southeast-Maluku, Indonesia, including made up of juveniles with insufficient some limited abundance information H. hippopus. The authors conducted numbers of breeders to repopulate the from various locations within the giant clam surveys in nine sites out of region, although this reference was species’ range. For example, the petition the many thousands of islands that unavailable for review. Notably, the cites Tan and Yasin (2003) who state make up Indonesia. At another site in petition cites Thamrongnavasawat that giant clams of all species but T. Indonesia, Eliata et al. (2003) reported (2001) as reporting that H. hippopus is crocea are considered endangered in an 84 percent decline in H. hippopus considered extinct in Mo Ko Surin Malaysia. The authors mention based on surveys of Pari Island from National Park in Thailand, although the underwater surveys that reveal the 1984 and 2003. This species is bibliographic information provided for ‘‘distribution of giant clams are presumed nationally extinct in this reference did not allow us to access widespread but their numbers are very Singapore (Neo and Todd 2012a, 2013) it for review. low,’’ but there are no references and has been reported as extirpated While individually and collectively provided by the authors to provide any from Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and American the studies discussed in this section more detail or support for this Samoa, Guam, the Mariana Islands, and represent a small portion of H. information, which makes it difficult to Taiwan (Wells 1996a, Skelton et al. hippopus’ total geographic range, interpret this information for individual 2002, Teitelbaum and Friedman 2008). localized declines and potential species. The only species-specific The petition presents three references extirpations of this species in small information for H. hippopus in this from the Philippines on H. hippopus. areas are spread throughout its range reference is that it occurs in Malaysian Villanoy et al. (1988) states this species and not confined to one area that may waters. The petition states that Brown has been overexploited based on the be disproportionately affected by some and Muskanofola (1985) found that H. export volumes of giant clam shells. The negative impact. Thus, the number and hippopus was locally extinct in petitioner claims densities of H. spatial distribution of localized severe

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declines or extirpations in the context of substantial information that climate to determine what has potentially the species’ range may be contributing change may be acting on H. hippopus as caused these declines and extirpations. to an elevated extinction risk for this a species to the extent that it needs species such that it warrants further protection under the ESA, the impacts investigation. of ocean warming will be further Species Description evaluated for H. hippopus in the status Threats to Hippopus hippopus review based on the best available The petition does not provide any The petition presents three studies information. descriptive information for H. with species-specific information Finally, Norton et al. (1993) found porcellanus. We found some regarding threats to H. hippopus. Some two incidences of mortality in H. information in our files describing this historical information indicates that hippopus from rickettsiales-like species. Commonly known as the China shells of H. hippopus (long extirpated in organisms in cultured clams in the clam, H. porcellanus grows to a Fiji) occur in shell middens at the western Pacific, one in the Philippines maximum of 40 cm, but is commonly Lapita-era (1100–550 B.C.) settlements and one in Kosrae. However, it is not found up to 20 cm in shell length. The (Bourewa and Qoqo) along the Rove uncommon among individuals cultured shell exterior is off-white, occasionally Peninsula in Fiji; the valve size and in close proximity to be afflicted with with scattered weak reddish blotches. weight increase with depth (i.e., age) in parasites or diseases that spread quickly The shell interior is porcelaneous white, the midden, suggesting that human (Norton et al., 1993). While this does not more or less flushed with orange on the consumption contributed to its local constitute substantial information that ventral margin, and the mantle ranges disappearance (Seeto et al. 2012). While disease or parasites may be acting on H. from a yellowish-brown, dull green or this one piece of evidence does not hippopus as a species to the extent it grey (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). This constitute substantial information that needs the protections of the ESA, the species can be distinguished from its overharvest may be acting or may have threats of disease and parasites will be congener, H. hippopus, by its smoother acted on H. hippopus as a species to the further evaluated in a forthcoming and thinner shells and presence of extent that it needs protection under the status review. fringing tentacles at its incurrent ESA, the threat of overexploitation will (Neo et al., 2015). Conclusion be evaluated in the status review. Life History Blidberg et al. (2000) studied the effect In conclusion, the information of increasing water temperature on T. provided on threats for this species is Aside from the information already gigas, T. derasa, and H. hippopus at a limited and the individual studies by discussed previously in the Giant Clam laboratory in the Philippines. Hippopus themselves are not substantial Life History section, the petition did not hippopus experienced increased information indicating the petitioned provide any life history information respiration and production of oxygen in action may be warranted for the species. specific to H. porcellanus, nor could we elevated temperatures and was therefore However, the evidence presented of find any additional information in our more sensitive to higher temperature localized declines or extirpations in files on the life history of this species. than the two other species tested. After different parts of the species’ range does Range, Habitat, and Distribution 24 hours at ambient temperature plus 3 suggest that one or more threats may be °C, however, no bleaching was observed acting on the species throughout all or Hippopus porcellanus has one of the for any of the species. While we a significant portion of its range and the most restricted geographic ranges of the acknowledge the potential for ocean petitioned action may be warranted. The petitioned giant clam species. The warming to have an effect on this number and spatial distribution of petition notes that the species only species, this was a limited experiment, localized severe declines or extirpations occurs in Palau, Indonesia, and the the results of which are difficult to in the context of the species’ range may Philippines based on the IUCN interpret in terms of the potential be contributing to an elevated extinction assessment (Wells 1996); however, in species-level or even localized impacts risk for this species such that it warrants the population abundance and trends of physiological stress due to elevated further investigation. The best available section, the petition notes the ocean temperatures in the wild in the information on the species’ overall endangered status of H. porcellanus in context of this assessment. While this status and all potential threats will be Malaysia, placing its occurrence there as one study does not constitute evaluated in a forthcoming status review well.

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H. porcellanus can be found in porcellanus in this reference is that it is gives cause for concern and warrants shallow waters on sandy bottoms of restricted to , Eastern Malaysia. further investigation. coral reefs. Young specimens are often The petition asserts that H. While H. porcellanus also occurs in attached to coral heads via their byssus, porcellanus is overexploited and Indonesia and Palau, the petition did whereas mature individuals lack a depleted in the Philippines based on not provide any additional information byssus and lay unattached on the Villanoy et al., (1988) and Rubec et al., regarding the species’ status or substrate (Rosewater 1982). (2001). Villanoy et al., (1988) examined abundance trends in these locations. average size frequency distributions of The information provided by the Population Status and Abundance petitioner for giant clams in Indonesia is Trends giant clams harvested from the Sulu Archipelago and Southern from a location where H. porcellanus is not known to occur (i.e., Kei Kecil, The petition does not provide an areas from 1978 to1985, and determined Indonesia). We could not otherwise find overall population abundance or trend that H. porcellanus was overexploited in any information in our files from estimate for H. porcellanus as a species the Philippines as early as the 1980s. Indonesia or Palau regarding the status throughout its range. The petition does, The authors note that these findings of H. porcellanus in these locations. however, provide limited, localized have serious implications given that the Overall, while the information information on the population status Sulu Archipelago and Southern presented in the petition is very limited and abundance trends of H. porcellanus, Palawan may be the last strongholds of regarding the species’ current status and with some information from Malaysia all giant clam species occurring in abundance trends throughout its range and the Philippines, but no species- Philippine waters. Rubec et al. (2001) and would not in and of itself constitute specific information from other parts of more recently described H. porcellanus substantial information, the species’ the species’ range, including Indonesia as ‘‘depleted,’’ but they did not provide range is significantly restricted. and Palau. As discussed in other species any references or additional detail to Therefore, given that the species only accounts, the petitioner cites Tan and help us determine what they meant by occurs in four countries, the information Yasin (2003), who state that giant clams ‘‘depleted’’ or how this current presented in the petition from the of all species but T. crocea are information relates to historical Philippines, albeit limited, gives cause considered endangered in Malaysia. As abundance of the species in Philippine for concern that the species may have an noted previously, the authors mention waters. Without any quantitative elevated extinction risk that warrants underwater surveys that reveal that the information on abundance trends of H. further investigation. ‘‘distribution of giant clams are porcellanus in the Philippines since the widespread but their numbers are very 1980s, it is difficult to determine what Threats to H. porcellanus low,’’ but the authors do not provide the present status of the species is in The only species-specific information any references with any more detail or this portion of its range. However, we provided by the petition regarding support for this information, which note that because H. porcellanus has an threats to H. porcellanus is related to makes it difficult to interpret this extremely restricted geographic range, overutilization in the Philippines. As information for individual species. The occurring in only three countries, described in the Population Status and only species-specific information for H. overexploitation in the Philippines Abundance Trends section above, the

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petitioner cited Villanoy et al. (1988) as concerns for reasons discussed above. information for T. costata, but we found evidence of overutilization of H. However, given the species’ extremely some limited information in one of the porcellanus. Villanoy et al. (1988) notes restricted range, combined with references provided that suggests a that giant clams have long been evidence of localized declines and narrow reproductive period. Richter et harvested by subsistence fishermen in historical overutilization in the al. (2008) found marked differences in the Indo-Pacific Region as a Philippines, we find the information the seasonal times of reproduction supplementary source of protein. compelling enough to conclude that the between T. costata and its Red Sea Additionally, in some areas of the petitioned action may be warranted. The congeners (T. maxima and T. Philippines (e.g. Sulu Archipelago, best available information on the squamosa). Specifically, T. costata’s species’ overall population status and Southern Palawan), giant clams are also reproductive period appears to be an all potential threats will be evaluated in harvested commercially for their shells. early and brief period in spring, After examining average size frequency a forthcoming status review. coinciding with the seasonal planktonic distributions of giant clams harvested Tridacna costata (T. squamosina) bloom (Richter et al., 2008). This narrow from the Sulu Archipelago and Southern Palawan areas from 1978– Species Description reproductive window may make T. 1985, Villanoy et al. (1988) determined costata particularly vulnerable to Tridacna costata has been described overfishing. The timing of T. costata’s that H. porcellanus was overexploited in only recently (Richter et al., 2008; bin reproduction combined with the small the Philippines as early as the 1980s, Othman et al., 2010), but it has been diameter of the ova (75 ±2 [SEM] mm) and is no longer commercially shown to be a junior synonym of the harvested. As noted previously, the previously described T. squamosina suggests a planktotrophic (i.e., feeding Sulu Archipelago and Southern (Borsa et al., 2015a). This species of on plankton) development of the larvae. Palawan areas are thought to be the last giant clam grows to 32 cm (Neo et al., This contrasts with the lecithotrophic strongholds of giant clams in Philippine 2015) and features 5–7 deep rib-like (i.e., yolk-feeding) and hence food- waters. Therefore, the overexploitation vertical folds, resulting in a zig-zag independent larval development in the of H. porcellanus as of the 1980s and its dorsal shell margin. According to summer-spawning T. squamosa and T. restricted range could have serious Richter et al., (2008), the mantle is most maxima, which also have much larger implications regarding the species’ commonly a subdued brown mottled eggs (35 percent ±1 percent and 41 extinction risk. More recently, Rubec et pattern; mantle margins are green with percent ±2 percent by volume, al. (2001) similarly document that H. prominent ‘‘wart-like’’ protrusions and respectively; Richter et al., 2008). porcellanus has been depleted to such pale striations following mantle an extent that it is no longer contour. These features (the pronounced Range, Habitat, and Distribution commercially viable for harvesting in rib-like vertical folds and the prominent Among giant clam species, T. costata the Philippines. wart-like protrusions on the mantle has one of the most restricted tissue) are the main diagnostic features Conclusion geographical ranges, occurring only in that separate T. costata from its the Red Sea. Richter et al. (2008) In conclusion, the information sympatric congeners. These features are provided on population abundance and conservatively present even in small describes the species as occurring threats for this species is limited and by clams <10 cm shell length (Richter et throughout the northeastern Gulf of itself would not be considered al., 2008). Aqaba (type locality), Sinai coast, substantial information indicating the western Gulf of Aqaba, northern Red petitioned action may be warranted. The Life History Sea, and Egyptian mainland down to individual studies presented are not The petition itself does not describe Hurghada and Safaga. compelling evidence of species level any species-specific life history

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In a survey of giant clams in the Red highest numbers for the species reef top gathering), it is likely that Sea, Richter et al. (2008) noted that live occurred on offshore shoals in the Red overutilization of the species has specimens of T. costata were found Sea proper; however, adult broodstock contributed to its significant decline. exclusively in very shallow water was below detection in much of the Therefore, we conclude that the petition including reef flats, seagrass beds, study area (Richter et al., 2008). In fact, presents substantial information that sandy-rubble flats, on slight depressions only 13 live individuals of T. costata overutilization may be a threat in barren rocky flats, or under branching were observed along the entire contributing to an elevated extinction corals or coral heads shallower than 2m. Jordanian Red Sea coast, which risk for this particular species. All clams were weakly attached to the prevented collection of paratypes Conclusion substrate. Thus, unlike its Red Sea (Richter et al., 2008). congeners T. maxima and T. squamosa, Based on the above information, we Threats to T. costata which have broad vertical ranges of find that the petition presents distribution, T. costata is restricted to Based on the limited information in substantial scientific and commercial the reef top (Richter et al., 2008). the petition, we determined that information indicating that the historical and ongoing overutilization petitioned action of listing T. costata as Population Status and Abundance may be a threat contributing to an threatened or endangered may be Trends elevated extinction risk for this species warranted. Its highly restricted range, Given the recent description of this that warrants further investigation, reduced abundance, low productivity species, information on its current particularly given the species’ restricted (due to its narrow reproductive population status and abundance trends geographic range and shallow depth periodicity), and the threat of is limited. However, one available study distribution. In general, Tridacna stocks overutilization for commercial purposes suggests a significant historical decline in the Red Sea have declined to less may be contributing to an elevated risk of the species. Results of surveys along than 5 percent of their sizes in the 1980s of extinction such that the petitioned the shores and well-dated emerged reef and 1990s, largely due to artisanal reef- action may be warranted. The best terraces of Sinai and Aqaba show that T. top gathering for meat and shells (Richer available information on the species’ costata comprised >80 percent of giant et al., 2008). Richter et al. (2008) notes overall population status and all clam stocks prior to the last interglacial that modern humans have likely been potential threats will be evaluated in a period (122,000 to 125,000 years ago). exploiting Red Sea mollusks for at least forthcoming status review. Subsequently, the proportion of T. 125,000 years. Although natural costata plunged to <5 percent in freshly disturbances may be responsible for discarded shell middens (Richter et al., variable rates of recruitment and Species Description 2008). Currently, the species is thought mortality among the three Red Sea giant The petition itself does not provide to represent less than one percent of the clam species, the substantial reduction any descriptive information for T. present giant clam stocks in the Red in Tridacna size (equivalent to ∼20-fold derasa. Neo et al. (2015) report that T. Sea. For example, in underwater decrease in individual body mass and derasa is the second largest species, surveys conducted in the Gulf of Aqaba fecundity accompanying the species growing up to 60 cm with heavy and and northern Red Sea, only 6 out of shift) strongly indicates overfishing plain shells, with no strong ribbing. 1,000 live specimens belonged to the (Richter et al., 2008). Further, given that According to Lewis et al. (1998), the new species, with densities averaging T. costata is restricted to the shallow maximum size recorded in Fiji, 62 cm, 0.9 ±0.4 individuals per 1,000 m2. The reef top (and thus more accessible to is well above that recorded by

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Rosewater (1965, 51.4 cm) who, derasa. We found no additional life introduced during various mariculture however, had access to only few history information for this species in efforts in areas including the United specimens. Specimens greater than 50 our files. States (e.g., Hawaii) and the Federated cm in length are relatively common. Range, Habitat, and Distribution States of Micronesia. bin Othman et al. Life History (2010) reports T. derasa from Australia, The petition does not provide a Palau, Papua New Guinea (PNG), and The petition presents very limited life description of the geographic range for the Philippines. Tridacna derasa is history information for T. derasa. The T. derasa, but it was included in the noted as an introduced species in the optimal reproductive season for T. range map provided for most of the derasa sampled from Michaelmas Cay petitioned species. The map includes all Cook Islands and Samoa (introduced for was from September/October to of Malaysia, but Tan & Zulfigar (2003) aquaculture purposes) and also reported November/December (Braley 1988). report that T. derasa is restricted to from Fiji, FSM, the Marshall Islands, Simultaneous hermaphroditism was Sabah, Eastern Malaysia. Wells (1996) New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, found in 0 to 28 percent of sampled T. noted that T. derasa has been Tonga, and Vanuatu (CITES 2009).

Tridacna derasa preferentially protection of well-developed barrier or individuals) showed an annual inhabits clear offshore or oceanic waters fringing reefs. Occurring near the surface mortality of 4.4 percent at Michaelmas away from high islands with significant down to 25 m, T. derasa occurs in greatest Cay on the Great Barrier Reef between density in the windward (eastern) islands of run-off of freshwater (Munro 1992). For the Fiji group. Very high numbers (hundreds/ 1978 and 1985 (Pearson and Munro example, it is not recorded from the hectare) are occasionally noted. It is rare or 1991). Rubec et al. (2001) notes that T. Papuan Barrier Reef running along the absent from high island fringing reefs and derasa, among other species, was south coast of PNG, nor from the lagoons where salinity and water clarity are depleted and no longer commercially fringing reefs of the north coast, but it reduced by freshwater runoff, and from harvestable in the Philippines, although unprotected areas. Until a size of typically 30 does occur within a few miles of the the authors do not provide an original southeast point of mainland PNG cm is reached, the species is weakly byssally attached to coral pieces or rubble. source of that information. Teitelbaum (Munro 1992). Large T. derasa were also and Friedman (2008) refer to the commonly found at 10 to 20 m depth in Population Status and Abundance extirpation of T. derasa in Vanuatu but the clear oceanic conditions of the Trends do not provide a reference for that windward islands and barrier reefs of information. The authors also report eastern Fiji (Adams et al., 1988). Lewis The petition does not provide et al. (1988) reported that: estimates of population abundance or that Vanuatu has a restocking program trends for T. derasa; however, the that includes T. derasa. Teitelbaum and T. derasa has a curious NW–SE petition does provide some information Friedman (2008) report that the distribution across the Indo-Malayan region, and is not found east of Tonga or in on population status or trends from reintroduction of approximately 25,000 equatorial areas east of Solomon Islands. In individual locations within the species’ T. derasa to Yap from neighboring Palau Fiji, the species is generally confined to clear range. A small population of T. derasa in 1984 resulted in only approximately oceanic outer lagoon areas, within the (initial baseline survey counted 44 8 percent survival of the introduced

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stock. However, these T. derasa context of the species’ range may be review also notes that international matured, reproduced, and re-established contributing to an elevated extinction trade in T. derasa was reported from an viable populations on nearby reefs risk for this species such that it warrants additional 14 countries not selected for (Lindsay 1995). Surveys conducted by further investigation. review and that for most countries no the Secretariat of the Pacific Community population monitoring seems to be in Threats to T. derasa (PROC-Fish/C–CoFish programmes) place and harvest and use of giant clams noted the continued presence of T. Beyond the generalized threats to all are inadequately regulated or not at all. derasa in Yap in low numbers in mid- giant clam species discussed above, the The petition cites Bliderg (2000), who 2006. petition presents little information on studied the effect of increasing water The petitioner cites Tan and Yasin threats to T. derasa specifically. temperature by 3 °C on cultured T. (2003), stating giant clams of all species According to Munro (1992), historical derasa, and several other species, for 24 but T. crocea are considered endangered commercial fisheries appear to have hours. Results showed reduced gross in Malaysia. The authors mention been confined to long-range Taiwanese production and decreased respiration of underwater surveys that reveal fishing vessels, which targeted the oxygen in response to the temperature ‘‘distribution of giant clams are adductor muscles of the larger species increase however, different species of widespread but their numbers are very (e.g., T. gigas and T. derasa). There are clams demonstrated different results, low,’’ but the authors did not provide anecdotal claims in several of the indicating different strategies for dealing any references with any more detail or references discussed above that harvest with heat stress. None of the treated support for this information, which led to low population levels at certain specimens exhibited any bleaching makes it difficult to interpret this study sites (e.g. Rubec et al., 2001, during the experiment. We acknowledge information for individual species. Teitelbaum and Friedman 2008, Tan these results, but note they are not Brown and Muskanofola (1985) found and Yasin 2003, Brown and easily interpreted to determine potential only one individual of T. derasa during Muskanofola 1985, and Hernawan individual or species level effects over a survey carried out in Karimun Jawa, 2010), but none of those studies provide time and/or space for T. derasa. The a group of islands off the north coast of empirical evidence of declining trends clams used in the experiment were Central Java, Indonesia, surmising the or of potential causes of low population cultured and not harvested from the species was essentially functionally numbers. The petition cites Lewis et al. wild. Cultured specimens are likely to extinct in this area. At another site in (1988), stating that the Fijian fishery for experience much more uniform Indonesia, the petition cites Hernawan T. derasa landed over 218 tons over a environments and are likely not (2010), stating that they found small 9-year period, with the largest annual acclimated to the common daily populations and evidence of harvest totaling 49.5 tons and which is fluctuations in many environmental recruitment failure in the six species ‘‘thought to have removed most of the parameters experienced in the wild. As found during a survey of Kei Kecil, available stock.’’ We find this to be a such, their responses to abrupt changes Southeast-Maluku, including T. derasa. slight mischaracterization of what Lewis in their environment may differ from The authors conducted giant clam et al. (1988) state about T. derasa in Fiji those of wild specimens. Given the surveys in nine sites in this area. based on 26 surveys between 1984– heterogeneity of the species’ habitat and However, Indonesia encompasses 1987: current environmental conditions across thousands of islands and T. derasa Tridacna derasa: Widespread throughout its range, these results are not occurs in other locations throughout the group, but generally rare on the fringing compelling evidence of a threat related Indonesia (Hernawan 2010). Therefore, reefs of the main islands where terrestrial to increased water temperature that is these two studies represent a small influence is strong, and in the leeward acting or will act on T. derasa to the sample of T. derasa abundance in islands (yasawas) where sheltered oceanic extent that the petitioned action may be Indonesian waters. lagoons are generally wanting. In 1984–85, warranted. Hardy and Hardy (1969) did a seminal there were still abundant populations on various reefs in the windward (Lau, Conclusion study of ecology of Tridacna in Palau in Lomaiviti) islands, but subsequent the 1960s where T. derasa and T. gigas commercial harvest has considerably reduced In conclusion, the information made up the largest proportion of the these numbers. Isolated pockets still remain provided on threats for this species is standing crop biomass because of their and should be protected. Densities on limited and by itself would not be size. Hester and Jones (1974) recorded inhabited windward islands generally low, considered substantial information densities of 50 T. gigas and 33 T. derasa with remaining individuals in deeper water indicating the petitioned action may be per hectare at Helen Reef, Palau; the (10 m plus). Further commercial harvests for warranted. The individual studies petition notes that this study was export should be prohibited. presented are not compelling evidence conducted before these stocks were According to CITES documents, of species level concerns for reasons ‘‘totally decimated by distant-water commercial harvest for export is now discussed above, however, taken fishing vessels,’’ but provides no prohibited in Fiji and the fisheries together they provide sufficient information or references to document department cultures clams, including T. evidence such that further investigation this ‘‘decimation.’’ derasa, for restocking programs. Wild is warranted. The evidence presented of While individually and collectively, populations have been improving; small, localized populations or the studies discussed in this section currently reseeding occurs mostly in extirpations in different parts of the represent a small portion of T. derasa’s marine protected areas with 200 sites species range is compelling enough to total geographic range, the small reseeded annually (CITES 2009). conclude that the petitioned action may population sizes and extirpations of this However, challenges remain for be warranted. The best available species in small areas are spread poaching at night. information on all potential threats to throughout its range and are not A 2004 CITES trade review for T. the species will be evaluated in a confined to one or few areas that may derasa indicates that out of 11 countries forthcoming status review to determine be disproportionately affected by some where T. derasa is traded, one was what has potentially caused the negative impact. Therefore, the number assessed as ‘‘Urgent Concern’’ (Tonga), observed declines and extirpations, and and spatial distribution of small two as ‘‘Possible Concern,’’ and the the extent to which such declines have populations or local extirpations in the remaining eight as ‘‘Least Concern.’’ The occurred.

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Tridacna gigas life history information for T. gigas. The example, Klumpp et al. (1992) showed petition cited Braley (1988), who found that T. gigas is an efficient filter-feeder Species Description that the optimal reproductive season for and that carbon derived from filter- Tridacna gigas is the largest of all the T. gigas sampled from Michaelmas Cay feeding in Great Barrier Reef waters giant clam species, growing to a and Myrmidon Reef in Australia was supplies substantial proportions of the maximum shell length of 137 cm, with October to February. Munro (1992) total carbon needed for respiration and weights in excess of 200 kg. However, noted that spawning of T. gigas is growth. the species is most commonly found at restricted to a short summer season in Range, Habitat, and Distribution lengths up to 80 cm (Neo et al., 2015; the central region of the Great Barrier Kinch and Teitelbam 2009). The shell Reef. For T. gigas, von Bertalanffy Prior to the rapid escalation of the exterior is off-white and is often growth parameter estimates include an aquarium trade, T. gigas could be found strongly encrusted with marine growths. asymptotic length (L∞) of 80 cm, growth throughout the shallow tropical waters The shell interior is porcellaneous coefficient (K) of 0.105, and a theoretical of the Indian and Pacific oceans; white, and the mantle is yellowish date of ‘birth’ (t0) of 0.145 (Neo et al., however, the recent fossil record, brown to olive green, with numerous, 2015). According to Branstetter (1990), together with historical accounts show small, brilliant blue-green rings, growth coefficients (K) falling in the that the range of T. gigas has been particularly along the lateral edges range of 0.05–0.10/yr are for slow- dramatically reduced (see the (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). This growing species; 0.1–0.2 for a moderate- Population Status and Abundance species may be readily identified by its growing species; and 0.2–0.5 for a fast- Trends section below; Munro 1992; bin size and by the elongate, triangular growing species. Under these Othman et al., 2010). The species’ range projections of the upper margins of the parameters, the giant clam T. gigas is once extended from East Africa to shells (Lucas 1988). considered a moderate-growing species. Micronesia and Australia to Japan. Like However, the petition notes that there other giant clam species, T. gigas is Life History are major differences between typical typically associated with coral reefs and In addition to the Life History section non-symbiotic bivalves and T. gigas can be found in many habitats, whether above on giant clams in general, the regarding the relative allocations of high- or low-islands, lagoons or fringing petition provided some species-specific energy to respiration and growth. For reefs (Munro 1992).

Population Status and Abundance reports that while relict stocks of T. more recent survey from Indonesian Trends gigas occur in Indonesian, Malaysian, waters, T. gigas was surprisingly found and Philippines waters and possibly on in Ohoimas, where it was previously The petition does not provide overall the west coast of Thailand and in believed to be extinct (Hernawan 2010). estimates of population abundance or southern Burma, in most cases it However, only four individuals were trends for T. gigas. The petition does appears that these stocks are found in only one of nine sites provide several lines of evidence that T. functionally extinct because of the wide surveyed. Additionally, several sources gigas has experienced a number of local dispersal of the survivors, making (Munro 1992; Teitelbaum and Friedman extirpations in various locations throughout its range. Munro (1992) successful fertilization unlikely. In a 2008; Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009) note

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local extirpations of T. gigas have (Larson 2016). The petition also raises hues of orange, yellow, or pink to occurred in the Commonwealth of the concerns that stricter enforcement of the mauve, and with the blade-like scales , Federated trade in ivory products has diverted commonly of different shades or color’’ States of Micronesia (Yap, Chuuk, attention to giant clam shells (McManus (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). The shell Pohnpei, and Kosrae), Fiji, Guam, New 2016). The petition points out that the interior is porcelaneous white, Caledonia, Taiwan, Ryuku Islands giant clam (T. gigas) is preferentially occasionally tinged with orange, and the (Japan), and Vanuatu. Neo and Todd targeted for international trade due to its mantle is mottled in various mixes of (2012a, 2013) report that T. gigas is also large size and because it is considered green, blue, brown, orange, and yellow nationally extinct in Singapore. In a desirable luxury item in China thought (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). Australia, the T. gigas population from to confer supernatural powers and the Great Barrier Reef is essentially a improve health. As noted previously, a Life History pair of high quality shells (from one relict population, consisting primarily Aside from the general giant clam life individual) can fetch up to US $150,000. of large adult clams; the lack of younger, history information already discussed Therefore, the high value and demand faster-growing T. gigas clams is likely previously in the Giant Clam Life for large T. gigas shells may be a driving the reason for the species’ low annual History section, the petition provided production of new biomass (Neo et al., factor contributing to overutilization of the species. little information specific to T. 2015). Further, Kinch and Teitelbaum squamosa. is a (2009) also report declining stocks of T. Conclusion mixotroph whose photoautotrophic gigas across the three main island Overall, we conclude that the range is extended by heterotrophy. We groups in Kiribati. found that T. squamosa reaches sexual Thus, while quantitative abundance information presented in the petition maturity at sizes of 6 to 16 cm, which estimates are unavailable for T. gigas and our files provides substantial equates to a first year of maturity at throughout its range, the numerous local evidence that the petitioned action for approximately 4 years old (CITES extirpations of T. gigas documented T. gigas may be warranted. This species 2004a). across a large portion of its range may has likely experienced significant be contributing to an elevated extinction population declines and local Range, Habitat, and Distribution risk for this species such that it warrants extirpations in several locations further investigation. throughout its range, likely due to Tridacna squamosa has a widespread historical and ongoing overutilization distribution across the Indo-Pacific, but Threats to T. gigas for commercial purposes and further is slightly more restricted than T. As noted previously, giant clams in investigation is warranted. The best maxima (Munro 1992). Its range extends general are considered a valuable available information on its overall from the Red Sea and East African coast fishery target in many countries, with status and all potential threats to the across the Indo-Pacific to the Pitcairn uses for both local consumption and species will be evaluated in a Islands. It has also been introduced in commercial trade. Based on information forthcoming status review. Hawaii (CITES 2004a). The species’ in the petition and our files, it is clear Tridacna squamosa range also extends north to southern that T. gigas is the most heavily Japan, and south to Australia and the exploited species of all giant clams, Species Description Great Barrier Reef (bin Othman et al., which has likely led to its substantial Although the petition notes that T. 2010). This range description reflects declines and extirpations in a number of squamosa, also known as the fluted the recent range extension of T. locations throughout its range. As clam, grows to 19 cm based on Neo et squamosa to French Polynesia as a discussed previously in the general al. (2015), we find this information is in result of observations by Gilbert et al. threats section for giant clams, the error. Neo et al. (2015) report shell (2007). The petition notes that T. petition emphasizes the threat of the lengths of up to 40 cm for the species, squamosa occurred in Singapore and growing giant clam industry in China, and information in our files suggests it the United States historically; however, largely the result of improved carving is most commonly found at lengths up there is no supporting reference or techniques, tourism in Hainan, China, to 30 cm (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). evidence provided of the species’ the growth in e-commerce, and the The shell exterior is described as occurrence in the United States or its domestic Chinese wholesale market ‘‘greyish white, often with different territories.

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Tridacna squamosa is usually found commercial market landings from the endangered status of T. squamosa in near reefs or on sand; it is found Apia municipal fish market on the Singapore’s waters. Neo and Todd attached by its byssus to the surface of island of Upolu. From 1985 to1990, (2013) make a similar conclusion, coral reefs, usually in moderately annual landings of all giant clams stating that ‘‘the low density and protected areas such as reef moats in dropped from 10 metric tons to 0.1 scattered distribution of the remaining littoral and shallow water to a depth of metric tons and field surveys indicated T. squamosa in Singapore are likely to 20 m (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). This that T. squamosa was so rare it was significantly inhibit any natural species tends to prefer fairly sheltered functionally extinct. The authors note recovery of local stocks.’’ However, the lagoon environments next to high that fishing effort also declined around authors specifically make the point that islands; however, T. squamosa appears 35 percent between 1983 and 1991, the status of a species at a small scale to be excluded by T. maxima in the which is considered to be partially (individual country or an island as may closed atoll lagoons of Polynesia (Munro responsible for the declines in landings, be the case for Singapore) is most often 1992). Neo et al. (2009) found that T. although other factors likely contributed not representative of its global status. squamosa larvae, like many reef (e.g., overfishing of inshore stocks, use Any species, especially one with a large invertebrates, prefer substrate with of destructive fishing techniques, etc.). range like T. squamosa, will have crustose coralline algae. Tridacna Information in our files suggests that variable statuses at smaller scales in squamosa is also commonly found this species has been the subject of different habitats due to a variety of amongst branching corals (staghorn, restocking efforts in Samoa. Since 1988, factors. Singapore is a small and densely Acropora spp.; CITES 2004a) T. squamosa has been trans-located populated island nation known for from Palau, Tokelau, and Fiji to restock particularly high anthropogenic impacts Population Status and Abundance populations in Samoa under the in its nearshore waters. The information Trends Samoan Community-based Fisheries in Neo and Todd (2012a 2012b and The petition provides limited some Management program (Kinch and 2013) is informative for resource information regarding the species’ Teitelbaum 2009). managers in Singapore and indicates a population status and trends from In Singapore, Neo and Todd (2012a) very low population and density of T. Singapore, Samoa, and individual sites surveyed 29 reefs, covering an estimated squamosa. However, it is unclear how in Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, and 87,515 m2 and observed 28 T. squamosa the current information relates to Thailand. individuals, which was double the historical abundance of this species at The petitioner states that T. squamosa number observed in a 2003 survey of this location. In addition, it is not is functionally extinct in Samoa based only 7 reefs and a little over 9,000 m2 necessarily useful for assessing the on a study from western Samoa (Zann by Guest et al. (2008). However, Neo global status of T. squamosa because and Mulipola 1995). This study relied and Todd (2012a) estimate T. squamosa Singapore is a very small proportion of on a range of low technology methods density to be 0.032 per 100 m2, which the overall species’ range and is not a developed for rapid environmental and is five times lower than the 0.16 per 100 representative environment of the rest of fisheries assessments. Fisheries surveys m2 measured in 2003 (Guest et al., the species’ range. were conducted via interviews and 2008). They go on to propose that The petitioner cites Tan and Yasin surveys of fishermen and households, habitat loss, exploitation, and or (2003), stating that giant clams of all and results were compared with sediment have synergistically led to the species but T. crocea are considered

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endangered in Malaysia. As discussed representative of the species’ status information itself may be considered a previously, the authors of this study across the Philippines as a whole risk to the species. In this case, given mention underwater surveys that reveal (Dolorosa and Schoppe 2005). The that the only information we have that the ‘‘distribution of giant clams are petitioner also cited a stock assessment indicates historical declines, low widespread but their numbers are very conducted in Eastern Visayas, in the population levels, and notably local low.’’ However, there are no references Philippines (Salazar et al., 1999), which extirpations in some locations, we provided by the authors to provide any showed that while T. squamosa are conclude that the information presented more detail or support for this common in the Samar Sea and San in the petition regarding the species’ information, which makes it difficult to Pedro Bay, most of the giant clams abundance and population trends is interpret this information for individual surveyed were in the juvenile stage with compelling enough to warrant further species. The only species-specific no breeders left to repopulate the area. investigation in a forthcoming status information for T. squamosa in this However, the Marine Science Institute review. reference is that it occurs in Malaysian (MSI) at the University of the Threats to T. squamosa waters. Philippines has a long and successful The petitioner cites record of rearing, having cultured giant Given that T. squamosa is a large, Thamrongnavasawat et al. (2001) as clams to restore depleted supplies for free-living species of giant clam, it is saying T. squamosa are now considered the last 20 years. In fact, more than 40 easier to remove from the reef (Neo and ‘‘scarce’’ throughout Thailand. sites have received cultured clams and Todd 2013), which makes it more However, the link provided in the MSI promotes giant clam farming as a susceptible to harvest for local bibliography to access this reference sustainable livelihood with restocking consumption and/or commercial was not functional, and we were activities occurring in collaboration purposes. Some information (albeit otherwise unable to obtain and review with local groups (bin Othman et al., limited) provided by the petition this reference to determine what the 2010). suggests that T. squamosa may be authors meant by ‘‘scarce’’ or on what As discussed previously, the petition overexploited in some locations. As evidence this statement was based. also broadly states that all six giant clam discussed earlier in the Population However, the petitioner provides other species occurring in Indonesia, Status and Abundance Trends section studies from Thailand indicating that including T. squamosa, are for T. squamosa, estimates of the species has likely undergone experiencing recruitment failure based exploitation rates from the Sulu significant declines in this area. For on a single study from Kei Kecil, Archipelago and Southern Palawan example, Chantrapornsyl et al. (1996) Southeast-Maluku, Indonesia areas of the Philippines from 1978 to documented heavy exploitation and (Hernawan 2010). Hernawan (2010) 1985 indicate that populations of T. local extirpation of T. squamosa in the conducted giant clam surveys in 9 sites; squamosa were overexploited. Andaman Sea. Kittiwattanawong (1997) however, Indonesia encompasses Information in our files indicates that also concluded that T. squamosa was thousands of islands and T. squamosa T. squamosa is important in the rare in the same area. Tridacna occurs in several other locations subsistence fishery of Papua New squamosa was also deemed ‘‘near throughout Indonesia (Hernawan 2010). Guinea. A commercial fishery for giant extinct’’ in Mo Ko Surin National Park Thus, this study represents a very small clams previously operated in the Milne in Thailand (Dolorsa and Schoppe sample of T. squamosa abundance in Bay Province, whereby approximately 2005). Indonesian waters, with no evidence 150 tonnes of giant clam adductor Villanoy et al. (1988) examined provided to suggest that recruitment muscle were exported, as well as one average size frequency distributions of failure of T. squamosa is occurring large shipment of 16 tonnes of giant T. squamosa harvested from the Sulu throughout Indonesia. clam shells. However, this fishery has Archipelago and Southern Palawan Overall, given the extensive range of been closed since 2000 and we could areas in the Philippines from 1978 to T. squamosa, the information provided not find any additional information in 1985, and determined that estimates of in the petition is limited regarding the our files regarding the utilization of T. exploitation rates indicate that population status and abundance trends squamosa in Papua New Guinea. We populations of these species are of the species throughout its range. also found some information regarding overexploited. The petitioner asserts While we acknowledge that in some the reported functional extinction of that these findings have serious locations (primarily Southeast Asia), this species in Samoan waters, and implications given that the Sulu abundance and/or density of T. acknowledge that the significantly low Archipelago and Southern Palawan are squamosa may be low, the petition did density of T. squamosa in Samoa is thought to be the last strongholds of not provide any information regarding largely attributed to overfishing (Kinch giant clams species occurring in the species’ status from a large majority and Teitelbaum 2009); however, as Philippine waters. Dolorosa and of its range. For example, in addition to noted previously, to mitigate low Schoppe (2005) also report that T. countries in Southeast Asia, T. populations, restocking efforts have squamosa had very low densities in squamosa can be found throughout been underway in Samoa since the surveys conducted in Tubbataha Reef Oceania (e.g., Australasia, Melanesia, 1980s, and from 1998 to 2000, Samoa National Marine Park in the Philippines. Micronesia and Polynesia). The species has seen the importation of several giant The authors note that because of the also inhabits coastlines of the Indian clam species, both larvae and species’ low settlement, survival and Ocean and has a relatively cosmopolitan ‘yearlings,’ for restocking purposes growth on live coral substrate, it would distribution in this region (bin Othman under the Samoan Community-based take hundreds of years for the stock to et al., 2010). Thus, no information was Fisheries Management program (Kinch be re-established, particularly in presented in the petition for an entire and Teitelbaum 2009). Nevertheless, we isolated areas. However, the authors two thirds or more of the species’ range cannot confirm whether this restocking also note that the numbers seen at (i.e., Oceania (with the exception of program has been successful for T. Tubbataha Marine Park are significantly Samoa), eastern Africa, and the Indian squamosa. lower than in other areas of the Ocean). However, a lack of information In terms of commercial trade, a Philippines; therefore, the situation in on its own does not mean the action significant trade review was conducted the marine park may not be may not be warranted if the lack of in 2004 for 27 countries that trade in T.

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squamosa to identify potential areas of experienced significant mortality as a Conclusion concern. Of the 27 countries reviewed, result. In a lab experiment using In conclusion, the information 24 were deemed to be of ‘‘least concern’’ cultured clams, short-term temperature provided on threats for this species is for various reasons; the respective increases of 3 °C resulted in T. limited and by itself would not be countries had either not reported any squamosa clams maintaining a high considered substantial information trade, or trade levels were minimal or photosynthetic rate but displaying indicating the petitioned action may be export numbers were low. Two increased respiratory demands (Elfwing warranted. However, combined with the countries (Marshall Islands and Tonga) et al., 2001). Finally, Watson et al. evidence presented of small, localized were deemed to be of ‘‘possible (2012) showed that a combination of populations or extirpations in different concern’’ and only one country increased ocean CO2 and temperature parts of the species’ range, we conclude () was categorized as ‘‘urgent are likely to reduce the survival of T. the information presented in the concern.’’ These designations were squamosa. Specifically, in a lab petition is compelling enough to made largely because trade of the experiment, T. squamosa juvenile conclude that the petitioned action may species continues despite export bans or survival rates decreased by up to 80 be warranted. Therefore, we conclude because, in the case of Vietnam, percent with increasing pCO2 and that the number and spatial distribution significant trade was occurring (e.g., of localized severe declines or 74,579 live T. squamosa clams were decreased with increasing seawater temperature for a range of temperatures extirpations in the context of the exported from 1994 to 2003) with a lack species’ range may be contributing to an and pCO2 combinations that mimic of information on population elevated extinction risk for this species monitoring or the basis for non- those expected in the next 50 to 100 years. such that it warrants further detriment findings under CITES. investigation. Thus, the best available Additionally, in the case of the Marshall We acknowledge these results, but information on overall status and Islands, where trade seems to continue they are not easily interpreted into potential threats to the species will be despite export bans, the review also potential species level effects over time evaluated in a forthcoming status review notes that several small-scale operations and/or space for T. squamosa. First, the to determine what has potentially were producing farmed (i.e., captive- clams used in the experiments were caused these declines and extirpations bred) T. squamosa in the 1990s for the cultured and not harvested from the and the overall extinction risk for the aquarium trade and for reseeding wild. Cultured specimens are likely to species. depleted areas, and that records of trade experience much more uniform Tridacna tevoroa in wild rather than captive-bred environments and are likely not specimens may be a result of acclimated to the common daily Species description misreporting by importing parties fluctuations in many environmental (CITES 2004a). Based on the Tridacna tevoroa is another recently parameters experienced in the wild. As information presented in the petition described species that has been shown and in our files summarized here, we such, they may react differently than to actually be a junior synonym of a cannot conclude that there is sufficient wild specimens to abrupt changes in previously described species, T. evidence to suggest that trade of T. their environment. Additionally, mbalavauna (Borsa et al., 2015a). The squamosa is an operative threat that acts information and references in our files petition notes that T. tevoroa looks most or has acted on the species to the point acknowledge that there are limitations like T. derasa in appearance, but can be that the petitioned action may be associated with applying results from distinguished by its rugose mantle, warranted. laboratory studies to the complex prominent guard tentacles present on Overall, the species-specific natural environment where impacts will the incurrent siphon, thinner valves, information in the petition and in our be experienced gradually over the next and colored patches on shell ribbing files to support the claim that T. century at various magnitudes in a non- (Neo et al., 2015). T. tevoroa has an off- squamosa is experiencing uniform spatial pattern. In general, lab white shell exterior, often partially overutilization to the point that the experiments presented do not reflect the encrusted with marine growths. The petitioned action may be warranted is conditions the petitioned species will shell interior is porcellaneous white, limited, particularly given the broad experience in nature; instead of with a yellowish brown mantle (Kinch geographic range of the species. While experiencing changes in levels of ocean and Teitelbaum 2009). It can grow to there are anecdotal claims in several of warming and acidification predicted for just over 50 cm long (Neo et al., 2015). the references that are discussed above the end of the century within a single Life History that low population levels at certain generation, species in nature are likely Aside from what has already been study sites are due to harvest (i.e., to experience gradual increases over Teitelbaum and Friedman 2008, Tan discussed in terms of life history many generations. However, we information for giant clams in general and Yasin 2003, and Hernawan 2010), recognize that because giant clam none of those studies provide empirical (refer back to the Giant Clam Life species are likely long-lived, they likely evidence of declining trends. History section above), the petition did In addition to overutilization, the have longer generation times, and thus, not describe any species-specific life petitioner also claims that T. squamosa giant clams born today could potentially history information for T. tevoroa. is at risk of extinction due to climate live long enough to experience oceanic However, in one of the references cited change-related threats, including ocean conditions predicted late this century by the petitioner we found some warming and acidification. In (Watson et al., 2012). Overall, the additional information related to Singapore, local bleaching of T. information regarding negative species- spawning of T. tevoroa clams. During a squamosa was observed during a high specific impacts from climate change to study of spawning and larval culture of sea surface temperature event in June T. squamosa is limited; however, we T. tevoroa (Ledua et al., 1993), 2010 (Neo and Todd 2013); however, no will thoroughly review climate change successful spawning of T. tevoroa at the other information was provided related threats and their potential Tonga Fisheries Department in late regarding the extent of bleaching that impacts to T. squamosa in a October 1991 indicates that this species occurred nor whether the species forthcoming status review. has a breeding season that may be

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similar to that of T. derasa. Ledua et al. while there is evidence from hatchery of New Caledonia as well (Kinch and (1993) describe that the breeding season spawnings at lower latitudes (Palau, Tietelbam 2009). Tridacna tevoroa can of T. derasa on the Great Barrier Reef in 7°N) that T. derasa has an almost full typically be found on sand in coral reef Australia is from late winter-early year breeding season (Heslinga et al., areas. In Fiji, T. tevoroa live along outer spring to early summer and virtually all 1984 cited in Ledua et al., 1993). slopes of leeward reefs, in very clear, individuals are spent by mid-December. oceanic water at 9–33 m depth (Ledua Range, Habitat, and Distribution In Fiji, the breeding program for this et al., 1993). Based on the distribution species is from July to October and in Tridacna tevoroa appears to have a of adults in Fiji and Tonga, it appears Tonga from September to late November restricted distribution. Although the that juveniles settle on slopes of off- (Ledua et al., 1993). It must be noted petition says that T. tevoroa is restricted shore reefs in deep (down to 33 m) that the examples of the breeding season to Tonga and Fiji, information in our oceanic waters. However, juvenile T. of T. derasa given here are from higher files indicates that this species was tevoroa have never been found in nature latitudes within the tropics (17°-21°S), recently observed in the Loyalty Islands (Klump and Lucas 1994).

Tridacna tevoroa has a unique depth ‘‘Many of the clams found in Tonga twice and other smaller clumps were distribution among the giant clam were adjacent to the edge of a sand seen in Tonga, which could represent species; it is the only species to occur patch and cradled against rocky small breeding groups for this species in depths below 20 m. In order to better outcrops, rubble or bare rock with steep (Ledua et al., 1993). Given the large understand how T. tevoroa survives in slopes.’’ During the SCUBA search in areas of suitable reefs and shoals with deeper waters, Klumpp and Lucas February 1992 in Ha’apai (Tonga), two typical habitat for T. tevoroa, Ha’apai, (1994) compared nutrition of T. tevoroa of the authors notably found a Tonga may be the center of distribution with T. derasa in Tonga, where rates of considerable number of T. tevoroa on and largest repository of this newly- filter-feeding, respiration and the live coral (whereas in Fiji, these clams described species (Ledua et al., 1993). -irradiance response have not been found on live coral, were measured in clams of a wide size possibly because little live coral was Population Status and Abundance range (ca 20 mm to ca 500 mm). Only found at this depth in the Lau Islands Trends T. tevoroa significantly increased its group). About half of the clams in Tonga The petition provides only one photosynthetic efficiency with were found on the leeward and half on reference for T. tevoroa with regard to increasing depth. In a study on the windward side of reefs. However, its population status or abundance spawning and larval culture of T. windward sides of reefs were still trends. Ledua et al. (1993) describes T. tevoroa clams, individuals were somewhat protected within barrier tevoroa as a rare species and notes that collected from waters of Fiji and Tonga islands or reefs, and no search has yet few specimens have been found live in (Ledua et al., 1993). The mean depth of been made on outer windward reefs Fiji, and only recently larger numbers of clams collected in Fiji was 27.4 m, with (Ledua et al., 1993). Overall, spatial this species have been found in Tongan samples collected from depths ranging distribution of T. tevoroa appears to be waters. Anecdotal reports from one from 20 to 33 m. All specimens were very sparse, with single individuals diver from Uiha Island, Ha’apai, Tonga found on the leeward side of reefs and being found at most locations, although note that the species was historically islands. Ledua et al., (1993) notes that: clumps of four individuals were seen more abundant in shallow waters during

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the 1940s (Ledua et al., 1993). Based on species, particularly given the lack of brightly colored and variable in both this limited information, the petitioner information from Fiji and New pattern and color, including shades of speculates that T. tevoroa has declined Caledonia; however, given that Ha’apai green, blue, purple, brown, and orange significantly in accessible waters and Tonga is likely the center of distribution (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). states that the species’ current and largest repository for this particular Life History abundance is likely lower than species, we find that this information, historical levels. However, the combined with the species’ rarity The petition provided some species- petitioner did not provide any throughout its range, may be specific information regarding T. additional references or supporting contributing to an elevated risk of crocea’s life history. The petition noted information to substantiate the claim extinction for this species. that spawning of T. crocea in the central regarding the species’ current region of the Great Barrier Reef is Conclusion population status. The petitioner also thought to be restricted to a short provided no additional information In conclusion, the information summer season (Munro 1992), and T. regarding the species’ population status provided on threats for this species is crocea has been observed spawning or abundance trends from other portions limited and by itself would not be during July in Palau (Hardy and Hardy of its range (i.e., Fiji or New Caledonia). considered substantial information 1969). In a detailed study of early life Nonetheless, given that the species is indicating the petitioned action may be history in Guam, fertilized eggs of T. described as rare, has one of the most warranted. Anecdotal evidence from crocea had a mean diameter of 93.1mm restricted ranges of the giant clam one location of a species’ range would (Jameson 1976). This same study noted species, and has likely undergone some generally not be compelling evidence of that settlement of T. crocea larvae level of population decline in its species level concerns throughout its occurred approximately 12 days after potential center of distribution (i.e., range for reasons discussed above. fertilization. Tonga), we find this information may However, the combined evidence on the We found a limited amount of indicate an elevated extinction risk for species’ restricted range, sparse additional information in our files on this species, and is compelling enough distribution and rarity, and anecdotal the life history of this species. Tridacna to warrant further investigation. evidence of population decline in the crocea has the smallest size for adult center of the species’ distribution, is giant clams and reaches full sexual Threats to Tridacna tevoroa compelling enough to conclude that the maturity (hermaphroditism) at Very little species-specific petitioned action may be warranted. The approximately 5 to 6 years of age. With information on threats is presented in best available information on its overall reports that T. crocea individuals of the petition for T. tevoroa. Aside from status and all potential threats to the approximately 8 to 9 cm shell length what has already been discussed species will be evaluated in a produce 3 to 4 million eggs (Tisdell regarding the threat of overutilization of forthcoming status review. 1994), this species has extremely high giant clams in general (refer back to the fecundity. As such, even with relatively Threats to Giant Clams section above), high mortality rates, tridacnid the petition provides very limited Species description populations like T. crocea can be species-specific information regarding Tridacna crocea is the smallest rapidly increased by artificial breeding overutilization of T. tevoroa for species of giant clam, reaching only 15 and culture programs (Tisdell 1994). commercial, recreational, scientific, or cm (Neo et al., 2015; Copland and Lucas Range, Habitat, and Distribution educational purposes. As noted 1988). The species is similar to T. previously in the Abundance and maxima but smaller, less asymmetrical Tridacna crocea has a large range, Population Trends section, anecdotal and with its scutes worn away except with distribution ranging from southern reports from one diver from Uiha Island, near the upper edge of the shell Japan to Australia, but not extending Ha’apai, Tonga note that the species was (Copland and Lucas 1988). The shell eastward into Oceana beyond Palau and historically more abundant in shallow exterior is: ‘‘greyish white, often the Solomon Islands (Munro 1992). The waters during the 1940s. Evidence of covered with yellow or pinkish orange petition provides information on this former greater abundance and and frequently encrusted with marine species from Singapore, Malaysia, distribution in shallow water in Ha’apai growths near the dorsal margins of Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and may indicate that fishing pressure has valves, but clean and nearly smooth Palau. We also found additional likely contributed to the rarity of this ventrally’’ (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). information in our files for T. crocea species (Ledua et al., 1993). This is The shell interior is porcellaneous from Australia, Solomon Islands, extremely limited information to suggest white, sometimes with yellow to orange Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Papua New that overutilization is a threat to the hues on margins. The mantle is often Guinea, and Tonga.

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Tridacna crocea is unusual among Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, and abundance of this species at this other giant clam species in that it Palau. The petitioner cites Neo and location. In addition, it is not burrows deeply in coral masses of reef Todd (2012; 2013) to assert that T. necessarily useful for assessing the flats and coral heads (with the free valve crocea is likely functionally extinct in global status of T. crocea because margins nearly flush with the substrate Singapore, as the species is Singapore is a very small proportion of surface) in shallow water to a depth of reproductively isolated and unlikely to the overall species’ range and is not a about 20 m (when the water is clear; fertilize conspecifics. In the most recent representative environment of the rest of Copland and Lucas 1988; Kinch and status reassessment of giant clams, Neo the species’ range. Teitelbaum 2009; Neo et al., 2015). et al. (2013) note that T. crocea surveys The petition also asserts that T. crocea According to Hamner and Jones (1974), in Singapore from 2009/2010 put their has declined by 94 percent in the T. crocea burrows as it grows, eroding density at a low 0.035 per 100 m2, but Tubbataha Reef Park in the Philippines the surfaces of coral boulders and emphasize that abundance estimates for since the early 1990s based on a decline producing structures that superficially this species may be conservative as its from 2,200,000 clams/km2 in 1993 resemble micro-atolls. In a study burrowing behavior and cryptic (Calumpong and Cadiz 1993) to 133,330 conducted in Indonesia, T. crocea coloration can lead to underestimates of clams/km2 in 2005 (Dolorosa and individuals were mostly embedded in abundance. Nonetheless, the species’ Schoppe 2005). It should be noted that dead coral boulders covered by algae (82 population is considered to be small in these numbers were derived from percent), with a few living in Porites Singapore, resulting in an endangered transects taken within the ‘‘intertidal spp., coral rubble, and live coral status locally. However, the authors area’’ of the park. Dolorosa and Schoppe substrate (only 1 percent; Hernawan specifically make the point that the (2005) characterized T. crocea as the 2010). This species remains attached to status of a species at a small scale most abundant and dense giant clam the substrate throughout its life (individual country or an island as may species in the study area, with 133,330 (Copland and Lucas 1988). The species be the case for Singapore) is not individuals per km2 in the intertidal also appears to aggregate, though the necessarily representative of its global area, and averaging 30,480 individuals mechanism is unclear. Aggregation (i.e., status. Any species, especially one with per km2 in the shallow area (5 m). clumping) may enhance physical a large range like T. crocea, will have Dolorosa and Schoppe (2005) also noted stabilization, facilitate reproduction, or variable statuses at smaller scales in that the much lower density observed in provide protection from predators (Soo different habitats due to a variety of their study (as compared to the previous and Todd 2014). factors. Singapore is a small and densely study by Calumpong and Cadiz (1993)) populated island nation known for in the intertidal area is not enough to Population Status and Abundance particularly high anthropogenic impacts conclude that there is a continuous Trends in its nearshore waters. The information decline of tridacnids (including T. The petition does not provide overall in Neo and Todd (2012a 2012b and crocea) because the data were only estimates of population abundance or 2013) is informative for resource taken from a single transect. Thus, their trends for T. crocea. The petition does managers in Singapore and indicates a study is not likely representative of the provide limited pieces of information very low population and density of T. entire intertidal area, let alone the entire regarding the species’ population status crocea. However, it is unclear how the Tubbataha Reef Park. Therefore, the and trends from Singapore, Malaysia, current information relates to historical petition’s inference of a 94 percent

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decline in T. crocea abundance in are generally regarded as declining, crocea specifically, means that we Tubbataha Reef Park based on a single improvements have been noted in cannot find that this information transect is not supported. Additionally, specific localities (Kinch and Teitelbam reasonably suggests that habitat Rubec et al. (2001) characterizes T. 2009); however, we could find no destruction is an operative threat that crocea as one of the most abundant additional information specific to T. acts or has acted on the species to the giant clam species across the crocea. In a 2004 CITES assessment of point that the petitioned action may be Philippines. international trade of the species, T. warranted. The petition also broadly states that crocea was described in general as ‘‘still Factor B: Overutilization for all six giant clam species occurring in reasonably abundant’’ (CITES 2004b). Indonesia, including T. crocea, are Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Overall, the information regarding T. Educational Purposes experiencing recruitment failure based crocea’s population status and on one study from Kei Kecil, Southeast- abundance trends throughout its range The petition contends that T. crocea Maluku (Hernawan 2010). Hernawan is extremely limited, with most warrants listing as a result of (2010) conducted giant clam surveys in characterizations of this species’ overutilization for commercial nine sites throughout Kei Kecil waters. abundance being qualitative. purposes, but only notes three locations Results showed T. crocea to be the Nonetheless, it appears, based on the in which overfishing of T. crocea is dominant species with the highest information presented in the petition reportedly occurring (Fiji, Japan, and population density in each of the nine and in our files, that T. crocea is often Vietnam) based on bin Othman et al. study sites. Similar results have been the dominant giant clam species (2010). In a market evaluation documented in other areas of Indonesia, wherever it occurs, has some of the conducted in the mid-1990s in Japan, T. including the Andaman Sea, Upanoi highest population densities of any crocea was considered a preferred and Banchungmanee, Adang Islands species, and is the only species of giant species for use as sashimi and sushi and Seribu Islands, Raja Ampat clam with a stable population in dishes in Okinawa; in contrast, giant (Hernawan 2010) and Pari Island (Eliata Malaysia. Although information clams were unknown as a food source et al., 2003). Additionally, Indonesia is suggests T. crocea likely experienced a in mainland Japan. From 1975 to 1995, comprised of thousands of islands; thus, localized abundance decline in giant clam catches in Okinawa, Japan the Hernawan (2010) study cited by the Okinawa, Japan, which represents a declined from 578 tons to 28 tons, likely petitioner represents a very small very small portion of the species’ range, due to stock depletion (Okada 1998). sample of T. crocea abundance in we could not otherwise find any Given that T. crocea comprises Indonesian waters, with no evidence information to indicate that the species’ approximately 90 percent of the giant provided to suggest that recruitment overall abundance or density is so low clams landed in Okinawa, it is likely failure of T. crocea is occurring or declining so significantly that the that the species experienced historical throughout Indonesia. Hernawan (2010) petitioned action is warranted. Thus, we overfishing in this location. Although overfishing of T. crocea may have also noted that due to T. crocea’s small find the petition insufficient in terms of occurred historically in Okinawa size and burrowing behavior, fishermen presenting substantial information that waters, mass seed culture and find this particular species more T. crocea’s population status or production of T. crocea have been difficult and less desirable to harvest. abundance trends indicate that the undertaken in Japan to ensure natural Thus, this species is not the main target petitioned action may be warranted. for Indonesian fishermen, leading to it stock enhancement, with 44,000– having the highest relative population Threats to Tridacna crocea 459,000 seeds of T. crocea distributed to density throughout the study area Factor A: Present or Threatened the fishermen’s cooperatives annually (Hernawan 2010). Destruction Modification, or from 1987 to 1995 for release into Finally, the petition notes that T. Curtailment of Range Okinawa waters (Okada 1998). Survival crocea was the only giant clam with a of clams ranged up to 56 percent 3 years stable population in Malaysia and not The petition asserts that all species of after release (Teitelbaum and Friedman considered ‘‘endangered’’ by the early giant clam, including T. crocea, are at 2008). Without any data since 1995, it 2000s and that the species was still risk of extinction throughout their is difficult to determine whether this abundant in Thailand’s Mo Ko Surin ranges due to the threat of habitat fishery is ongoing, the success rate of National Park in the late 1990s (Tan and destruction, largely as a result of threats the local restocking efforts, or the Yasin 2003; Thamrongnavasawat 2001). related to climate change and coral reef current status of T. crocea stocks in Additionally, Hardy and Hardy (1969) habitat degradation. However, the Okinawa. Nonetheless, Okinawa, Japan described T. crocea as the most frequent petition does not provide any species- represents a very small portion of the and abundant giant clam species in specific information with regard to how species’ overall range and it appears Palau in the 1960s. No additional habitat destruction is negatively Japan has implemented some information could be found in the impacting T. crocea populations. As regulations and conservation efforts to petition or in our files pertaining to described previously, T. crocea does not help safeguard giant clam populations more recent trends for T. crocea in these appear to have an obligate relationship from overfishing. locations to indicate low abundance or to a pristine, live coral reef habitat. In Aside from Japan, no other declining population trends. fact, T. crocea has been observed in a information or data is provided in the In our own files, we found that T. number of habitat types, including dead petition from Fiji or Vietnam to support crocea is one of the most abundant coral rubble covered in algae. Thus, and the broad statement that overfishing of species of giant clam in New Caledonia as noted previously, while the T. crocea is occurring in those locations, (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). In Papua information in the petition is otherwise although we did find some trade data to New Guinea, information on stock largely accurate and suggests concern indicate that T. crocea is subject to status is limited with the exception of for the status of coral reef habitat commercial trade in these areas (CITES Milne Bay, where T. crocea was also generally, its broadness, generality, and 2004b). From 1994 to 2003, exports of considered the most abundant species. speculative nature, and the lack of T. crocea were recorded for 24 countries T. crocea is also found in Vanuatu, reasonable connections between the and territories. However, only ten of the where, although all stocks of giant clam threats discussed and the status of T. 24 countries were selected for a

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significant CITES trade review, of which burrowing behavior, as these Factor C: Disease or Predation only two were categorized as ‘‘possible characteristics make it more difficult for The petition did not provide any concern’’ (Fiji and Vanuatu) and only fishermen to harvest the species. For species-specific information regarding one country (Vietnam) was categorized example, Hester and Jones (1974) noted how diseases may be affecting T. crocea as ‘‘urgent concern.’’ The remaining that T. crocea was the only giant clam populations throughout its range. In countries were described as having no species that did not likely have fact, none of the information provided or minimal trade, and consequently commercial value in Palau, and that the in the petition discusses diseases or designated as ‘‘least concern.’’ Of the 16 species is seldom utilized for any parasites affecting T. crocea, countries not selected for review and purpose. bin Othman et al. (2010) also specifically. We could also not find any recording exports, only the Solomon generally characterize T. crocea as additional information in our files Islands appeared to be trading in ‘‘more difficult and less economical to regarding the threats of disease or significant quantities (CITES 2004b). harvest’’ because this species burrows predation to T. crocea. Therefore, we In Fiji, T. crocea is not recorded as into substrates and is relatively small. In naturally occurring but it has been conclude that the petition does not New Caledonia, T. crocea is not listed reported as ‘‘introduced.’’ Between 1997 provide substantial information that among the preferably harvested species and 2000, significant quantities of T. disease or predation is an operative there (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). As crocea imports (∼15,000 live specimens) threat that acts or has acted on the were reported from Fiji, of which two- previously discussed in the Population species to the point that the petitioned thirds were reported as being of wild Status and Trends section above, action may be warranted. Hernawan (2010) attributed T. crocea’s origin. Reported imports from captive Factor D: Inadequacy of Existing relatively high population densities in bred sources have virtually ceased since Regulatory Mechanisms 2000, and those from wild sources have survey sites in Indonesia to the fact that The petition did not present species- declined significantly. However, the Indonesian fishermen do not target this specific information regarding CITES review regarding trade of T. species because of its small size and inadequate regulatory mechanisms for crocea in Fiji concluded that: ‘‘Without burrowing behavior. This echoes the T. crocea. As discussed above, the information on the status of introduced general characterization of commercial petitioner notes that there are some laws stocks and harvest levels for domestic utilization of this species by bin consumption, it is not possible to assess Othman et al. (2010). Finally, Dolorosa for giant clams on the books in certain whether or not current export levels are and Shoppe (2005) note that ‘‘T. crocea locations, but only discusses regulations detrimental to the species’ survival in is little if at all exploited’’ in the from the Philippines and Malaysia and Fiji’’ (CITES 2004b). Philippines. illegal clam poaching in disputed areas of the South China Sea. These areas In Vietnam between 1998 and 2003, Overall, most of the information gross live exports of wild-sourced T. represent a small portion of the range of provided in the petition and in our files T. crocea. We found additional crocea peaked at 61,674 specimens in suggest that overutilization is not likely 2001 and otherwise ranged between regulations in our files regarding the a significant threat to T. crocea because harvest of giant clams, including T. 35,000 and 46,000. Since 2001, much its small shell is not economically lower levels, albeit still substantial (i.e., crocea, in several countries. Numerous desirable and its burrowing behavior PICTs and Australia implement size from 2,500 to 7,500 specimens annually) makes it more difficult to harvest of live T. crocea reported as captive- limits, bag limits, bans on commercial relative to other species of clams that harvest, bans on night light harvest, bred have been exported. The ‘‘Urgent are much larger in size and more easily Concern’’ designation was given to promotion of aquaculture, and accessible to fishermen. While it is clear Vietnam because of the large quantities community-based cultural management that T. crocea fulfills a local market reported as exports from the wild during systems for giant clams (more detail niche and may have experienced the review period and because of a lack provided above; Chambers 2007; Kinch historical overharvest in Okinawa, of information on stocks and and Teitelbaum 2009). For T. crocea Japan, this location represents a very management activities (CITES 2004b). specifically, state-set and self-imposed However, the review did not make any small portion of the species’ overall regulations prevail in the fishing areas conclusions as to the status of T. crocea range, and we have no additional throughout Japan to protect the giant in Vietnam or whether trade was information to suggest that this level of clam stock (Okada 1997). causing negative population level utilization is occurring elsewhere, such In terms of trade regulations, the effects. that the petitioned action may be discussion in the petition was not Overall, while it appears that some warranted. Additionally, it appears that species-specific. Additionally, we countries have traded T. crocea in reseeding efforts and fishing regulations determined above in the Overutilization potentially significant quantities, we have been implemented in Japan to help for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, could not find any information to safeguard giant clam populations, or Educational Purposes section for T. suggest that these quantities are including T. crocea, from overfishing. crocea, that international trade is not an contributing to the overutilization of the Further, the available trade data for T. operative threat that acts or has acted on species, such that the petitioned action crocea does not indicate that the species to the point that the may be warranted. Therefore, we international trade is causing negative petitioned action may be warranted. conclude that the available information population level effects to the species to With regard to regulations of presented in the petition and in our files the point that the petitioned action may greenhouse gas emissions, the does not constitute substantial be warranted. Therefore, we conclude discussion in the petition was also not information that international trade is a that the information in the petition and species-specific. The petitioner did not significant threat posing an extinction in our files does not constitute provide species-specific information risk to T. crocea throughout its range. substantial information that regarding the negative response to ocean In most locations where information overutilization is an operative threat warming or acidification. In addition, is available, T. crocea does not appear that acts or has acted on the species to the information in the petition, and in to be a highly sought after giant clam the point that the petitioned action may our files, does not indicate that T. species due to its small size and be warranted. crocea may be at risk of extinction that

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is cause for concern due to the loss of dominant in many locations where it is Life History coral reef habitat or the direct effects of found. Given the species’ small size and ocean warming and acidification. This unique burrowing behavior, the The petition presents the majority of is discussed in more detail for T. crocea available information does not indicate life history information for T. maxima specifically above under Factor A and that T. crocea is highly sought after or from Jameson (1976) as cited in Munro below under Factor E. Therefore, we targeted by fishermen in most locations. (1992). This reference studied samples conclude that the petition does not Overall, the information presented in from Guam and reports fecundity (F) of provide substantial information that the petition and our files does not T. maxima as F = 0.00743 L3 (a ripe inadequate regulatory mechanisms indicate that any identified or gonad of a 20 cm specimen would controlling greenhouse gas emissions is unidentified threats may be acting on T. therefore contain about 20 million eggs), an operative threat that acts or has acted crocea to the point that the species may fertilized eggs of T. maxima had a mean on the species to the point that listing warrant listing as threatened or diameter of 104.5 mm, and settlement may be warranted. endangered under the ESA. After occurred 11 days after fertilization at a evaluating the population status and mean shell length of 195.0 mm. Factor E: Other Natural or Manmade threat information presented in the Metamorphosis was basically complete Factors petition and in our files in the context about one day after settlement. Jameson Aside from the information of the species’ overall range, we (1976) also reports that juveniles of T. previously discussed for giant clams in conclude that the petition did not maxima first acquire zooxanthellae after general in the Other Natural or provide substantial information 21 days and juvenile shells show the Manmade Factors section, the petition indicating that the petitioned action first signs of becoming opaque after 47 did not provide any species-specific may be warranted for this species. days. The petition states that male T. maxima in the Cook Islands begin to information regarding how climate Tridacna maxima change related threats, including ocean reach sexual maturity at approximately warming and acidification, are Species Description 6 cm; 50 percent of both males and negatively impacting T. crocea The petition provided very little females were sexually mature at 10 cm populations throughout its range. We information regarding a general and 100 percent were sexually mature at could also not find any additional description of T. maxima. The petition 14 cm and larger. The species was also information in our files regarding these notes that T. maxima has close-set very slow growing and took 5 years to threats to the species. Therefore, we scutes and grows to a maximum size of reach 10 cm in length, 10 years to reach conclude that the information presented 35 cm. We found additional information 15 cm and 15 to 20 years to reach 20 cm in the petition and in our files does not in our files describing this species. and above. Because only 21.5 percent of constitute substantial information that Although maximum shell length is 35 the population were fully sexually other natural or manmade factors, cm, it is commonly found at lengths up mature, the petitioner asserts that including climate change related to 25 cm (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). overfishing of this species is likely threats, acts or has acted on the species Tridacna maxima has a grayish-white (Chambers 2007). In Guam and Fiji, T. to the point that the petitioned action shell exterior, often suffused with maxima spawned during the winter may be warranted. yellow or pinkish orange and strongly months (LaBarbera 1975). Findings by encrusted with marine growths. The Jantzen et al. (2008) suggest T. maxima Conclusion shell interior is porcellaneous white, in the Red Sea is a strict functional Based on the foregoing information, sometimes with yellow to orange hues photoautotroph limited by light. we do not agree that the petition on the margins. Tridacna maxima often Range, Habitat, and Distribution provides substantial information to has a brightly colored mantle, variable indicate that the T. crocea may warrant in color and pattern (Kinch and Among members of the subfamily listing as threatened or endangered Teitelbaum 2009), from brilliant to Tridacninae, T. maxima is the most under the ESA. Particularly, in the subdued grayish yellow, bluish green, common and widely distributed species context of the species’ overall range, blackish blue, to purple and brown. in the Indo-Pacific. This species ranges there is no indication that T. crocea has These colors occur medially on the from the Red Sea, Madagascar, and East undergone significant population mantle and are sometimes spotted and Africa to the Tuamotu Archipelago and declines or local extirpations such that streaked with other colors (Su et al., Pitcairn Island in the South Pacific, as the species’ risk of extinction is elevated 2014). The shell of T. maxima usually well as from southern Japan in the north to a point that is cause for concern. In has four to five ribs with round to Lord Howe Island, off the coast of contrast, it is the only clam species that projections on the upper margins (Su et New South Wales, Australia in the is still described as abundant and even al., 2014). south (bin Othman et al., 2010).

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In terms of habitat, T. maxima is a the point that the status of a species at reference is that it occurs in Malaysian reef-top inhabitant, living on the surface a small scale (individual country or an waters. of the reef or sand and is usually seen island as may be the case for Singapore) The petition cites Salazar et al. (1999) with its colored mantle exposed (Su et is not necessarily representative of its who did a stock assessment of T. crocea, al., 2014). This species can be found on global status. Any species, especially T. maxima, T. squamosa and H. reefs, partially embedded in corals in one with a large range like T. maxima, hippopus in the Eastern Visayas of the littoral and shallow water, to a depth of will have variable statuses at smaller Philippines and found most of the 20 m (Kinch and Teitelbaum 2009). In scales in different habitats due to a populations were juveniles with Indonesia, T. maxima was found living variety of factors. Singapore is a small insufficient numbers of breeders to in dead coral rubble covered in algae, and densely populated island nation repopulate the region. As noted Porites corals, and coral rubble known for particularly high previously, this reference was (Hernawan 2010). anthropogenic impacts in its nearshore unavailable for review so it is unclear if waters. The information in Neo and the authors were able to attribute these Population Status and Abundance Todd (2012a 2012b and 2013) is results to environmental changes, Trends informative for resource managers in overharvest, or some other type of For T. maxima specifically, the Singapore and indicates a very low influence. petition provides limited information population and density of T. maxima. As previously discussed in other regarding the species’ population status However, it is unclear how the current species accounts, the petition states that and trends from Singapore and information relates to historical Hernawan (2010) found small individual sites in Malaysia, the abundance of this species at this populations and evidence of Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, location. In addition, it is not recruitment failure in the six species French Polynesia, and the Cook Islands. necessarily useful for assessing the found during a survey of Kei Kecil, Neo and Todd (2012a) surveyed global status of T. maxima because Southeast-Maluku, Indonesia, including 87,515 m2 in Singapore and did not Singapore is a very small proportion of T. maxima. The author conducted giant observe T. maxima, despite the the overall species’ range and is not a clam surveys in nine sites; however, observation of one individual in a 2003 representative environment of the rest of Indonesia encompasses thousands of survey of a little over 9,000 m2 by Guest the species’ range. islands and T. maxima occurs in other et al. (2008). The authors acknowledge As described in earlier species locations throughout Indonesia that no historical abundance data for T. accounts, the petitioner cites Tan and (Hernawan 2010). Thus, this study maxima in Singapore exist, nor any Yasin (2003), stating giant clams of all represents a very small sample of T. precise information on their species but T. crocea are considered maxima abundance in Indonesian exploitation. They go on to propose that endangered in Malaysia. The authors waters, with no evidence provided to habitat loss, exploitation, and/or mention underwater surveys that reveal suggest that recruitment failure of T. sediment have synergistically led to the that the ‘‘distribution of giant clams are maxima is occurring throughout extirpation of T. maxima in Singapore’s widespread but their numbers are very Indonesia. waters. Neo and Todd (2013) make a low.’’ However, there are no references The petitioner cites similar conclusion stating that T. provided by the authors to provide any Thamrongnavasawat et al. (2001) as maxima is ‘‘probably already more detail or support for this saying T. maxima are now considered functionally extinct (in Singapore) as information, which makes it difficult to ‘‘scarce’’ throughout Thailand; however they are reproductively isolated and interpret this information for individual the link provided in the bibliography to unlikely to fertilise [sic] conspecifics.’’ species. The only species-specific access this reference was not functional, However, the authors specifically make information for T. maxima in this and we were otherwise unable to obtain

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and review this reference to determine such that it needs protection under the habitat degradation. However, the what the authors meant by ‘‘scarce’’ or ESA. As noted above in the Threats to petition does not provide any species- on what evidence this statement was Giant Clams section, there is huge specific information regarding how based. heterogeneity across space and time in habitat destruction is negatively The only references with species- terms of current and future impacts of affecting T. maxima. While the specific information on abundance and climate change on giant clams species. information in the petition is otherwise trends for T. maxima that show The petition cites Chambers (2007) [largely] accurate and suggests concern evidence for their conclusions are from and notes that T. maxima was for the status of coral reef habitat Rose Atoll, two atolls and an island in overharvested in the southern Cook generally, its broadness, generality, and French Polynesia, and Tongareva Islands and the capital was now speculative nature, and the lack of Lagoon in the Cook Islands. Neo and receiving them from the northern part of reasonable connections between the Todd (2012a) reference another study the country, but the specific aim of this threats discussed and the status of T. that reports up to 225 T. maxima study was to assess the size distribution, maxima specifically, means that we individuals per square meter at Rose abundance, and density of T. maxima in cannot find that this information Atoll (Green and Craig 1999). The Tongareva lagoon. The author found reasonably suggests that habitat estimated population size for Rose Atoll variation within the lagoon with higher destruction is an operative threat that (615ha) was approximately 27,800 T. densities occurring in the south, farther acts or has acted on the species to the maxima individuals based on surveys from villages. The overall density point that the petitioned action may be from 1994 to 95. recorded was 0.42 clams per square warranted. In French Polynesia, Gilbert et al. meter, with a total population of 28,066 Factor B: Overutilization for (2006) report that several lagoons in two individuals; however, the author notes archipelagos are characterized by Commercial, Recreational, or Scientific that these numbers were based on Purposes enormous populations of T. maxima. extrapolating over the whole lagoon, all They report densities of 23.6 million of which is not necessarily suitable clam Species-specific information on 2 clams in 4.05 km at Fangatau atoll, 88.3 habitat. The authors suggest that a more overharvest of T. maxima in the petition 2 million clams in 11.46 km at Tatakoko, accurate extrapolation should be based is limited. The petitioner cites Bodoy 2 and 47.5 million in 16.3 km in Tubuai. on the area of available suitable habitat (1984), stating the authors found that At the time of publication, the authors to fully account for areas where T. harvesting decreased the size of T. noted these were the largest giant clam maxima occurs in high numbers. While maxima in Saudi Arabia. However, the densities observed anywhere in the this study indicates some areas of lower authors only surveyed four sites with world. The authors also note that a abundance near population centers (i.e., varying degrees of accessibility and small scale but growing fishery in these harvest pressure), it also reports high found that the harder-to-access sites, as well as deeper depths at all sites, appear areas should be actively managed to numbers and densities of T. maxima at to provide some refuge from collection avoid decimating these pristine stocks. several sites (Chambers 2007). They list several existing management Finally, a CITES trade review of T. as they observed either more or larger clams (or both) there. efforts in French Polynesia including a maxima characterizes the species as still The study by Shelley (1989) discussed minimum shell length for capture, reasonably abundant in some countries, development of clam aquaculture above in the Life History section being ‘‘widespread and abundant’’ in documented likely overfishing of T. capacity, and the establishment of no- Australia, and ‘‘common’’ with stable take areas (Gilbert et al., 2006). The first maxima in the Cook Islands based on a stocks in Vanuatu (CITES 2004c). no-take area dedicated to the very low proportion of mature Overall, the information regarding conservation of T. maxima was individuals in the population. Chambers abundance and population trends for T. implemented in 2004 at Tatakoto Atoll, (2007) notes that T. maxima was maxima is limited, particularly given one of the study areas in French overharvested in the southern Cook the species’ enormous geographic range. Polynesia. Six years after the Gilbert et Islands and the capital was now As noted previously, any species, al. (2006) study, a stock assessment receiving them from the northern part of especially one with a large range like T. survey revealed a dramatic decrease in the country. In the Cook Islands, only maxima, will have variable statuses at the T. maxima population within the cultured clams are exported, and wild smaller scales in different habitats due no-take area and elsewhere throughout harvest is for local consumption. the atoll (83 percent overall reduction in to a variety of factors. The limited Traditional cultures in individual density), an anomaly the authors information in the petition and our files, villages institute a rahui system to attribute to temperature variations 3 however, does not indicate that T. impose closures of certain areas for a years prior to the survey, but the cause maxima’s overall population status or period of time to allow stocks to could not be determined definitively abundance trends are contributing to an regenerate (Chambers 2007). While (Andrefouet et al., 2013). The authors elevated extinction risk, such that the Chambers (2007) indicates some level of note that mortality events of this scale species may be threatened or harvest pressure on T. maxima, they are not uncommon for bivalves and endangered throughout all or a also report areas of high numbers and there are other reports of massive die- significant portion of its range. densities of T. maxima in several sites. offs of clams related to environmental Threats to T. maxima We found additional trade variables like ENSO-related temperature information for T. maxima in some increases or lowered mean sea level in Factor A: Present or Threatened CITES documents cited by the certain areas, which leaves clams Destruction Modification, or petitioner, although the trade exposed to unfavorable conditions for Curtailment of Range information therein was not presented long periods. Within a geographic range The petition asserts that all species of in the petition. Out of 31 countries as vast as T. maxima’s, one anomalous giant clam, including T. maxima, are at listed in a trade review for this species, event that may have been due to risk of extinction throughout their one was listed as ‘‘Urgent Concern’’ temperature changes does not constitute ranges due to the threat of habitat (Tonga), seven were assessed as substantial information that climate destruction, largely because of threats ‘‘Possible Concern, and ‘‘Least Concern’’ change may be affecting the species related to climate change and coral reef was reserved for the remaining 23

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countries (CITES 2004c). Countries clams (more detail provided above in are likely not acclimated to the common reported as ‘‘Least Concern’’ were the general Inadequacy of Existing daily fluctuations in many assessed as such for the following Regulatory Mechanisms section of this environmental parameters experienced reasons: either there was no trade notice; Chambers 2007; Kinch and in the wild. As such, they may react reported over the period under review Teitelbaum 2009). differently than wild specimens to (1994–2003) (n=10), recorded trade In terms of international trade and abrupt changes in their environment. As during the last 5 years of the period greenhouse gas regulations, the discussed in more detail in our 12- under review was at a low level (n=10), discussion in the petition was again not month finding for orange clownfish (80 or trade was primarily or entirely of species-specific. The petitioner did not FR 51235; August 24, 2015), the acute captive bred specimens. provide species-specific information nature of the exposure and lack of Based on the foregoing information, regarding the negative response to ocean acclimation in this study is noteworthy the species-specific information warming or acidification. However, we because most species will not presented in the petition and in our files evaluated the information in the experience changes in acidification so on overharvest of T. maxima is not petition that may apply to all the acutely in their natural habitats. Rather, substantial. Given the broad geographic petitioned species. Above in the Threats they are likely to experience a gradual range of the species and when to Giant Clams section, we determined increase in average CO2 levels over considered in combination with all that overall, the entire discussion of the several generations, and therefore a other information presented for this inadequacy of CITES is very broad and variety of factors could come into play species, we find that the petition does does not discuss how the inadequacy of over time to aid in adaptation (or may not provide sufficient information to international trade regulations is not—there is high uncertainty). We demonstrate that overutilization is an impacting any of the petitioned species recognize that because giant clam operative threat that acts or has acted on to the point that it is contributing to an species are likely long-lived, they likely the species to the point that the extinction risk, with the exception of T. have longer generation times, and thus, petitioned action may be warranted. gigas and the growing giant clam giant clams born today could potentially industry in China. In addition, the Factor C: Disease or Predation live long enough to experience oceanic information in the petition, and in our conditions predicted late this century The petition does not present any files, does not indicate that the (Watson et al., 2012). However, given species-specific information indicating petitioned species may be at risk of the disconnect between these disease or predation are factors acting extinction that is cause for concern due experimental results and what can be on populations of T. maxima to the to the loss of coral reef habitat or the expected to occur in the wild over time, extent that the species may warrant direct effects of ocean warming and the uncertainty in future ocean protection under the ESA. The acidification. This is discussed in more acidification rates, and the generalized information in the petition detail for T. maxima specifically above heterogeneity of the species’ habitat and does not constitute substantial under Factor A and below under Factor current environmental conditions across information for individual species as E. Therefore, we conclude that the its large range, these results are not discussed above. We found some petition does not provide substantial compelling evidence that elevated levels generalized information indicating that information that inadequate regulatory of atmospheric CO2 is an operative T. maxima has some known non-human mechanisms controlling greenhouse gas threat that acts or has acted on T. predators (e.g., large triggerfish, octopi, emissions is an operative threat that acts maxima to the extent that the petitioned eagle rays, and pufferfish) and is or has acted on the species to the point action may be warranted. vulnerable to predation during the that the petitioned action may be The work by Andrefouet et al. (2013) juvenile stage (<10 cm); Chambers warranted. on T. maxima discussed above in the 2007), but we do not have any section on Population status and Trends Factor E: Other Natural or Manmade additional information in our files on documents mortality at Tatakoto Atoll Factors the effects of disease or predation on T. in French Polynesia likely due to a maxima. The petition presents limited temperature anomaly; however, again information in terms of other natural or the authors did not definitively identify Factor D: Inadequacy of Existing manmade factors affecting the status of Regulatory Mechanisms the cause of the observed decline. T. maxima. The petitioner cites Waters Further, a single anomaly in one The petition does not present species- (2008) who found that T. maxima location is not indicative of an ongoing specific information regarding juveniles exposed to pCO2 threat that contributes to an elevated inadequate regulatory mechanisms for concentrations approximating glacial extinction risk for T. maxima. While we T. maxima. As discussed above, the (180 ppm), current (380 ppm) and acknowledge the potential for both petitioner notes that there are some laws projected (560 ppm and 840 ppm) levels ocean warming and ocean acidification for giant clams on the books in certain of atmospheric CO2 (per the IPCC IS92a to have impacts on T. maxima, the locations, but only discusses regulations scenario) suffered decreases in size and petition did not present substantial from the Philippines and Malaysia and dissolution with increased levels of information indicating the species may only discusses illegal clam poaching in atmospheric CO2 and this occurred warrant listing due to these threats, nor disputed areas of the South China Sea. below thresholds previously considered do we have additional information in These areas represent a small portion of detrimental to other marine organisms our files that would indicate this. the range of T. maxima. We found in similar conditions. We acknowledge additional regulations in our files these results however, they are not Conclusion regarding the harvest of giant clams in easily interpreted into potential species It is common for all species, several countries. Numerous PICTs and level effects over time and/or space for especially those with very expansive Australia implement size limits, bag T. maxima. First, the clams used in the geographic ranges like T. maxima, to limits, bans on commercial harvest, experiment were cultured and not experience different impacts and bans on night light harvest, promotion harvested from the wild. Cultured variable population statuses throughout of aquaculture, and community-based specimens are likely to experience different areas within their range. In cultural management systems for giant much more uniform environments and evaluating the information presented in

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the petition, we consider the Pacific, occurring from the Ryuku files on the population abundance or information itself as well as the scope of archipelago of Japan to Western tends of the species. the information presented as it relates to Australia, and from the Coral Triangle Threats to Tridacna noae the range of the species. The petition (as defined by Veron et al., 2009) to the presented species-specific information and to the Northern Line Factor A: Present or Threatened indicating high densities and robust Islands (Borsa et al., 2015b). Tridacna Destruction, Modification, or populations in the Cook Islands, French noae is thus known from Taiwan, Japan, Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range Polynesia, and Rose Atoll. It also Dongsha (northern South China Sea), The petition does not provide any provided citations with generalized ( Sea), Madang and species-specific information regarding statements of rarity of T. maxima in Kavieng (Bismarck Sea), the Alor how habitat destruction is negatively Singapore and individual study sites in archipelago (Sawu Sea), Kosrae impacting T. noae. As discussed Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. In (Caroline Islands), New Caledonia, the previously, while the information in the the case of T. maxima, areas where the Loyalty Islands and Vanuatu (Coral petition is otherwise largely accurate species may be in poor status are not Sea), Viti-Levu (Fiji), Wallis Island, and and suggests concern for the status of compelling evidence of the global status Kiritimati (Northern Line Islands) (Borsa coral reef habitat generally, its of this species compared to its overall et al., 2015b). Mitochondrial DNA data broadness, generality, and speculative range because the information is not also indicate its presence in the nature, and the lack of reasonable outside of what is commonly expected Philippines (eastern Negros), Western connections between the threats in terms of variability in species status Australia (in the Molucca Sea at discussed and the status of T. noae across such a large range as T. Ningaloo Reef) and in the Solomon specifically means that we cannot find maxima’s. There is an entire one third Islands (Borsa et al., 2015b). Individuals that this information reasonably or more of the species’ range for which are attached by a byssus and bore into suggests that habitat destruction is an no information was presented at all in coral, living in littoral and shallow operative threat that acts or has acted on the petition (eastern Africa and the waters to a depth of 20 m. Borsa et al. the species to the point that the ) with the exception of one (2015b) notes that: ‘‘It may occur petitioned action may be warranted. study from one site in Saudi Arabia naturally on the same reef habitats as T. Factor B: Overutilization for within the Red Sea. Thus, the petition maxima, and also T. crocea as reported Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or did not present substantial information from the Solomon Islands (Huelsken et Educational Purposes to indicate either poor population status al., 2013), and as observed at Bunaken globally or operative threats acting on and in New Caledonia (this survey).’’ Aside from what has already been the species such that the petitioned discussed regarding the threat of Population Status and Abundance action may be warranted for T. maxima. overutilization for giant clams in Trends general, we could not find any species- Tridacna noae specific information in the petition or in The petition does not provide any our files regarding overutilization of T. Species Description species-specific information for T. noae noae for commercial, recreational, concerning its population status or Tridacna noae, also known as Noah’s scientific, or educational purposes. As abundance trends. The only statement giant clam, is most like T. maxima in such, we cannot conclude that the in the petition with regard to T. noae’s appearance, but live T. noae specimens petition presented substantial status and abundance is: ‘‘Given the can be distinguished by the sparsely information that overutilization is an distributed hyaline organs, and by the threats discussed elsewhere in this operative threat that acts or has acted on large, easily recognizable, ocellate spots report for Asia and here for the South the species to the point that the with a thin, white contour on the China Sea, it is likely that T. noae has petitioned action may be warranted. mantle’s edge (Neo et al., 2015; Su et al., also declined severely.’’ The petitioner 2014). Shell lengths range between 6 did not provide any references or Factor C: Disease or Predation and 20 cm (Neo et al., 2015). additional supporting information to Aside from what has already been substantiate this claim. Given that the discussed regarding the threats of Life History species’ geographic range extends far disease and predation for giant clams in Aside from what has already been beyond Southeast Asia, simply inferring general (refer back to the Threats to discussed in the general life history a severe abundance decline throughout Giant Clams section above), we could information applicable to all giant clams the species’ large geographic range find no additional information regarding (refer back to the Giant Clam life history based on generalized threats discussed disease or predation specific to T. noae. section above), the petition did not for one part of the range (and without Therefore, we conclude that the petition provide any species-specific life history providing any link that these threats are does not provide substantial information for T. noae. We could also specifically acting on T. noae to reduce information that disease or predation is not find any other life history its abundance) is erroneous. Generalized an operative threat that acts or has acted information in our files specific to T. evidence of declining habitat or on the species to the point that the noae. declining populations per se are not petitioned action may be warranted. evidence of declines large enough to Range, Habitat, and Distribution infer extinction risk that may meet the Factor D: Inadequacy of Existing The petition did not provide a range definition of either threatened or Regulatory Mechanisms map for this species, nor was it included endangered under the ESA. Therefore, The petition did not present species- in bin Othman et al. (2010). Tridacna we conclude that the information specific information regarding noae’s distribution overlaps with T. presented in the petition on the species’ inadequate regulatory mechanisms for maxima’s distribution, but generally population status and abundance trends T. noae. As discussed above, the occurs in lower abundances (Neo et al., does not constitute substantial petitioner notes that there are some laws 2015). Based on the information information that the species may for giant clams on the books in certain provided in the petition, T. noae has a warrant listing under the ESA. We could locations, but only discusses regulations widespread distribution across the Indo- also not find any information in our from the Philippines and Malaysia and

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illegal clam poaching in disputed areas populations throughout its range. We public comments before developing and of the South China Sea. These areas could also not find any additional publishing a final rule. We also find that represent a small portion of the range of information in our files regarding these the petition and information readily T. noae. We found additional threats to the species. As such, we available in our files do not present regulations in our files regarding the cannot conclude that the petition substantial scientific and commercial harvest of giant clams in several presented substantial information that information indicating that the countries. Numerous PICTs and other natural or manmade factors, petitioned action of listing T. crocea, T. Australia implement size limits, bag including climate change related maxima, and T. noae is warranted. limits, bans on commercial harvest, threats, are operative threats that act or bans on night light harvest, promotion have acted on the species to the point Information Solicited of aquaculture, and community-based that the petitioned action may be To ensure that the status reviews are cultural management systems for giant warranted. based on the best available scientific clams (more detail provided above; Conclusion and commercial data, we are soliciting Chambers 2007; Kinch and Teitelbaum information relevant to whether the The petition did not provide 2009). giant clam species for which we have In terms of international trade and substantial information that any made positive findings are endangered greenhouse gas regulations, the identified or unidentified threats may be or threatened. Specifically, we are discussion in the petition was again not acting on T. noae to the point that it soliciting information in the following species-specific. The petitioner did not may warrant listing as threatened or areas: (1) Historical and current provide species-specific information endangered under the ESA. We distribution and abundance of these regarding the negative response to ocean evaluated the extremely limited species throughout their respective warming or acidification. However, we population status information and threat ranges; (2) historical and current evaluated the information in the information presented in the petition population trends; (3) life history in petition that may apply to all the and in our files and cannot conclude marine environments, including growth petitioned species. In the general that substantial information has been Threats to Giant Clams section above, presented that indicates the petitioned rates and reproduction; (4) historical we determined that overall, the entire action may be warranted for this and current data on the commercial discussion of the inadequacy of CITES species. trade of giant clam products; (5) historical and current data on fisheries is very broad and does not discuss how Petition Findings the inadequacy of international trade targeting giant clam species; (6) any regulations is impacting any of the Based on the above information and current or planned activities that may petitioned species to the point that it is the criteria specified in 50 CFR adversely impact the species; (7) contributing to an extinction risk, with 424.14(b)(2), we find that the petition ongoing or planned efforts to protect the exception of T. gigas and the and information readily available in our and restore the species and its habitats, growing giant clam industry in China. In files present substantial scientific and including information on aquaculture addition, the information in the commercial information indicating that and/or captive breeding and restocking petition, and in our files, does not the petitioned action of listing the programs for giant clam species; (8) indicate that the petitioned species may following giant clam species as population structure information, such be at risk of extinction that is cause for threatened or endangered may be as genetics data; and (9) management, concern due to the loss of coral reef warranted: H. hippopus, H. porcellanus, regulatory, and enforcement habitat or the direct effects of ocean T. costata, T. derasa, T. gigas, T. information. We request that all warming and acidification. This is squamosa, and T. tevoroa. Therefore, in information be accompanied by: (1) discussed in more detail for T. noae accordance with section 4(b)(3)(A) of Supporting documentation such as specifically above under Factor A and the ESA and NMFS’ implementing maps, bibliographic references, or below under Factor E. Therefore, we regulations (50 CFR 424.14(b)(3)), we reprints of pertinent publications; and conclude that the petition does not will commence status reviews of these (2) the submitter’s name, address, and provide substantial information that species. During the status reviews, we any association, institution, or business inadequate regulatory mechanisms will determine whether these species that the person represents. are in danger of extinction (endangered) controlling greenhouse gas emissions is References Cited an operative threat that acts or has acted or likely to become so within the on the species to the point that the foreseeable future (threatened) A complete list of references is petitioned action may be warranted. throughout all or a significant portion of available upon request to the Office of their ranges. We now initiate this Protected Resources (see ADDRESSES). Factor E: Other Natural or Manmade review, and thus, we consider these Factors giant clam species to be candidate Authority: The authority for this action is the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as Aside from the information species (69 FR 19975; April 15, 2004). amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). previously discussed for giant clams in Within 12 months of the receipt of the general in the Other Natural or petition (August 7, 2017), we will make Dated: June 21, 2017. Manmade Factors section, the petition a finding as to whether listing these Samuel D. Rauch III, does not provide any species-specific species as endangered or threatened is Deputy Assistant Administrator for information regarding how climate warranted as required by section Regulatory Programs, National Marine change related threats, including ocean 4(b)(3)(B) of the ESA. If listing these Fisheries Service. warming and acidification, are species is found to be warranted, we [FR Doc. 2017–13275 Filed 6–23–17; 8:45 am] negatively impacting T. noae will publish a proposed rule and solicit BILLING CODE 3510–22–P

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