CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF MOTIVATIONAL MUSIC IN EXERCISE A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by David-Lee Priest Department of Sport Sciences, Brunel University July 2003 i ABSTRACT The research programme had three principal objectives. First, the evaluation and extension of the extant conceptual framework pertaining to motivational music in exercise settings. Second, the development of a valid instrument for assessing the motivational qualities of music: The Brunel Music Rating Inventory-2 (BMRI-2). Third, to test the effects of motivational and oudeterous (lacking in both motivational and de-motivational qualities) music in an externally-valid setting. These objectives were addressed through 4 studies. First, a series of open-ended interviews were conducted with exercise leaders and participants (N = 13), in order to investigate the characteristics and effects of motivational music in the exercise setting. The data were content analysed to abstract thematic categories of response. These categories were subsequently evaluated in the context of relevant conceptual frameworks. Subsequently, a sample of 532 health-club members responded to a questionnaire that was designed to assess the perceived characteristics of motivational music. The responses were analysed across age groups, gender, frequency of attendance (low, medium, high), and time of attendance (morning, afternoon, evening). The BMRI-2 was developed in order to address psychometric weaknesses that were associated with its forbear, the BMRI. A refined item pool was created which yielded an 8-item instrument that was subjected to confirmatory factor analysis. A single-factor model demonstrated acceptable fit indices across three different pieces of music, two samples of exercise participants, and both sexes. The BMRI-2 was used to select 20 pieces of motivational music, which were delivered in a health club gymnasium. It was found that health club members (N = 112) exercised for longer under the condition of motivational music as opposed to oudeterous music (the club’s typical output); however, no differences were noted in terms of affective response. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Those who have been subjected to doctoral theses before will already know that this is the best part; it is all downhill from hereon in! A PhD is a large undertaking and one’s net gain at the end of the degree is not so much the knowledge accrued as the experience of attaining it. Discipline, commitment, sacrifice, patience, organisation, and self-belief are all required as one sets about constructing the pilgrim thesis from humble foundations. There are well-meaning books with titles such as How to Get a PhD, which attempt, in the manner of a formulary, to provide a map over the uncertain terrain of doctoral study. However, there might just as well be books entitled How to Be Unique or How to Fall in Love, for the path of reading for such a degree will always be a personal, less-trodden one. I would not attempt to flatter myself with talk of hardship, anguish, or pressure, as nobody forced me to undertake the degree. In fact, the obstacles and inequities that one faces are a blessing and serve an instrumental purpose in developing one’s competence. Thus, should I attain the award, I will be glad to have done it the hard way. Just as the ship cannot move without an ocean to sail on or wind for propulsion, the University and those supporting me made my scholastic voyage possible. It would be folly to acknowledge merely those who have given me direct academic support. I should extend the bounds of my gratitude to everyone who has contributed to my life, even those who have sought to hinder me or do me harm, for without them my path would have been entirely different; in the parlance of George Michael, different corners would have been turned. Of all those in my corner, Dr. Costas Karageorghis is the most significant. If doctoral supervision were an Olympic event then Costas would own a set of gold medals that would induce Sir Steve Redgrave to hide his face in shame! Costas’ own pioneering doctoral work provided me with a roadmap to follow and a model of success to emulate. The unfailing support he provided was characterised by his sincerity, dynamic mind, and dedication that would have raised a smile from Roy Castle! At every juncture, Dr. Karageorghis set the bar higher and asked me to jump. His work ethic made work for me as the perspicacity of his criticism provided few answers but a multitude of robust and intelligent questions. Thus, he enabled me to work to my potential and plumb the depths of my own resources. Behind his brusque and implacable façade, Costas proved himself to be unselfish and considerate. How things change; when I first met Costas, I was unruly, iii quarrelsome, academically unpolished, and lacking in both direction and motivation, almost the anti-Costas! However, he tolerated my mischief, chaotic behaviour, and hostility with quiet equanimity. From those discordant beginnings our teacher-pupil relationship has blossomed into a brighter harmony. Presently, I attend our weekly meetings with the piety a Zen monk would reserve for his master. In time, even the softest water will wear down the hardest stone. The wonderful community of Borough Road and the fine traditions of the Department of Sport Sciences provided me with the ideal social climate in which to pursue my studies. The warmth and intimacy of the fraternity in the earlier days of my tenure was a source of great nourishment. This spirit was epitomised by the mythic figure of Mr. Lipton, a latter-day ‘Mr. Chips’ who cultivated magical friendships with anyone willing to converse with him. He was universally revered like a tribal elder and his love and warmth inspired the familial sense of unity that typified the special ambience of Borough Road. Although I will never see him again, I will, like many others, always remember him with love; such is his monument. My halcyon debut year at Brunel was made possible by the fortuitous occurrence of receiving a berth on the uppermost floor of Stockwell hall adjacent to my best friend from secondary school and sixth-form college, Andrew Walker. Our rooms overlooked the leafy, Augustan campus at Osterley like eyries, and on a clear day, one could see as far as the proud tower of Canary Wharf in the east, the stalagmitic radio masts of Crystal Palace to the south, and the broad plains of Hampstead in the north. Many reverent evenings were spent in the company of Andy, beholding the glittering metropolitan skyline and contemplating a future that was only just beginning, refreshed by seemingly endless rounds of cheese toasties and glasses of Diet Coke. Latterly, during my post-graduate years, the infamous ‘goldfish bowl’ office in the corner of stately Lancaster House became a stronghold of similar significance. The rebellious and partisan climate of the goldfish bowl, where we worked hard and played harder, proved the perfect base camp from which to plan and execute my doctoral campaign. The studying was complemented by legendary bouts of ear- splitting music, vociferous banter, gambling, and office sports of every conceivable persuasion including a fabled conker tournament for which pewter trophies were specially commissioned! iv Throughout the five years of my doctoral education, my various positions at the health club, L.A. Fitness in Isleworth, have comprised a wonderfully rewarding way of financing my degree. Indeed, the strong social support that I have received and the countless special friendships that I have made at the club probably contributed even more to my fortunes than the wages I earned. The former general manager of the club, Stephanie Earle, granted me access to the gymnasium in order to collect data for the final study of the research programme and for this consideration I extend my sincerest gratitude. I certainly undertook financial sacrifices to continue my studies, especially taking into account the very poor background from whence I originate and the lack of financial support available for post-graduate students. However, when I was no longer able to afford living in London, I was able to move back into the family home in Norwich where I resided for two years. I have my parents, Edward and Linda Holland, to thank for this kind support and I trust that I have pulled my weight around the house! The completion of the degree would have been an impossibility had I not secured, together with Dr. Karageorghis’ backing, a £13k research grant from David Lloyd Leisure in 2000. Their interest in my work, financial support, and access to health club facilities for the purposes of data collection has been invaluable. The relationship that Dr. Karageorghis and I developed with senior David Lloyd executives such as John Rickets, Nick Wake, and Nick Smith proved a very rewarding and instructive experience. More recently, the strong association that our research group has formed with Tracktones Ltd. has proved inspirational. The backing and moral support provided by Steve Parkin, who shares our vision to develop music technology in gymnasia, has really fired the research programme with purpose. My second supervisor, Professor Craig Sharp, is as fine an example of an academic as one could wish to find. His pre-eminence in the sport and exercise sciences, laconic benevolence, encyclopaedic knowledge of human and animal physiology, and astonishing gift of communication distinguish him from all others with whom I have worked. Grandiose language aside,