93 Piccolo Manuale Di Blasfemia Audiovisiva. Dal

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93 Piccolo Manuale Di Blasfemia Audiovisiva. Dal FEDERICO RUOZZI PICCOLO MANUALE DI BLASFEMIA AUDIOVISIVA. DAL MISTERO BUFFO TELEVISIVO A SOUTH PARK 1. Prolegomeni blasfemi: caricature seicentesche e fotografie ottocentesche Dario Fo, nel prologo a Mistero buffo – l’opera teatrale messa in scena per la prima volta il 1° ottobre del 1969 – spiegava agli spettatori anzitutto l’origine del temine «mi- stero» e la sua declinazione in «mistero buffo»: Mistero è il termine usato già dai greci dell’epoca arcaica, per definire culti esoterici dai quali prendevano vita le rappre- sentazioni di eventi sacri: misteri eleusini e dionisiaci. Il termine fu ripreso dai cristiani per indicare i propri riti fin dal III e IV secolo dopo Cristo. Ancora oggi, in chiesa ci capita di ascoltare il sacerdote che declama: «Nel primo mistero glorioso... nel secondo mistero...» e via dicendo. Nel Medioevo «mistero» acquista tout court il significato di rappresentazione sacra; mistero buffo significa, dunque, rappresentazione di temi sacri in chiave grottesco-satirica. Ma sia chiaro che il giullare, cioè l’attore comico popolare del Medioevo, non si buttava a sbeffeggiare la religione, Dio e i santi, ma piuttosto si preoccupava di smascherare, denunciare in chiave comica le manovre furbesche di coloro che approfittando della religione e del sacro si facevano gli affari propri1. Parte della ricerca qui presentata si è avvalsa del Research Grant del Cushwa Center for the Study of American Catholicism della University of Notre Dame (Indiana), e del lavoro condotto presso la Hesburgh Library e i suoi archivi. Ringrazio qui Kathleen Sprows Cummings, direttrice del Cushwa e il suo staff, nonché il personale della Hesburgh Library. 1 D. Fo, Prologo, in Id., Mistero Buffo, Torino 2014, p. 215. Per un approfondimento si veda la tesi di dottorato di L. Dumont-Lewi, Portraits de l’histrion en auteur. Dario Fo ou les représentations d’un homme-théâtre, discussa il 4 novembre 2014 presso l’Université Paris Ouest Nanterre-La Defense. Ringrazio l’autrice che gentilmente mi ha dato la possibilità di consultare il testo. 93 Nella «giullarata popolare», come è stata definita l’opera del premio Nobel per la letteratura del 1997, Fo precisava dunque come andasse intesa la messa in scena di temi sacri in chiave grottesca. È su questa linea che vanno interpretati molti dei testi della tradizione satirico-letteraria di epoca medievale o moderna, alcuni dei quali ferocemente violenti, o delle vignette o dei fotomontaggi fotografici ottocenteschi. Come ha analizzato Ottavia Niccoli, oltre al tentativo di «smascherare le manovre furbesche», nell’attacco o nella critica alle figure religiose non sono estranee né la matrice anticlericale né le lotte intraecclesiastiche (l’anticlericalismo clericale)2. Componimenti poetici satirici anonimi o d’autore contro le autorità ecclesiastiche, i membri del collegio cardinalizio, fino ad arrivare al papa, hanno animato la letteratura italiana nei secoli. Dure critiche contro papa Alessandro VI Borgia vennero affisse, ad esempio, alle colonne del palazzo pontificio o alle porte della biblioteca, stando a quanto scritto da Ma- rino Sanuto e dai suoi informatori, nel 1498. Alla base di tale componimento si celava l’esortazione alle due casate, gli Orsini e i Colonna, coinvolti in quell’anno in una dura faida, a coalizzarsi – appunto – per eliminare il pontefice e la sua famiglia: Fatti dunque animo, stirpe generosa: uccidete il toro che devasta i confini d’Italia, strappate le corna ritorte al mostruoso bue. Sommergi, o Tevere vendicatore, i vitelli nelle tue onde tumultuose, il bue cada all’inferno, come gran vittima a Giove3. Una decrittazione delle metafore permette di comprende- re meglio i riferimenti impliciti del testo: il «mostruoso bue dalle corna ritorte» era infatti papa Borgia e «i vitelli» i suoi 2 Cfr. O. Niccoli, Rinascimento anticlericale. Infamia, propaganda e satira in Italia tra Quattro e Cinquecento, Roma-Bari 2005. 3 Cfr. M. Sanuto, Diarii, Venezia 1879, vol. I, col. 1016, cit. in Niccoli, Rinascimento anticlericale, cit., pp. 3-7. 94 figli. Quegli esametri, come ricostruisce Niccoli, non erano semplicemente «l’espressione […] di un singolo, ma […] lo strumento attraverso il quale quel malcontento venne ad essere comunicato e diffuso, contribuendo a creare e a consolidare un’opinione comune sul papa»4. Venivano di fatto tollerate fino a che non assumevano una dimensione pubblica rilevante, regolate quindi dai tribunali inquisitoriali locali. Senza scomodare i padri della letteratura italiana come Dante, Petrarca o Boccaccio, o gli scrittori politici come Machiavelli o Guicciardini, la critica tardomedievale contro il clero e la corte pontificia5 sapeva assumere forme diverse: le pasquinate costituivano sì quelle più famose (e più studiate), ma non erano certo le uniche. Come interpretare d’altra parte lo spirito che animava le caricature di Gian Lorenzo Bernini a importanti figure ecclesiastiche (i cardinali Scipione Borghese, Barberini, Chigi, Nini, ad esempio) o le commedie satiriche in cui si cimentava l’artista. Sulla scia di una tradizione che trovava nel Guercino e in Annibale Carracci i riferimenti più importanti, in quelle del Bernini era però più forte una ben definita critica sociale. La bruttezza e magrezza fisica con cui era ritratto papa Innocenzo XI era infatti rispondente alla sua politica e al suo governo di quegli anni. Come è naturale, la critica satirica al papa e alle figure degli ecclesiastici più in vista si aggiorna e si modella sulle varie forme espressive tipiche del periodo; oltre che di bozzetti e di incisioni, nell’Ottocento la satira, che divenne marcatamente politica e anticlericale, si servì ad esempio di un altro medium, che stava imponendosi con successo proprio nella Roma di Gregorio XVI e Pio IX: il dagherrotipo6. Pio IX aveva infatti un suo «fotografo personale», licenziato e allontanato dalla corte pontificia dopo aver scoperto che si era permesso di immortalare la presa di Roma con il 4 Niccoli, Rinascimento anticlericale, cit., p. 14. 5 Ibidem, p. 17. 6 M. Pizzo, Lo stivale di Garibaldi. Il risorgimento in fotografia, Mila- no 2011; P. Becchetti e M.F. Bonetti, La dagherrotipia a Roma, in M.F. Bonetti e M. Maffioli (a cura di), L’Italia d’argento: 1839-1859. Storia del dagherrotipo in Italia, Firenze 2003, pp. 237-250. 95 suo apparecchio fotografico7; lo Stato pontificio accettò la dagherrotipia fino a consentire di immortalare la decapita- zione di quelli che sarebbero stati i suoi ultimi condannati a morte, i patrioti Giuseppe Monti e Gaetano Tognetti, nel novembre del 1868. In quei decenni, accanto ai primi paesaggi, ai ritratti di pontefici e agli oggetti devozionali, cominciarono a diffon- dersi anche le caricature fotografiche e i fotomontaggi, dalla forte carica politica8. Alcuni di quei rudimentali fotoritocchi, fatti direttamente su pellicola, avevano la figura del papa al centro del loro dileggio, proponendolo anche in pose oscene e pornografiche, o in scene di sesso omosessuale9. Tollerati all’inizio, quando lo scherno cominciò a essere non solo così esplicito, ma soprattutto ad avere un commer- cio e una circolazione rilevanti, l’ampia diffusione costrinse l’autorità romana nel 1861 – in quello che viene ricordato come il «novembre nero della fotografia» – a prendere dei provvedimenti esemplari: si obbligò chiunque di fatto avesse avuto un apparecchio fotografico a denunciarne il possesso al maestro dei Sacri Palazzi, ricevendo in cambio una sorta di «patente», di licenza, pena la comparizione davanti al tribunale, al fine di controllare rigidamente l’operato dei vari studi fotografici10. Esattamente come in epoca tardo- medievale, era l’ampia circolazione che faceva scattare i rigidi provvedimenti. Nel Novecento, teatro, cinema e televisione, e quindi opere, attori, registi, artisti sono stati al centro di vere e proprie «sante crociate»11, confluite in denunce, campagne 7 A. Gilardi, Storia sociale della fotografia, Milano 2000. 8 Per il secondo Dopoguerra, cfr. A. Chiesa, La satira politica in Italia, Roma-Bari 1992, pp. 134-141 e 151-179. 9 A. Gilardi, Storia della fotografia pornografica, Milano 2002, pp. 10-11. 10 Ibidem, in partic. pp. 1-52, nel capitolo Roma, il sacro e l’osceno. 11 Pio XI nella Vigilanti cura, la prima enciclica dedicata interamente al cinema (29 giugno 1936), ricorreva proprio al termine «santa crociata» descrivendo l’azione condotta dall’episcopato statunitense con la Legion of Decency, in merito appunto alla crociata per «la pubblica moralità, intesa a ravvivare gli ideali dell’onestà naturale e cristiana. Lungi da voi ogni pensiero di danneggiare l’industria cinematografica: anzi indi- rettamente la premuniste dalle rovine, alle quali sono esposte le forme 96 stampa, interrogazioni parlamentari, sospensioni di program- mi, proteste. Molto spesso a essere invocato era il presunto carattere blasfemo di certe rappresentazioni, il vilipendio della religione e del sentimento religioso (chiaramente cat- tolico) del pubblico. Sia il mondo protestante, sia quello ebraico, ad esempio, erano e rimangono ancora fuori dagli obiettivi e dagli interessi delle telecamere – e quindi anche dalla satira generalista televisiva – uno scarso interesse elo- quentemente confermato dalla posizione in palinsesto dei loro programmi (Protestantesimo e Sorgente di vita), inseriti in orari per nottambuli. In questa sede ci si concentrerà su alcuni casi teatrali, cinematografici e televisivi ritenuti particolarmente esemplifi- cativi di un certo modo di agire e reagire di fronte a ciò che, di volta in volta, è definito
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