ISSN 0971-4960

LOYOLA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Vol. XXVI, No.2, Jul-Dec 2012

Vol. XXVI No.2 Jul - Dec 2012 Loyola Journal of Social Sciences Founder Editor: Dr.E.J.Thomas S.J. ISSN 0971-4960. LOYOLA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

EDITORIAL BOARD Jul-Dec 2012Vol. XXVI No. 2 Editor-in-Chief: Joye James S.J, Loyola College of Social Sciences, Kerala, India. CONTENTS Editor: Elizabeth Mathew, Loyola College of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Editorial Members: 1 Well-Being Perceptions Samta P. Pandya 181 Anthony Parel, Department of Political Science, University of Calgary, Canada. among Elderly Women in Barrie M Morrison, Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia, Canada. Mumbai, India Murali D.Nair, PhD, Clinical Professor, School of Social Work, University of Southern California, USA. 2 Career-driven Migration: Vivian Besem Ojong 209 Geoff Waters, former Faculty, Sociology Programme, University of KwaZulu- Natal, Durban, South Africa. a new transnational Mathew Zachariah, Department of Education and Administrative Policy, mosaic for African Women University of Calgary, Canada. CJ Mathew, former Head, Department of Sociology, Loyola College of Social 3. Livelihood Diversifications Samwel J. Kabote, 229 Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, India. EJ Thomas S.J. St.Xavier’s College, Thiruvananthapuram, India. in Artisanal Mining Elliott P. Niboye John Mammen, Development Economist, Kerala, India. Communities of Tanzania: Michael Tharakan, Vice Chancellor, Kannur University, Kerala, India. Trends before and after MK George S.J. Director, Indian Social Institute, Bangalore, India. Privatization of Bulyanhulu Sonny Jose, Department of Social Work, Loyola College of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Gold Fields TS Thomas, Department of Personnel Management, Loyola College of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. 4. Understanding the History, Pavan John Antony 251 TSN Pillai, formerly with the Department of Social Work, Loyola College of Current Status & Future of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, India. Usha John, Principal, Loyola College of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, Special Education in the India. United States Editorial Assistant: Ligi Joseph 5. Accentuating South E. Meyer 267 Loyola Journal of Social Sciences is an International multidisciplinary, peer- Africa’s Government K.O. Odeku reviewed, and biannual published since 1987. The Journal is published by Loyola Initiatives to Promote College of Social Sciences, Thiruvananthapuram, which is an accredited institution by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), India. Material Renewable Energy printed is copyright of this Journal and should not be reproduced without the Systems for Poverty written permission of the Editor-in-Chief. The Editorial Board does not necessarily Alleviation endorse the views expressed by the contributors. Book Review The Journal is abstracted/indexed in: 6 Social Policy:Themes and Elizabeth Mathew 287 All India Index to Periodical Literature in English (AIIPLE),CSA Sociological Abstracts, CSA Worldwide Political Science Abstracts Social Services Abstracts Approaches and the International Bibliography of the Social Science (IBSS). Editorial

Joye James S.J. Editor-in-Chief Golden Jubilee of Loyola College of Social Sciences Loyola College of Social Sciences, Trivandrum was established in 1963, which is one among the 45 Jesuit Colleges in India. It is the smallest in the State with three specialized PG departments in Sociology, Social Work, Personnel Management and a Research Centre. Loyola College had international collaborations with the University of Namur, Belgium, Cleveland State University, Ohio, University of Lund, Sweden, Lousiana State University, USA, Institute of Asian Research, British Columbia, Canada and Sophia University, Japan. The College giving due emphasis to Extension and Research in Academic learning had established separate Centres in this respect. The President of India, Shri Pranab Mukherjee, inaugurated the Golden Jubilee Celebrations of Loyola College of Social Sciences on 30th October 2012. The entire Loyola Campus was thrilled as the President of India lighted the sacred lamp to inaugurate the year long Jubilee celebrations. Jubilee is a time to take stock of our achievements and failures of the past fifty years. Loyola College, Trivandrum feels proud of being rated with highest score (3.7 out of 4 at A grade) among the colleges in Kerala by NAAC. As we glance through the history of Loyola College, it has experienced some precious moments of pride and commitment. Right from its inception Loyola College has been involved in social activities. Loyola was the first college in Kerala to start an offical extension department even before the University Grants Commission (UGC) declared Extension as one of the triple objectives of higher education in the country. Already in early 1970s, we were actively involved in Non- Formal Education through the National Adult Education Programme. The first Family Counselling Center in Kerala was started in Loyola Campus in 1986. Later the Central Social Welfare Board requested Loyola College to monitor the Family Counselling Centers in Kerala as well as to give induction and refresher courses to the counsellors. During the Eighth Five Year Plan, the Central Government and UNICEF recognised Loyola College of Social Sciences, Trivandrum as the Field Training Institute (FTI) for the training of Community Organizers and Trainers on Call (TOCs) for the Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) programme. This gave an opportunity to the faculty and students to get involved in urban poverty eradication programmes. In fact, we organised, monitored and facilitated Pattom- Kesavadasapuram Area Development Society (ADS) under the Trivandrum Municipal Corporation for over 10 years. After the experience of training women municipal councillors of Kerala in managerial skills and women empowerment, we were asked in 1994 to train Community leaders and organisers in

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Malappuram district under the Community Based Nutrition Programme (CBNP), which turned out to be Kudumbasree in 1996, the biggest women organisation in Kerala for Poverty Eradication. The first Childline Project in Kerala was initiated by Loyola College in Trivandrum in 2002, and now Childline line is working in all 14 districts Well-Being Perceptions among Elderly Women in of Kerala. Last three years we have been involved in designing school counselling programme in Kerala as well as training around 400 school Mumbai, India counsellors who are working in government schools of Kerala. This project was initiated by the Social Welfare Department of Kerala, under Samta P. Pandya the Kishori Sakhti Yojana, and later renamed as Psycho-Social Services Tata Institute of Social Sciences to Adolescent Girls. Deonar, Mumbai 400088. The Loyola Extension Services (LES) has become a major training centre [email protected] recognized for various training and development programmes for Government officers, students, teachers, trainers, other professionals, Abstract: The main objective of the paper is to examine the perceptions and community members. The Loyola Research Centre has to its credit of well-being among elderly women in Mumbai. In view of the over one hundred Research studies funded by the State, Indian Government and International agencies such as the DFID, UNICEF, ADB, feminization of aging phenomenon in India and associated vulnerabilities KUBEL SIFTUNG and others for Feasibility, Monitoring, Evaluation and of elderly women, it is important to focus on aspects of their well- BenchMark Studies. Training in research methodology is also one of the being. It is on how they perceive well-being or their subjective valuations activities of the Research Centre. that are crucial for their well being. Based on a random sample of 306 The present Loyola Journal editor is Dr. Elizabeth Mathew, Associate elderly women in Mumbai, well-being was measured through three Professor & Head of the Dept. of Sociology in this College. She is also scales: Satisfaction with Life Scale, Silver Lining Questionnaire and the President, Kerala Sociological Society and Vice President Research Committee for International Tourism in the International Sociological Meaning in Life Scale. This was complimented with socio-demographic Association. With graduation in Science, a Masters in Sociology, data and basic health profile characteristics. On all the three scales, Research Degrees in MPhil. and Ph.D. both in Sociology, she now variations existed in terms of types of primary ailments suffered by specializes in Development Studies, Women, and Tourism. An avid elderly women, with some ailments perceived as more culturally traveller she has visited 21 countries and Universities across five acceptable and hence not negatively affecting well-being. Dissatisfaction continents, she has a broad, interdisciplinary outlook that could be of value for taking the Journal forward. levels were higher among the oldest-old, slum dwelling older women, z widows and never married elderly women. Other factors which contributed to the dissatisfaction levels were solitary and/or institutionalised residence, lower education levels and lower health status. Family based residence across all three scales emerged as a contributor to elderly women’s well-being. The importance of keeping in view these dimensions during policy formulation has been proposed. Key words: Elderly Women, Well-Being, Meaning in Life, Satisfaction in Life, Silver Lining.

Introduction Well-being has been defined, studied and conceptualised in several ways. Self concordance is believed to promote subjective well-being (Sheldon et al, 2004: 193) as also better psychological adjustment (Spencer- Rodgers, Peng, Wang and Hou, 2004: 1416). Further culture and religion also influence subjective well-being (Rice and Steele, 2004: 634). Gueldner et al (2005: 42) have developed the well-being picture scale which is a tool offered as a general index of well-being. It is based on

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Smith, N., Young, A. and Lee, C. 2004. Optimism, Health Related Hardiness and well-being among older Australian women, Journal of Health Psychology, 9 (6), pp 741 – 752. Sodergren, S. C., & Hyland, M. E. 2000. “What are the Positive Career-Driven Migration: A New Transnational Consequences of Illness?” Psychology and Health, 15 (1); 85- 97. Mosaic for African Women Sook-Kim, T., Park, J. S. and Kim, M.A. 2008. “The Relation of Vivian Besem Ojong Meditation to Power and Well-being”, Nursing Science Quarterly, Culture School of Social Sciences 21 (1): 49 – 58. Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal Durban 4041 South Africa Spencer- Rodgers, J., Peng, K., Wang, L. and Hou, Y. 2004. “Dialectical Email: [email protected] Self Esteem and East-West Differences in Psychological Well- Being.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30 (11): Abstract: This paper interrogates the ways in which the migratory 1416 – 1432. process and the discourse on gender have been re-constituted within Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S. and Kaler, M. 2006. “The Meaning the South African context. Migration literature reveals that both African in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the Presence of and Search migration and research on migration to South Africa have been gendered for Meaning in Life”, Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53 (1): processes. The point of departure of this paper is based on the realisation 80 – 93. that earlier migration discourses failed to take into account variations in gender within the transnational process. By making use of the Straka, S. and Montmeny, L. 2006. Responding to the needs of older geographical scales concept, this paper interrogates how transnational women experiencing domestic violence, Violence against gender hegemonies are being either challenged and/or reinforced within Women, 12 (3), pp 251 – 267. the South African context. The entry into South Africa of a number of Uchida, Y., Kitayama, S., Mesquita, B., Reyes, J., Alberto, S. and Morlig, independent African professional migrant women in pursuit of tertiary B. 2008. “Is perceived emotional support beneficial? Well-being education and employment has provided a platform from which this and Health in Independent and Interdependent Cultures”, researcher have been able to interrogate how, by means of strategic Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (6): 741 – 754. essentialism, migrant women’s social locations have positioned them within transnational discourses. Their experience is fundamentally Usborne, E. and Taylor, D. M. 2010. “The Role of Cultural Identity Clarity important in this regard because although education has positively for Self Concept Clarity, Self Esteem and Subjective Well-Being”, positioned them to access skilled employment and resources, they are Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36 (7): 883 – 897. nevertheless required to negotiate the positions that have been assigned Utsey, S. O., Bolden, M. A., Williams, O. , Lee, A., Lavier, Y. and to them on the basis of cultural expectations and religious beliefs. This Newsome, C. 2007. “Spiritual Well-Being as a Mediator of the paper elaborates on this topic by focusing on how these independent Relationship between Culture Specific Coping and Quality of professional women migrants and their experiences as migrant women Life in a Community Sample of African Americans”, Journal of have changed many of the salient features of migration in South Africa. Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38 (2): 123 – 136. Key words: African migration, professional women, gender, Wakabayashi, C. and Donato, K. M. 2006. Does caregiving increase transnationalism. poverty among women in later life ? Evidence from a health and retirement survey, Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, Introduction 47 (3), pp 258 -274. African migration to South Africa has increased exponentially since the z supersession of the apartheid state in 1994. Because South Africa is widely perceived as being more economically developed and politically

Loyola Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. XXVI, No.2, Jul- Dec 2012. Livelihood Diversifications in Artisanal Mining Communities of Tanzania: Trends before and after Privatization of Bulyanhulu Gold Fields Samwel J. Kabote Sokoine University of Agriculture, Development Studies Institute, P.O.BOX 3024, Morogoro, Tanzania: email: [email protected] Elliott P. Niboye University of Dar es Salaam, Institute of Development Studies, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. email: [email protected]

Abstract: Livelihood diversification is becoming widespread in developing countries, more so in rural areas. However, very little is known of how this actually operates, specifically in artisanal mining communities of Tanzania where poverty is rampant. Livelihood diversification is considerably important in artisanal mining of Tanzania because mining areas have become under control of multinational companies following economic liberalization. For this reason, livelihood diversification can help artisanal mining communities to minimize risks from displacements in paving way for large-scale mining companies. This paper is a trend analysis establishing realities prior to and after privatization of the Bulyanhulu gold fields. Its two specific objectives are: first, to assess displacements and land issues and implications to livelihood diversifications; secondly, to examine livelihood diversifications. A retrospective technique was used to analyze the situation before privatization. Using this technique, respondents were asked to report about their livelihood and income strategies for the past one decade and a half. The paper establishes that artisanal mining and farming activities were two major livelihood and income strategies before and after privatization. In addition, petty business and waged employment through casual labour somewhat emerged after privatization of the gold fields. The paper concludes that livelihood strategies were not much diversified in the study area during the periods under consideration. Having limited livelihood diversifications, it is difficult for artisanal mining communities to come out of poverty. This implies that political, legal and policy arrangements are critical in enhancing livelihood diversifications in artisanal mining communities in order to reduce vulnerability and poverty.

Loyola Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. XXVI, No.2, Jul- Dec 2012. Understanding the History, Current Status & Future of Special Education in the United States

Dr. Pavan John Antony, Assistant Professor Ruth S. Ammon School of Education, Adelphi University, New York [email protected]

Abstract: The treatment and education of children with disabilities in the United States (U.S) have undergone significant changes in past fifty years. When the U.S adopted an inclusive system of education, all children gained the opportunity to receive a free, age-appropriate public education. Children with disabilities who never interacted with their typically developing peers or community members received equal rights similar to other citizens. This paper discusses the history of special education, the legal system, the current status of people with disabilities, inclusive system of education and its ongoing challenges in the U.S. A systematic review of the literature was conducted after a search of the main education databases using the following key words: disability laws, legal system, special education in the United States and inclusion. One hundred and sixty two abstracts were retrieved from the Education Electronic Publishing search engine. All abstracts were reviewed and selected articles are included in the reference list. Articles included case studies, theoretical papers, and research reports. Literature that did not focus on history, legal system of disability was excluded from the review. Literature that included broader discussions on school practices was excluded. This review of literature will help people around the globe understand the history and current status of the special education system in the U.S including the benefits and challenges of inclusive system of education. Key words: Special education, disability, inclusion, United States Introduction Education for children is a top priority in many countries interested in pursuing or improving their future. This encompasses education of both children with and without disabilities. However this right to education has not been universally acknowledged in many parts acknowledged in many parts of the world. While education of all children remains a law and a basic human right in countries around the globe, the current status

Loyola Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. XXVI, No.2, Jul- Dec 2012. Accentuating South Africa’s Government Intiatives to Promote Renewable Energy Systems for Poverty Alleviation

E. Meyer Fort Hare Institute of Technology, University of Fort Hare Alice, South Africa, [email protected] K.O. Odeku School of Law, University of Limpopo, Turfloop South Africa, [email protected]

Abstract: In the remote rural, isolated areas of South Africa, most conventional energy strategies have failed to meet the basic human needs of the poor majority because these are not easily accessible and, where they are available, they are expensive and not affordable for the rural poor. The argument for the deployment of renewable energy to the rural communities is viewed from two precepts. While it is considered as a success story by some, others do not view it thus. Against this background, on the one hand, this article examines how government is making frantic efforts to solve the problem of a lack of modern energy for the rural poor by encouraging the use of renewable energy. Thus, so far, this initiative has started impacting on the standard of living of the rural poor. On the other hand, the article also accentuates the problem of social acceptance of the systems by the people and their concern about the various teething problems associated with the deployment of renewable energy. The problems are combinations of factors which include, but are not limited to, poor infrastructure, inadequate planning to deploy the systems and protect installations, weak dissemination of information of the system to the communities, weak maintenance services, consistent patterns of theft, vandalism and other vices. The article highlights that most of the spare parts and technical know-how needed to carry out repairs on defective systems have been reported not to be available. Against this backdrop, the communities where the systems were installed could not reap the full benefit of the provision of modern energy from renewable energy to alleviate poverty.

Loyola Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. XXVI, No.2, Jul- Dec 2012.