Biodiversity Assessment for Three Mpika Wetlands of the Sab Project

BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT FOR THREE MPIKA WETLANDS OF THE SAB PROJECT

A study commissioned by Wetland Action

Conducted by Moses A. Nyirenda (BSc, MSc),

October 2008

The SAB project is a demonstration project of the Wetlands and Poverty Reduction Project of Wetlands International and it is carried out with financial support from Wetlands International under its Wetlands and Poverty Reduction Project financed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have assisted in this work. In particular I would like to thank Mr. Sam Simwinga and Humphrey Munyenyembe who participated in the risky work with long walks in the three dambos as we collected GPS coordinates using the first principles in land survey. The project staff, Jonas Sampa and Ernest Cheepa, deserve my thanks as well.

I am particularly thankful to the Community Development Facilitators in the three dambos who participated in the field work.

My many thanks go to the community members, the users of the dambos , who freely took time off from their busy schedules to share their history, experiences and knowledge with the study team for two consecutive days in each of the dambos. Their information was so valuable in compiling this report. Lastly, I would like to thank the University of Zambia, Biology Department for the identification of some of the grass species.

Moses Amos Nyirenda

October 2008

Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS...... 2

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND STUDY OBJECTIVES...... 3

1.1 Introduction...... 3

1.2 Study objectives...... 4

CHAPTER 2. STUDY METHODS ...... 5

2.1 Establish spatial extent of the study sites...... 5

2.2 Establish the vegetation communities and their spatial extent and distribution in each of the three sites...... 5

2.1 Extent and type of agricultural activities in the dambos and biodiversity loss threats assessment ...... 5

CHAPTER 3. KEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION...... 6

3.1 Spatial extents of the three pilot sites...... 6

3.2. Biodiversity assessment and spatial distribution of main plant communities...... 7

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSIONS...... 22

CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS...... 23

REFERENCES...... 24

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND STUDY OBJECTIVES

1.1 Introduction . Wetlands are areas that are either periodically wet or permanently flooded with a water layer not exceeding three meters in depth. Wetlands include swamps, flood plains and dambos and exclude open waters that are several meters deep. Wetlands cover 150,520 km 2 of Zambia’s land representing 20% of the total land area of 752,600 km 2.(Mukanda, 1994)

A dambo is defined as a seasonally waterlogged, low lying, gently sloping, treeless, grassland depression, with a water table in the upper 50-200cm of the soil profile which is drained by a stream. According to Ferreira, (1981), dambos cover 35,000 km 2 or 4.6% of the national area.

Verboom, (1968), classified Zambian dambos as sweet, sour or intermediate depending on their pH as summarized in the table below.

Sweet dambos Intermediate dambos Sour dambos

Ph Range ≥7, have basic parent material 5.5-6.5 ≤5.5, dambos developed on peaty or sandy soils

Characteristic vegetation Grasses : Acroceras macrum, Echinochloa Mixture of Sweet and Sour dambo Variety of Sedges, Hyparrhenia pyramidalis, Setaria spp., and Hemarthria species bracteata, Aristida atroviolacea altissima and Trachypogon spicatus. Desmodium salicifolium Only few sedges found

Legumes: Teramnus gillettii, Alysicarpus rugosus, Acacia spp

Spatial distribution Parts of Northern, Western, Copper belt and Central , Eastern parts of Zambia Mostly in the Northern half of the Southern Zambia country

Adapted from Verboon, 1981 -

Due to availability of moisture for the most parts of the year, dambos represent ecologically important areas with high biodiversity where natural ecological processes occur. Because of the foregoing, dambos offers a wide range of livelihood opportunities such as crop production, livestock grazing, wildlife production, fishing, gathering of wild food products, gathering of grass for multiple uses, collecting of medicinal plants, brick making, sand quarrying and indeed they are sources of domestic and industrial water throughout the year. However, despite being very rich and stable ecological units, dambos easily become threatened habitats if they are mismanaged due to over-cultivation, excessive/ wrong methods of digging drains to reclaim more land for cultivation, overgrazing, cutting of riverine vegetation, sand quarrying and overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. These factors can lead, and have lead, to the drying of dambos .

Although farmers have traditionally used dambos for crop production in Zambia, the intensity and level of dambo utilization has increased in the last 15-20 years due to a combination of population growth, occurrence of droughts, and the need for income generating opportunities.

The Striking a Balance (SAB) project is a project of Wetland Action and Self Help Africa, funded by Wetlands International . The project aims at striking a balance between wetland ( dambo ) utilization for the creation of socio-economic benefits and the maintenance of the ecological functioning of the dambos in order to fill the seasonal food and income gaps. The project is being piloted in three dambos areas (namely Mushishe, Mwansabamba and Chikakala-Chiboni) of Mpika District of the Northern Province of Zambia.

Fig 1: Position of Mpika in Zambia

1.2 Study objectives This study was commissioned in order to establish the baseline biodiversity situation – identifying the main grass and plant communities in the three pilot wetlands. It also sought to establish the perceived threats to biodiversity loss at plant community level due to cultivation.

Specifically the study aimed to establish: a) The main plant communities characterizing each of the three pilot areas and the broad distribution of these communities across the three sites, b) The extent to which each of the dambo areas has been converted to agriculture, and the community perception of the dangers identified with increased crop production in each of the areas. c) The extent to which there have been changes in wetland biodiversity as a result of agricultural and livelihood development and to identify increases and decreases in major elements of plant biodiversity, especially species of economic interest , including, but not only restricted to, the edible orchids, called Chikanda, in the three sites.

CHAPTER 2. STUDY METHODS

2.1 Establish spatial extent of the study sites. In the absence of detailed satellite vegetation maps for the study area due to the smallness of the scale, the spatial extent of the three wetlands were established by recording the GPS tracks along the edges of the dambos and tracks along the streams draining each of the three dambos by using a hand held Garmin GPS76 . The data was presented as map outputs and shapes files for use as baseline information.

2.2 Establish the vegetation communities and their spatial extent and distribution in each of the three sites The main vegetation communities both across the transverse section and the longitudinal extents in each of the three dambos were assessed by setting transverse transects at 500m intervals and studying the main plant communities in 5x5m quadrants set at every 200m along the transects. The local key informants helped in the identification of the main plant communities and in interpreting the relationship between the occurrence of plant communities and the water regime in the dambo , as well as the succession / sequence after cultivation. GPS coordinates for the main plant communities were recorded using a hand held Garmin GPS unit and the data processed using ArcMap 9.2 software. Using the software, the main plant communities were connected in the longitudinal section to obtain the spatial distribution of the main communities both across and along the dambo . A total of 75 grass, sedge and herbaceous species samples were submitted to the University of Zambia herbarium for identification.

The output was presented as vegetation maps showing the main plant communities in each of the dambos .

2.3 Extent and type of agricultural activities in the dambos and biodiversity loss threats assessment Using a hand held Garmin GPS, each of the crop fields in each of the three dambos was surveyed, marking the perimeter and center points of the fields. The cropping sequence, type of crop(s) and previous cropping history in the past three seasons were recorded using information provided by the owner of the field and the community facilitators. The owners and community facilitators also provided detailed information on farming practices, soil moisture management practices, and the succession process in the cultivated parcels of land. For each of the sites, the type of crops grown, sequence of crops, farming practices and inputs used were investigated using participatory systematic inquiry methods.

At each of the dambos , two participatory community meetings were held and following a systematic enquiry method, the community members provided information on the general biodiversity, trends in the availability of edible orchids, the perceived threats to the dambos and the environmental protection measures put in place to safeguard the dambos .

CHAPTER 3. KEY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.

3.1 Spatial extents of the three pilot sites

3.1.1 Mushishe dambo The Mushishe dambo , covering an area of approximately 357 hectares or 3.57 km 2 is the smallest, most remote and the most recently settled dambo of the three in the study. Lying at an average elevation of 1478 to 1455m above sea level, the dambo has a South-North orientation, with its South-North extent lying between 11 o44’44.519”S and 11 o43’24.198”S, and its centre at 31 o 39’35.192” E, 11 o 44’7.094”S. The Mushishe dambo is drained by the Chinika langi stream which is a tributary of the Mushishe river.

Mr Bizile Chipowe, who migrated to the Mushishe in 1991, was the first settler. To date, about 119 households (approximately 700 people) live around the Mushishe dambo . Of these 29 households use the dambo for their farming activities. The major agricultural related land uses in the dambo are crop production and grazing (mostly pigs and goats).

3.1.2 Mwansamba dambo The portion of the Mwansabamba dambo being used as one of the SAB pilot areas covers an area of approximately 1051.3 hactares or 10.51km 2 . This is the largest and most heavily cultivated of the three dambos in the study. The dambo is located about 8 km south- east of Mpika district headquarters and has the nearest proximity to the Mpika markets. It is noteworthy to state that the Mwansabamba dambo is a long dambo which starts in Chipundu and is drained by the Mwanfushi stream which is part of the Luangwa / Zambezi river system. The centre of the portion of the dambo under the SAB project is located at coordinates 31 o29’58.738”E, 11 o52’29.595”S. The dambo has a North east – South west orientation. The northern most extent is lies approximately at 11 o52’4.177”S, while its southern most extent lies at 11 o53’24.694”S.

Although the first settlers are not exactly known, settlement dates back to the 1890s when the first Mwansabamba headman settled in the present day Chendende village. Dambo cultivation started around 1980 with sugarcane production. In 2004 a major diversification in the dambo utilization started with the advent of the wetland utilization programme under NLWCCDP.

3.1.3 Chiboni dambo - Chikakala . There are three dambos under the Chikakala SAB site. Only one of the sites, the Chiboni dambo , was included in this baseline study. The Chiboni dambo is located some 42 km north-west of Mpika district headquarters along the Mpika-Kasama highway. The dambo is drained by the Chiboni stream which

flows in a west-east direction to a confluence with the Kanchibiya River which is a tributary of the Chambeshi- Luapula-Congo River system. With a length of approximately 4.2 km and an average width of 1.78 km the Chiboni dambo covers an area of 753.8 hactares or 7.538km 2..The centre of the dambo is located at coordinates 31 o15’16.132”E, 11 o24’13.303”S.

Settlement in the dambo dates back to 1885 when a man called Abena Bwali Nakolo lead Bembas to settle near the present day Chikakala village. The area was rich in wildlife. The earliest known agricultural use of the dambo was around 1920 when the dambo was used for grazing cattle. The first dambo garden was established in 1996 by Mr Cosmas Mutale who is an advocate for sustainable dambo utilization. In 2008, 35 households were using the dambo for crop production and cattle grazing.

3.2. Biodiversity assessment and spatial distribution of main plant communities 3.2.1 Mushishe dambo 3.2.1.1 Diversity of life in the Mushishe dambo .

Biological life

Plants Anim als

Vertebrates Trees Herbs Grasses & Sedges Invertebrates

Snake(8sp Aquatic lilies Mammals: Bush pigs, Sitatunga , Edible Orchids ecies), Fish (7species) Fresh water otters, honey Miombo Syzgium spp, badgers, giant rats Protea spp

Sedges : Cyperus Grasses Reeds & Palms spp, Eleocharis spp ( Spike sedge), Aristida spp - Phragmites ( Chinko reeds) Ifibengansobe (L) Hyparrhenia spp - Palms- Rhychospora spp Chituki (L) Utubale(L) (White star sedge) Hemarthria spp - Utufimba Crabs , Crickets, Leeches, Snails earthworms 7

The diversity of life as perceived by the Mushishe community is presented in Figure 2. Living in the Mukungule Game Management Area (GMA), which is only some 60 km way from the North Luangwa National Park, the Mushishe community has had a long interaction with wildlife. Their dambo supports somewhat rich biodiversity with mammalian species such as Sitatunga, Bush Pigs, Honey Badgers, Velvet Monkeys and Common Duikers which are seen by villagers on daily basis. The Sitatunga and Bush Pigs cause a lot of damage to the crops grown in the dambos . The long interaction with wildlife is manifested through attaching wildlife names to the vegetation. For example the dambo couch grass ( Hermathria altissma ) is called Utufimba Inkalamu (grass where lions can easily camoflouge), and the spiky Sedges are called Ifenga Insobe (meaning “Grass that cuts the skin the Sitatunga”)

The community identified seven species of edible orchids but only three were preferred and these are becoming rarer. They include Disa spp . A number of grass species could not be positively identified by the local people as they simply call them as “grasses”. The community is 60 % dependant on the natural resources around them. Dambo grasses provide materials for thatching houses ( Hyparrhenia spp and Aristida spp) while Eichnochloa spp known locally as “Kafuntumana” is used for making mattresses and pillows

The community members also saw most of the mammalian species as having “nuisance value” for example , the Cane Rats, Sitatunga and Bushpigs destroy crops, while snakes are feared because of their poisonous venon, the honey badgers interfere with the honey and the fresh water otters eats up fish which people should catch in the dambo . The community members were very knowledgeable on the ecological role of earth worms and termites in nutrient cycling within the dambo.

3.2.1.2 Major vegetation communities in the Mushishe dambo .

Six major vegetation communities characterize the Mushishe dambo . The variations in plant communities across the transverse section of the dambo depend on the moisture regime. Predominantly Hyparrhenia and Aristida spp grass lands are found along the edges of the dambo which are well drained for most parts of the years and become dry in the middle of the dry season Hyparrhenia grasslands are associated with loamy and more fertile upland soils and the areas are used for growing rain fed crops.

a) Predominately Aristida and Eichnolochloa spp communities - Occur in the well drained but permanently wet portions of the dambo . This is the main vegetation in the dambo and within these communities occur the sites where most of the edible orchids occur .This is also the region where most of the dry season crop fields are located.

b) Syzguim thickets with hyparrhenia and Protea spp - These occur in raised parts of the dambo which are well drained but have a deeper but permanent water table that supports the Syzgium trees.

c) Predominantly Eleocharis sedges and Eichnochloa spp - Theses occur in the permanently wet areas and also towards the core of the dambo . Eleocharis sedge symbolize acidic soils and soils not naturally very suitable for crop production. In Mushishe these cover about 20 % of the dambo .

d) Termitaria mounds with Protea spp interspaced with Oryza stagminata - These represent sandy, poor soils and drier parts of the dambo that have marginal use.

e) Phragmite spps reed marches - This is a marshy and permanently wet portion of the dambo with a spring in the middle where reeds occur. The reedy marches cover an area of approximately 1.5 hectares.

3.2.1.3 Trends in the abundance of most preferred edible orchids Myala, Matibula and Kasebelela ( all Disa spp) are the most preferred edible orchid types because of their excellent jellying properties.

Matibula fetch the highest prices in the market. The abundance of the species was assessed based on the inverse ratio of the amount of effort used to collect a basket full of tubers.

The abundance of preferred species has reduced in the last 18 years as depicted in the abundance score in the Figure above. The reduction in abundance of the most preferred species is not related to cultivation as most of the orchid species occur in the wetter portions which are not used for crop production. Efforts have been made to conserve the more preferred species through domestication in the cultivated areas which cannot be harvested by anyone except the owner of the field.

The main drivers in the scarcity of the more preferred orchid types are

• increased market demand,

• uncontrolled harvesting (everyone is free to harvest where he/ she finds the orchids and there is usually an influx of people who are not resident around the dambo during the main harvesting period) and

• Unsustainable harvesting (removal of all tubers from the soil) methods. no restrictions

3.2.1.4 Impact of cultivation on dambo ecological functioning in Mushishe

Fig 5: Cropped land in relation to vegetation types Fig 6: Cropped land crop types at time of study

At the time of the study 18 parcels of land were under cultivation as shown in Figures 5 and 6 above. The area converted to crop production is only 4.46 ha out of the total area of 356.92 ha. This represents 1.25% of the dambo which has been converted to agriculture. The average field size is 0.35 ha.

The dambo farming system is an adaptation of low intensity agriculture in acidic soils. This is a kind of shifting cultivation which involves annual opening of a new parcel of land. The typical cycle involves:-

• Clearing and inverting of grass swards (locally known as Seba )

• Piling the grass swards in a ridge, ( Ulupanga imputa )

• Burning the grass sward to produce ash which serves as a lime as well as potassium pump for water,( Ukocha ) and

• Planting the crop of choice (first crop is usually beans or tomato, potatoes or cabbages)

A cleared area is used for 4 crops in two seasons, after which the area is left fallow for 2 to 3 seasons. At the current levels of use, natural recovery to the climax grassland vegetation is attained within 2 to 3 years of fallowing. After the fallow period, the cycle is repeated. No evidence of artificial fertilizer or chemical pesticide use was noted at Mushishe and the community boasts of growing organic products.

All fields were at least 40m away from the main stream and community members have put in place a Village Environmental Committee which ensures compliance with the dambo conservation measures the community has put in place.

With the current use and with the current cropping system, there is no real threat of the loss of biodiversity in Mushishe dambo with the exception of the increased number of wire snares targeted at Sitatunga and Push pigs which may also affect other species as well.

3.2.2 Mwansabamba dambo .

3.2.2.1 Diversity of life in Mwansabamba dambo The diversity of life and the relative abundance of the main plant and animal communities as perceived by the local community in Mwansabamba dambo are summarized in Fig 7 below. One striking feature about the diversity in Mwansabamba dambo is the preservation of the Syzgium spp along the Mwanfushi stream which at present is intact and is the main defining feature of the Mwanfushi stream. This is despite pressures on the species as a source of cheaper soft wood for the construction industry in the nearby Mpika district headquarters.

The Mwansabamba dambo supports a much reduced animal species diversity. The main mammalian species include Mole Rats ( Tachyorytes spp ), the Marsh Cane Rats ( Thyonomys spp), Sitatunga (Treagelaphus spekei ) and the Swamp Otters ( Aonyx congica ). The abundance of all these mammalian species is very low due to local hunting.

Biological diversity

Animals Plants

Trees Herbaceous Grasses and plants Sedges- Plenty Mammals SnakesM oderate

March otters- Red ants- Plenty Plenty Fish- Declining Miombo spp (Found Umufinsa Wild Sitatunga- rare Birdlife- Plenty in anthills in dambo) (Syzgium spp). Edible Sesame Orchids- -Plenty Cane rats- Plenty Mululu- Khaya spp Found along declining ( 8 the stream and species) on anthills- Umusombo( Wild Declining rose) Oncoba spinosa Intact thickets - declining

Figure 7: Mwansabamba community assessment of biological diversity in the dambo- Showing the main types and relative abundance

3.2.2.2 Major vegetation communities in the Mwansabamba dambo Apart from the dense Syzgium spp growing along the Mwanfushi river, six main grassland communities were identified in the Mwansabamba dambo as shown in Figure 8 below .

a) Predominatly Hyparrhenia spp( Chitoka) and Aristida spp ( Chinko) - mainly confined to the well drained and more fertile edges of the dambo.

b) Aristida spp and Rhynchospora sedges - These are confined to the northern parts of the dambo which are well drained but retain high moisture levels throughout the year.

c) Predominatly Astrida , Rhynchopospora sedeges and Cyperu s sedges - This is the characteristic grassland community covering almost half on the

Figure 8 Vegetation map - Mwansabamba

western bank of the Mwanasamba stream. The soils are mainly sandy and the presence of the Cyperus sedges is an indicator of low fertility.

d) Predominantly Astrida, Rhynchospora ( White star sedge ) and about 20% Eleocharis ( Ifenga Insobes) sedges - Covers most of the eastern bank of the dambo . It includes portions that are somewhat permanently wet but can easily be drained by digging drainage furrows. As a result most of the crop fields are located in this region ( Figure 9).

e) Predominantly Eleocharis Sedges and Aristida spp grasslands -This is the typical communities in the saturated/ waterlogged where soils cannot be easily drained by digging drainage furrows.

f) Predominantly Eleocharis sedges and floating water lilies - This is the characteristic vegetation around the Mwansfushi wier where the Mwanfushi stream forms a small artificial pond after a weir was constructed to provide water for Mpika township

3.2.2.3 Trends in the abundance of most preferred edible orchids Of the eight edible orchids species, five are more preferred. Matibula is the most preferred. Analysis of trends in the abundance of the preferred species since the seventies is shown in Figure 10. Community members feel there still some good amount of Chikanda in the dambo , and its relative scarcity is mainly attributed to increase in the harvesting pressure. Similar reasons as outlined in section 4.2.1.3 also apply in Mwansabamba dambo . Being closer to Mpika, and supporting a higher population than Mushishe, the harvesting pressure in Mwansabamba is much higher.

Figure 10: Trends in the adundance of Chikanda species

3.2.2.4 Impact of cultivation on dambo ecological functioning in Mwansabamba As earlier outlined Mwansabamba is only 6-8 km from Mpika township which is the main consumption centre for agricultural produce produced in the Mwansabamba dambo . The dambo has become transformed over the years from a producer of sugarcane to a centre for production of most of the high demand vegetables in Mpika, which include tomatoes, African egg plants, cabbages, Irish potatoes and other leafy vegetables, notably Chinese cabbage and rape. Market driven production has transformed Mwansabamba dambo such that most of the drainable land has been allocated to households and dambo land parcels have become tradable commodities. The 2008 records indicate that 38 households have been allocated land in the dambo , which means of the 170 registered households 22% are involved in dambo utilization.

Of the total area of 1051,3 hectares, 15.84 ha are under cultivation representing 1.55% of the entire dambo . However, a closer analysis of Figure 11 reveals that the western bank is not intensely cultivated due to poor soils (as outlined above). On the other hand, the eastern bank is more intensively cultivated (80% of the drainable portion of the dambo is under cultivation). There is a danger that as demand for vegetables and dambo land increases, people will be forced to claim more land by digging large drainage furrows to drain excess water. Already there is a tendency to go for large fields. Although the average field size currently is 0.4 hectares, there is a risk that with increasing profitability the field size might increase (largest field is 4.5 hectares Fig 11).

Figure 11: Land Use- Vegetation Map- Mwansabamba Dambo .

There is evidence of increased use of artificial fertilizers and synthetic pesticides in the Mwansabamba. The main groups of pesticides used are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Pesticides Used in Mwansabamba dambo Pesticide Category Specific pesticides Crops sprayed

Fungicides Dithane, Uthane, Copper oxychloride Tomatoes, Potatoes, African egg plant

Insecticides Kinalux, Fenkill, Malathion, Fenthion, Cyrux Cabbages, Rape, Chinese cabbage

3.2.2.5 Environmental mitigation measures currently in place The long term sustainability of the dambo is a concern to the Mwansabamba community and in order to regulate the activities in the dambo a Village Environmental Committee (VEC) has been established. This is mandated to monitor and report any persons contravening the environmental protection regulations that have been put in place. Some of the regulations put in place are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Environmental protection regulations in Mwansabamba Objective Specific regulations

1. Protection of the No cutting of trees along the Mwanfushi stream hydrology of Mwanfushi stream No cutting of trees on the periphery of the dambo

Springs within the dambo should be protected

No farming very close to the river

No digging of drains straight into the river

2. Soil conservation No quarrying for fertile black soils near the river or near the roads measures No quarrying for building sand allowed in the western bank

For people molding clay bricks on anthills, the pits created should be buried after molding the bricks

3. Regulating All new applicants for land are scrutinized by the village environmental settlements committee.

4. Fire management No settling of fires on the upland after 15 August

Fire-breaks should be constructed around each of the fields in the dambo

3.2.3 Chikakala-Chiboni dambo

3.2.3.1 Diversity of Life in the Chiboni dambo The Chiboni dambo is an example of an intermediate dambo which combines the vegetation characteristics of the sweet and sour dambos . Unlike the other two dambos where the characteristic grass species is Aristida , the characteristic grasses in Chiboni dambo are Tranchypogon spp and Acroceras macrum. Among the animals species, the Chiboni dambo has more fish species and the blood sucking leeches. Figure 12 summaries the diversity of living organisms and there relative abundance as perceived by the community.

Living organisms in the dambo

Animals Plants

Mammals and Grasses & Sedg es Trees Herbs Birds Reptiles Cane rats- Fish - 4 types, Plenty Leeches - Wild sesbanias - most commom Aquatic plants - Plenty Syzgium Plenty are cat fish & Plenty Rats- Plenty spp Protea spp- breams Earth worms- Bird life- wide Plenty Edible orchids - Plenty Snakes- Mamba variety and 10 species lushi, Graden plenty Acacia spp - identified- Insects- snakes, beleg Umunganushi- Plenty Moderate Plenty white- All plenty

Uapaca nitida- (wild Edible wild okra loquats) musokolobe- Tortoise

Plenty Wild sesame

Uapaca- Kirkiana- Wild Commelina spps loquats)-musuku- Plenty Wild onions(not edible) Bridelia micrantha- Mushiminwanongo- Moderate Figure 12: Diversity of Life in Chiboni dambo and relative abundance

3.2.3.2 Major vegetation communities in the Chiboni dambo Seven combinations of the major grass communities can be identified in the Chiboni dambo . As earlier mentioned the characteristic grass communities in the dambo are Trachypogon species - locally known as Kanika, and Acroceras spp locally known as Imifimbwansaka.

As with the other dambos, the spatial distribution of the major plant communities are influenced primarily by the soil moisture regimes in the dambo and the soil texture (types). Fig 13 shows the following major plant communities in the dambo . These are :-

a) Predominantly Hperrhenia filipindula with mixtures of Aristida spp and Uapaca trees on the edges of the dambos - These are found on the periphery of the dambo on the entire eastern bank and also on the dambo fringes on the north western potions of the dambo , closer to the Agricultural Camp. Unlike in the other two dambos , where Hyparrhenia hirta is the characteristic grass on the dambo edges, Hyparrhenia filipindula is the characteristic grass in Chiboni dambo. In some portions, the Hyparrhenia grasslands are interspaced by Acacia spp (White thorn) which make the soils excellent for maize production.

Figure 13: Vegetation Map- Chiboni dambi Chikakala- Mpika b) Trachypogon, Acroceras grasse s and Rhynchospora sedges- This is the zone immediately after the hyperrhenia grasses in the traverse section. These communities cover about 30% of the dambo and represent the somewhat easily drainable sandy loamy soils which are also good for crop production. As one moves further towards the core of the dambo , the Rhynchospora sedges give way to Eleochari s sedges ( Ifengainsobe) while the Acroceras grass give way to Loudentia spp ( Lwebo)

c) Predominantly Rhynchospora sedeges, Luodentia spp and Acroceras spp- This represents portions of the dambo that are waterlogged for more than 7 months of the year. The soil moisture is too high for the production of most crops except for rice. The study team noted five rice fields within this zone. The Loudentia grasses (Lwebo) are used for making brooms as well as thatching.60% of the edible orchids (Chikanda) occurs in this zone. This zone is also used for grazing cattle.

d) Oryza longistaminata ( Wild red rice) interspaced with Protea trees ( Imisoso). This is a zone confined to the north eastern part of the dambo which is characterized by poor dry sandy and poor soils. As was noted in the Mushishe dambo , the presence Protea tress symbolizes drier parts of the dambo. The study team noted two old sand quarries in this section of the dambo. The sand was used in the construction of the Chikakala School (in the 60s) and more recently the Chikakala health centre.

e) Oryza longistaminata with Trachypogon grasses

This covers a small island sandwiched within the Eleocharis sedge zone on the eastern part of the dambo immediately after the Chiboni stream which has a slightly higher elevation and clayey soils. The island is used as a natural salt lick by cattle.

f) Eleocharis sedges with Dicanthium spp grasses- This covers about 40% of the dambo and represents the wettest parts of the dambo which is used mainly used for trapping fish and harvesting edible orchids. The zone also support a dense mass of aquatic plants close to the Chiboni stream which forms a very good grazing for cattle late in the dry season when the dambo is burnt.

g) Syzgium trees along stream and on anthills - Apart from the Protea trees described above, the Chiboni dambo is essentially treeless, with small pockets of Syzgium trees which occur on anthills and also along the stream points in the dambo . The anthills also support Bridelia trees which are used for making mortars for pounding.

3.2.3.4 Impact of cultivation on dambo ecological functioning in Chiboni dambo There are three main agricultural land uses in the Chiboni dambo :

1. Cattle grazing and to a lesser extent pig grazing - Cattle grazing has been an important activity in the dambo since the 1920s . Approximately 300 heads of cattle owned by 8 households are grazed in the dambo . The main grazing area is confined to the drier parts of the dambo in the rainy season and closer to the middle of the dambo (targeting the Acroceras grasses and the aquatic plants) in the late dry season. The study team noted some signs of local overgrazing on some parts of the dambo . In order to allow for cattle grazing, the burning of the dambo is phased – the outer parts are burnt first and the inner parts are burnt later in the dry season. Towards the end of the dry season almost all the cattle are grazed closer to the Chiboni stream. There is a risk of over compaction of some parts of the core of the dambo which may have an effect on the long term water retention capacity of the dambo . Compaction will lower infiltration of water in the rainy season and reduce the flow of water in the stream during the dry season.

2. Construction of fish weirs along the Chiboni stream - The presence of fish in substantial quantities along the Chiboni stream has given rise to fishing activities in the dambo . The main method of fishing is construction of earth fish weirs in the dambo and also along the Chiboni stream to trap fish. Within the 3.7km stretch of the Chiboni steam, 50 fish weirs were encountered. At present there seems to be no regulation on the number of fish weirs that can be constructed cross the stream. Despite acting as water harvesting structures in the dambo , the increase in the number and heights of fish weirs have two long term effects:

a) Reducing the upstream movement of fish from the larger rivers for breeding in dambos such as Chiboni

b) Reducing the survival changes of the trapped fish in the ponds

In the long run, there a risk that fish stocks and diversity of fish species both in the dambos and in the larger rivers will decline if the practice is not regulated. It is illegal under the Zambian Fisheries Act of 2007 to construct such fish weirs.

3. Wetland crop production - Wetland crop production is mainly confined to the Hyparrhenia grass and partly to the Trachypogon/ Acroceras grassland zone as shown in Figure 14. This is due to the favourable moisture regimes and soil fertility in these zones. Apart from three fields at the headwaters of the Chiboni stream, all fields are far removed from the stream

Fig 14: Land Use/ Crop land in Chiboni dambo

There are 28 dambo field plots covering an area of 16.42 hectares of the 753.8 hectares of the entire Chiboni dambo , representing 2.17% of the entire dambo. The average field size is 0.58 hectares. The average crop diversity index is 4 types of crop per field. The range of crops grown in the dambos include beans, maize, onions, Irish potatoes, pineapples, bananas, pumpkins, cassava, sweet potatoes, squashes, tomatoes, garlic and recently rice.

The dambo crop production was initially driven by food security concerns but now the cash market is the main driver for crop production. Due to the good communication and road network between Chikakala and Mpika, Chikakala is slowly becoming one of the main suppliers of the high value vegetables for the Mpika urban market. Despite maintaining most of the elements of the traditional dambo cultivation farming system already outlined, there is a growing push towards intensification of production and increased use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides similar to the trends in Mwansamba dambo .

Framer-led experimentation has proved that Chiboni dambo can be a rice producing dambo . Establishment of large-scale rice schemes in the dambos will encourage monocultures into the Eleocharis sedges zone and may disturb the long term hydrology of the dambo .

3.2.3.5 Trends in the abundance of most preferred edible orchids A general reduction in the abundance of edible orchids had been noted in Chikakala dambo . As with the other dambos , the reason for the decline in the abundance is mainly due to unsustainable harvesting methods and increased harvesting pressure as a result of an influx of people from across Zambia who come to harvest or buy the orchids. The most preferred variety is nicknamed “ Nsalu ”, to symbolize its importance in contributing to the dressing of people in the dambo . Nsalu is the scarcest of the species and is usually harvested earlier than the other species.

A graphical presentation of the trends in the abundance of the edible orchids is provided in Figure 15.

Figure 15: Trends in the abundance of edible orchids- Chiboni dambo Chikakala

The study did not determine the quantities of Chikanda tubers being harvested on yearly basis because this has never been determined in the past.

3.2.2.6 Environmental conservations being pursued in Chikakala dambo. Village Environmental Committees have been set up in each of the three dambos in Chikakala. The committees act as the watchdogs for the traditional authority and also enforce the byelaws that have been passed by the Chief Mpepo for the protection of the dambos . The bylaws are presented in Box 1 below

Box 1 Chiboni dambo utilization bye laws

1. Fire policy - Each field should have a 5 m fire break around. Burning for grazing and encouraging regeneration of grasses should be done between June and July

2. No cutting of trees on the edges of the dambo

3. Fields should be 50m away from the stream to prevent erosion and siltation

4. No cutting of trees on anthill, springs and islands in the dambo

5. No grazing on the river sources

6. The Village headmen should consult the committee for any planned allocation of land

7. All law breakers will be punished through the traditional law ( Insaka committee)

CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSIONS

The biodiversity assessment study has established that:-

1. The Mushishe and Mwansabamba dambos have similar grass and sedge species, although the diversity of animal life is much higher in Mushishe dambo.

2. The Chikakala dambo has slightly different grass communities from the other two dambos and may be classified as an intermediate dambo.

3. The soil moisture regime, soil type and soil fertility determine the spatial distribution of grass and sedge communities in the dambo . The factors also affect the land use parterns in the dambos

4. Extrogenous market forces are the main contributing factors to the reduction in the abundance of edible orchids in the three dambos . The effect of cultivation on the distribution and abundance of edible orchids is insignificant because the orchids occur more in the wetter parts of the dambo where there has been no cultivation to date.

5. Production of most of the crops in Chikakala and Mwansabamba is driven by market forces and this will push more intensified production system with a simultaneous increase in the use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides.

6. Due to market forces, there is a threat that farmers in Mwansabamba and Chikakala may begin to start draining the dambo in order to increase the land under cultivation. This could lead to a progression of cultivation to the dambo core with serious negative environmental results.

7. Although the village Environmental committees are an important environmental watchdog, the byelaws are silent on a number of issues such as controlling drainage, regulating fishing, controlling the use of synthetic pesticides, etc.

8. With the present (2008) farming dambo cultivation systems, and at the current levels of farming intensification, the fallowed dambo fields will attain the original climax grassland vegetation within two to three years.

9. The Department of Forest has been involved in sensitization trainings as part of the SAB project and has done a commendable job in increasing the level of environmental awareness and understanding of hydro-ecological relationships among the users of the dambos . However the Department was not involved in the monitoring of the implementation of the action plans.

10. The SAB pilot sites have had a positive impact in filling the income, food security and seasonality gaps and have started a new effort where dambo users are aware of the environmental effects of their activities and are putting in place community driven and community implemented measures to conserve the dambos in order to sustain production.

CHAPTER 5. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The SAB sustainable dambo utilization approach can be rolled out to other districts of Zambia but should have a stronger environmental conservation component which will involve education, putting into action environmental conservation measures – beyond that already being done by the Village Environmental Committees, and monitoring the state of the dambo micro environment.

2. Although dambo natural resources such as fish and edible orchids are managed under common property regimes, there is need to introduce regulations that will govern harvesting levels. For harvesting methods there should be a village based system for monitoring quantities harvested in order to keep track of the trends.

3. The SAB project should interact more with the extension personnel in the Ministry of Agriculture to ensure that ecologically unfriendly dambo use regimes are prevented from the onset.

4. The Village Environmental Committee byelaws should become more enforceable instruments through enacting the byelaws at District Council level.

REFERENCES. 1. Bolnick Doreen, ( 1995) A guide to the common wild flowers of Zambia and neighboring regions, Macmillan Zambia, Lusaka. 2. Ferreira, R.E.C. (1981). Ecological aspects of rice production in dambos of Luapula Province. Research Memorandum No. 29, Research Branch, Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia. 3. Jonathan, Kingdon,(1997) Kingdon field guide to African mammals, Academic Press, Harcout Brace &Company, Publishers, San Diego, London , Boston. 4. Kent Martin& Coker Paddy ( 1992) Vegetation description and analysis- A practical approach, John Wiley &Sons Publishers Chichester, New York, Toronto 5. Mukanda, N, (1994), Zambia country paper Wetland classification for agricultural development in Eastern and Southern Africa: the Zambian case, FAO country report 6. Outdshoorn, Frits van,( 2006) Guide to grasses of Southern Africa 2 nd Ed Briza Publications, Pretoria South Africa. 7. Storrs, A.E.G (1995) “Know your trees”- Some of the common trees found in Zambia. Forest Department, Lusaka Zambia 8. Verboom, W.C. 1969 . Range types and estimated carrying capacity of the grassland of Zambia . File report S. 560/69 Agriculture, Lusaka, Zambia