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Animal Research: a Review of Developments, 1950–2000 WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository 2001 Animal Research: A Review of Developments, 1950–2000 Andrew N. Rowan The Humane Society of the United States Franklin M. Loew Becker College Follow this and additional works at: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/sota_2001 Part of the Animal Experimentation and Research Commons, Animal Studies Commons, and the Bioethics and Medical Ethics Commons Recommended Citation Rowan, A.N., & Loew, F.M. (2001). Animal research: A review of developments, 1950-2000. In D.J. Salem & A.N. Rowan (Eds.), The state of the animals 2001 (pp. 111-120). Washington, DC: Humane Society Press. This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Animal Research: A Review of Developments, 7CHAPTER 1950–2000 Andrew N. Rowan and Franklin M. Loew Introduction ne can divide the debate over oft-quoted example (Bliss 1982). with a few minor retrenchment peri- the use of animals in research Opposition to the practice was spo- ods, up to the present time (see Fig- Oand testing into three broad radic and of little impact on policy ure 1). This growth led to an enor- periods. The first started in the 1860s makers, despite the support of such mous expansion in publicly funded and lasted until World War I. During powerful individuals as William Ran- research. In the private sector, the this period, animal research became dolph Hearst (owner of a newspaper discovery of penicillin and strepto- established as an important method empire) on the side of the anti-vivi- mycin led to a tremendous expansion of laboratory investigation and also as section societies. in pharmaceutical research and in the a significant source of public contro- The third phase of the animal size of the prescription drug industry. versy. For a variety of reasons very well research debate started around 1950. These expansions in government researched and analyzed by historians After World War II the government funding for biomedical research and Richard French (1975) and James became a major sponsor of scientific in private-sector investment in drug Turner (1980) (among others), the research, including biomedical re- discovery created an increase in de- public found the idea of deliberately search. The budget of the National mand for laboratory animals. inflicting harm on animals in order to Institutes of Health (NIH) grew dra- learn more about health and medi- matically and has continued to grow, cine particularly disturbing. In the United States, opposition to the use of animals in research appeared to peak around the 1890s and then began to decline. By the end of World War I, following the death in 1916 of two notable advocates for more regu- lation of animal research (Caroline Earl White of the American Anti-Vivi- section Society and Albert Leffing- well, M.D.), the animal research issue became marginalized and of relatively little consequence for politicians and policy makers. The second phase of the animal research debate lasted from around 1920 to 1950. During this period, animal research continued to develop as a means of discovering new biolog- ical data and as a route to potential cures—the discovery of insulin is an 111 may account for another 20–25 per- cent of the total. Drug discovery and the development of new medical devices and treatments may account for about 35 percent of all animal use with other (“basic”) research account- ing for the remaining 30 percent or so. Trends: Data from Great Britain and Europe Unfortunately we do not have good data on laboratory animal use in the United States, but the Home Office in Great Britain has required researchers to report their animal use since the passage of the first act reg- ulating animal research in 1876. Originally, the Home Office counted the number of “animal experiments,” where an “experiment” was more or less equivalent to one animal. In 1987 the reporting system was changed and expanded as a result of a new cent of the national demand for labo- act (1986) regulating animal research. Trends in ratory animals. In Great Britain the Researchers were now required to testing of personal-care and house- report the number of “animal proce- Animal Use hold products accounted for fewer dures.” The reportable use of animals than 5,000 animal procedures in increased approximately 23 percent Animal User 1990, or around 0.15 percent of total because some uses of animals (for Categories animal use. Among commercial orga- example, the passaging of tumors) According to U.S. Department of Agri- nizations the vast majority of animal that had not been included under culture (USDA) statistics, animal use use is directed toward the discovery, “experiments” were included under is split almost evenly between com- development, and testing of new med- the definition of “procedure.” mercial and noncommercial users icines and therapeutics. The trends in animal use in Great (Newman 1989; Welsh 1991), al- Overall, laboratory animal use can Britain shown in Figure 2 reflect though these analyses leave out the be divided into six basic categories: changes in research during the twen- federal laboratories, which account education; drug discovery and toxicity tieth century. Briefly, the bulk of ani- for somewhere between 15 and 20 testing; the development and toxicity mal use prior to World War II came percent of national laboratory animal testing of other products; the testing from such laboratory activities as use. It seems as though the ratio of biological agents; medical diagno- diagnosis of disease and the produc- between commercial, noncommer- sis; and other research (immunology, tion and safety testing of various bio- cial, and government laboratories in microbiology, oncology, physiology, logical agents (for example, insulin; the United States may be around zoology, ethology, ecology, and a see Bliss 1982, page 172, for com- 45:40:15. In Great Britain commercial host of other disciplines and sub- ments on the search for rabbits to laboratories have always accounted disciplines). No statistics are suffi- standardize insulin batches in the for around two-thirds of the animal ciently detailed to provide an accu- early 1920s). After World War II, ani- use, with educational institutions rate estimate of how animal use is dis- mal use continued to increase due and government laboratories splitting tributed among these six categories. to many new drug discovery projects the remainder. However, diagnosis now represents a and an expansion in university-based Much attention has been focused on minor use of research animals (less research. In the 1970s animal use the use of animals in the testing of than 5 percent), while education prob- peaked and has been in decline for personal-care and household prod- ably accounts for less than 10 per- the last twenty-five years as the phar- ucts, although such use probably cent. Toxicity and safety testing of all maceutical companies moved from accounts for much less than one per- products (including drugs) and the drug development processes that production and testing of vaccines emphasized whole-animal studies to 112 The State of the Animals: 2001 discovery processes that began with studies in cells, cell extracts, and com- Table 1 puters. In addition, animal use in vac- NIH Extramural Grants and Research cine and biological development and testing declined. Animal Use in the United States The downward trend in animal use seen in Great Britain has also NIH U.S. Research Year Extramural Funding Animal Use NIH $/Animal been reported in the Netherlands (a ($ Millions, 1950) (Millions) 50-percent reduction since 1978), Switzerland (a 75-percent reduction 1957 69 17 4.06 since 1983), and Germany (a 40-per- 1970 379 ca.50 7.58 cent decline since 1989). 1992 937 ca.25 37.48 Trends in the United States to 1990 be greatly reduced or replaced alto- For example, during the 1980s Hoff- What little data are available for gether. Second, concern for animal man–La Roche reduced its animal use research animal use in America indi- welfare grew dramatically in the sec- at its New Jersey research campus cate that the pattern seen in Europe ond half of the twentieth century and from around 1 million to 300,000 per can also be seen in the United States. led to changes in practice and regula- year without reducing its research A survey of animal use in the United tion. These changes emphasized the output (in terms of new drug candi- States conducted under the auspices need for more attention to animal dates) at all (Anonymous 1990). of the International Committee for welfare and the promotion of alterna- The claim that research animal use Laboratory Animal Science in the late tives to the use of animals. Third, all has gone down has been challenged 1950s found that about 17 million lab- aspects of research became more (for example, see Orlans 1994) and is oratory animals were used in 1957. In expensive, including the purchase not easy to prove conclusively. One the late 1960s, surveys by the Institute and maintenance of the disease-free has to draw inferences from USDA for Laboratory Animal Resources animals now needed for good Annual Reports and from other (ILAR) of the National Research Coun- research. Finally, the pharmaceutical sources. However, the information is cil reported that 40–50 million ani- companies changed their drug discov- not particularly reliable, and the mals were being used annually. Thus, ery programs to rely less on random USDA Annual Reports only account there appears to have been a substan- screening of chemicals in large num- for 10 percent or less of total research tial increase in animal use after World bers of animals and more on mecha- animal use (Welsh 1991).
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