HOHONU 2007 VOLUME 5
A JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC WRITING This publication is available in alternate format upon request. TheUniversity of Hawai‘i is an Equal Opportunity Affirmative Action Institution. VOLUME 5 Hohonu 2 0 0 7 Academic Journal
University of Hawai‘i at Hilo • Hawai‘i Community College Hohonu is publication funded by University of Hawai‘i at Hilo and Hawai‘i Community College student fees.
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All rights revert to the witers upon publication. All requests for reproduction and other propositions should be directed to writers.
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Table of Contents
1...... A Fish in the Hand is Worth Two on the Net: Don’t Make me Think…different, by Piper Seldon
4...... Abortion: Murder-Or Removal of Tissue?, by Dane Inouye
9...... An Etymology of Four English Words, with Reference to both Grimm’s Law and Verner’s Law by Piper Seldon
11...... Artifacts and Native Burial Rights: Where do We Draw the Line?, by Jacqueline Van Blarcon
14...... Ayahuasca: Earth’s Wisdom Revealed, by Jennifer Francisco
16...... Beak of the Fish: What Cichlid Flocks Reveal About Speciation Processes, by Holly Jessop
26...... Climatic Effects of the 1815 Eruption of Tambora, by Jacob Smith
33...... Columnar Joints: An Examination of Features, Formation and Cooling Models, by Mary Mathis
36...... Coral Health and Water Quality Evaluations at Waiopae Tide Pools, Kapoho, Big Island of Hawai’i by Cheresa Coles
43...... Culture Clash, by Brandi De Mello
46...... Family and Fern Boxes, by Ann Hassler
49...... Green Building in Hawai’i: Akamai Stewardship of our Land, or Just an Expensive Mainland Fad? by LeAna Gloor
53...... Hawaiian Sovereignty: Which Path Should Be Taken?, by Michael Johnson
56...... Is there a Need for Charter Schools?, by Lara Stroud
59...... Mass Media and Propaganda in the context of the War on Terror, by Das Flagg
62...... Op/Ed: Pimpology is Wrong, by Timothy Fallis
64...... Paralysis and Epiphany: How Joyce Could Save Dublin, by Anne Michels
68...... Syphilis: Evolution Due to Social Changes, by Alice Neikirk
72...... The Cult of Isis and Early Christianity, by Hazel Butler
78...... The Rise of Deaf Culture, by Lauren Hill
82...... Transfixed and Transfigured, by Anne Michels
87...... Vacuum Energy Density Resolved, Thus Dark Energy Solved, by Houston Wade
92...... Vorticism, by Josh Williams
96...... Youth Activism and The Electoral Processes in Nigeria: A Critical Appraisal, by Okwechime E Okey
iii HOHONU
Aloha,
Welcome to the fifth edition of Hohonu, the University of Hawai’i at Hilo and Hawai’i Community College Journal of Academic Writing. We are pleased to present this issue to the community, and are proud of the excellent academic writing it contains. Hohonu, which means “deep” or “profound” in Hawaiian, has certainly lived up to its name in this edition. This issue contains a wide array of thought provoking papers, ranging from English 100 papers, to 600 level Master’s research. Topics for this issue range from Hawaiian Sovereignty, to ancient art, and even go as far as trying to piece together the underlying structure of the Universe! It has been a real delight to work on this issue. Special thanks go to Luke Bailey, our dedicated faculty advisor, who encouraged us all. Also, we would like to thank Hazel Butler, our webpage manager, and Katie Lambert, our business manager for doing much of the behind the scenes work that made this issue possible. Special thanks as well to our secretary, Tara Anderson, who made sure we all knew what was going on! A huge pat on the back goes to our staff editors, for all of their hard work putting the finishing touches on these already excellent papers. Thank you to Piper Seldon, Das Flagg, and LeAna Gloor for your exceptional work in this regard. As already mentioned, we are extremely happy with the quality of submissions we received for this issue, and we encourage continued submissions! This is your journal, and you can help us make it even better by submitting your work to us at: www.uhh.hawaii.edu/academics/hohonu/. We accept submissions year-round. We hope you enjoy this issue as much as we have enjoyed putting it together for you. For anyone we may have forgotten, thank you for the support we have received in putting together for the masses this collection of the finest writing UH Hilo and HCC has to offer.
Mahalo! And Enjoy!
Anne Michels Editor-in-Chief
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at a web page it should be self evident. Obvious. Self- explanatory” (Krug 11). I apply Krug’s First Law of Usability to Global Village, Institute for Appropriate Technology and am completely lost. My eyes haven’t even left the first page. Okay, I know that the company is based out of Tennessee. I have one piece of information and build from there. Basic stuff. I want to know what this company does. Global Village, Institute for Appropriate Technology is a non-profit organization (“Your Portal”). They’ve been around since the 70s. Check. I’m seeing flower children, tie-dye shirts, and the Grateful Dead. Maybe this explains the man with the fish. But the name throws me off: Institute for Appropriate Technology. These folks apparently A Fish in the Hand research new ways of doing things, new technologies that are earth-friendly, ethical, and good for all is Worth Two on the mankind. A nicely typed introduction paragraph in the center of the page tells me so. But the man- Net: Don’t Make Me holding-fish picture is directly to the left of the introduction, so I wonder about the connection. Is Think...different there one? “Think different” makes me think too hard, and we know from Krug’s book that over- thinking is what we don’t want for common sense by Piper Seldon web usability. Websites should be organized, clean, informative, I’m speechless. Surfing the web, I stumble on a and easy to navigate; we don’t want to waste precious gem, a shining crazy jewel in a sea of common sense time. English 485: Writing For the World Wide Web websites: Global Village, Institute for Appropriate is the class I’m taking at the University of Hawai’i Technology (“Your Portal”). My rhetorical “spidey- at Hilo (ENG485, Richardson). I feel like I’ve paid senses” begin to tingle. Appropriate Technology? attention in class, kept up on the reading, done some What is appropriate technology? Where am I? I look research and come at last to the Promised Land: at the URL and still don’t have a clear answer. I want finding Global Village, Institute for Appropriate to know more, but I can’t move my eyes away from Technology on the Internet was pure serendipity. The the black and white picture on the far left. It is an caption above the man’s head says, “Think different” odd, English-looking man in a bowler hat, white shirt, (“Your Portal”). And I am, thanks to this class. The tie, and suit coat. He is holding a fish. discoveries that I have made in analyzing this one I am a deer stunned in the headlights, far from the website have crystallized my understanding of happy realm of Steve Krug’s Don’t Make Me Think! Krug’s text, Don’t Make Me Think, and clarified the What on Earth have I stumbled upon? Could this be, discussions we’ve had in class. perhaps, the best worst website I’ve ever seen? I’d I am convinced that careful attention must be paid like to explore these questions and more. What makes to every aspect of a website’s design. It is important a good website? Why do we care? Why is website that the user finds the information he or she is looking design important? Let’s explore. Grab your fish; for without having to waste time wondering where we’re going for a swim. to go, how to get there, and what he or she might To start, Krug gives us a golden rule for using find. Krug says, “It doesn’t matter how many times the internet with his First Law of Usability: “Don’t I have to click, as long as each click is a mindless, make me think!” (Krug 10). He explains further: “It unambiguous choice” (Krug 41). It may sound like a means that as far as is humanly possible, when I look contradiction--careful attention and mindless clicking-
1 -but it is not. Ideally, the website designer should be site should be orderly--tidy. If I had to pick a single careful in his or her planning of the site so the user flaw for the website I critiqued, it would be that the can interact with it intuitively, in a mindless manner. page was far too busy, incredibly busy. There are The designer must be mindful about the overall too many words, which as we learned from a class package for the user to make his or her mindless reading by Jakob Nielsen should be avoided (“How clicks. Style, font, size, use of white space, basic Users Read on the Web 1”). Good designers should organization, pictures, images, navigation tools be aware that website users don’t read the text; they and more are a few of the points that should be scan it. Scanning the Global Village page might have considered. As the old adage goes: “Failure to plan been easier if key areas had been bolded or set in is planning to fail.” A fair comparison can be made bullet points. Not only is the page text-heavy, but to good writing of any type: We should not carelessly there isn’t much in the way of white space to rest the approach the blank page. The same could be said for tired eyes of the user. web design. There are other issues with the tidiness of the Not only should the designer of a website be website. Global Village has all kinds of images, careful with the words he or she chooses and how icons, and pictures without labels. My husband, they will appear on the page, the designer should the computer programmer, calls this type of design consider how those words will be viewed rhetorically- flaw MM: Mystery Meat. What is it? Who are these -what is being said, to whom it is addressed, for people? Why is this picture relevant? Perhaps the what purpose, and in what context. Rhetorical designer attempted to throw the user a bone, but only consideration gives the site’s message a much better one. There is a diagram for a conservation economy chance of being understood. I would argue that that the designer attempted to label. The words logos, the message a site is trying to convey, is lost wrap around the image, but leave a single word to or diminished when a user experiences difficulty the bottom of the image all by itself. It looks to be getting around. Not having to think about website a careless mistake and calls into question the ethos navigation frees the user’s mind to concentrate on of the designer. It makes me think that either the content--concepts, ideas, or products being presented designer didn’t care about the website or didn’t know online. Poor web design elicits the opposite of the what her or she was doing--not good either way. designer’s goal to inform or persuade the user; it Before I move to the third criteria for good web results in dissuasion. design, I must first address the choice of color and How can we make sure a website is clear and our font in the Global Village website. I felt that the message is not lost? We can start by making some choices left the website looking cluttered, like a house deliberate design choices. As designers, we ask with too many knick-knacks. In general, the font size hundreds of questions and consider the outcome so was too small, making it difficult to read. Even worse, that the targeted user is not required to ask even 20 half way through the page the font color changes to questions (Krug 41). So what went wrong with Global light aqua. It seems to be a list of things the company Village, Institute for Appropriate Technology? Let’s has done in the past, but my eyes glazed over about return to my basic list of criteria for a good website. six into the pale blue fuzz. First, a website should be organized for our The third criteria factor for a good website is message to be properly understood. The website for that it should be informative. Sadly, Global Village Global Village, Institute for Appropriate Technology fails in this respect as well. So much information is so unorganized, it is almost humorous. The is presented, it’s almost overwhelming. Add to the “Homepage” if you could call it that, is one long volume that the information is not organized and run-on page. Subjects are not grouped topically, the user is left swimming in a turbulent sea of facts, alphabetically, or any other type of way; they appear ideas, and concepts. The graphics, which should randomly around the page. Images and graphics illuminate the information, make it more accessible to don’t seem to go with anything. My favorite mystery the user, are useless in the Global Village site because graphic is near the bottom of the page; it appears to they are not labeled. Common sense should tell us be a tree wearing large diamond earrings. I’m not that not labeling a picture, diagram, or image leads to sure what that’s about and of course, there is no label confusion. Having random images around a website on the icon to offer a possible explanation. It might creates busy-ness and adds to page’s visual noise be a corporate logo, but then again, it might be a tree (Krug 38). In general, the visual noise on this website wearing diamonds. could be compared to that of a punk rock concert. Second, a website should be clean. I’m not talking I would be remiss to leave the section on web about a Windex, mountain air kind of clean, but the page information if I didn’t address what was obvious
2 to me when I first opened this website and saw Works Cited the title: Global Village, Institute for Appropriate Technology. This web page and organization title Krug, Steve. Don’t Make Me Think! A Common Sense brings up so many rhetorical questions that it staggers Approach to Web Usability. 2. Berkeley: New the already confused mind. What is appropriate Riders, 2006. technology? How is it that this odd-ball company has a handle on what can be called appropriate? And Nielsen, Jakob. “How Users Read on the Web.” useit. based on the basic layout of the webpage, does the com: Jakob Nielsen’s Website 01Oct1997 1. user really believe the ethos of the company who 19Sep2006 claims to have a handle on technology and would put out a product as disorganized and (let me say it again) Richardson, Jennifer. “English 485: Writing For the odd as this website? It begs the question: Who do World Wide Web - Praxis.” University of Hawai’i these people think they are, and why should I believe at Hilo. T/R 2pm-3:15pm, Hilo. Fall 2006. a word of what they have to say? I’m sure there are more, but the fourth criteria “Your Portal to the Post-Petroleum Future.” Institute factor I have chosen to define a good website is good for Appropriate Technology. 20Sep2006. Global navigation: how a user gets from Point A to Point B Village. 21 Sep 2006
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In 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Jane Abortion: Murder, or Roe in Roe vs. Wade, making abortions legal in the United States. Even after this landmark decision was Removal of Tissue? handed down there continued to be a heated debate. Today, there are over a million abortions by Dane Inouye performed in the U.S. annually (Abortion). Recently, many legislators have been lobbying to get Roe vs. Suzy was eighteen years old and was about to Wade overturned. South Dakota has banned nearly start a new chapter in her life. She had a full-ride all abortions, setting the stage for pro-life advocates academic scholarship to attend the University of to challenge the law. According to the Planned Hawai’i, where she planned to major in nursing. Parenthood Federation of America there are ten other Suzy’s life was going exactly the way she had planned states considering abortion bans (CNN). it--go to college, become a nurse, meet the perfect At the center of the abortion controversy lies man, and then start a family when she was around the question of when human life begins. This one twenty-five. That’s when her doctor told her the question could swing the pendulum in favor of either startling news, “Suzy, you’re pregnant.” Suzy was side. So much of the debate rages over the question very active in her church and had always been against of personhood. Conservatives say that life begins at abortion but she never thought she would be put into conception, the union of sperm and ovum. Liberals this situation. Suzy was mad, scared and sad all at argue that for the fetus to be considered a person the same time. She thought to herself, “How could it must be able to survive on its own, having both this have happened to me? I still have dreams and consciousness and self-consciousness. America seems other things I want to accomplish. What am I going to be at a standstill on this issue. President Bush, to do?” This is the same issue that faces thousands of along with many churches, believes that life begins at American women each year, Abortion. conception, making abortion immoral. On the other In the United States there has not always been side, many liberals and feminists believe that life an abortion controversy. Laurence Tribe writes that doesn’t begin until birth. This makes abortion just the in post-Revolution America, abortions were allowed removal of “a ball of cells”. and not uncommon (Tribe 28). It wasn’t until 1821 I believe that “personhood” is subjective. It that Connecticut prohibited abortions, though only does not have one definitive definition. Therefore, abortions induced by dangerous poisons. The anti- personhood is based on what each individual defines abortion movement did not gain speed until the it as. In this sense, abortion cannot be placed in black mid 1800’s. It was actually physicians who began to and white terms. By examining each side of the oppose abortion. Tribe says that this was because argument one is able to create their own definition of there was an increase in untrained doctors promising abortion, making it moral or immoral in their mind. miraculous abortions. Physicians wanted to protect Anti-abortionists often argue that all forty-six women and stop competition from untrained health chromosomes are present at conception, creating the providers (Tribe 30). It wasn’t until this time that fetuses blueprint for its entire life. From that point America’s view on abortion began to change. In 1869, forward the fetus will go through different stages and Pope Pius IX declared abortions immoral, bringing develop into an adult. Stephen Scharz writes that a the Roman Catholic Church into the controversy. child in the womb is the same person as when he is According to Tribe, in less than two decades over born and when he is a teenager and an adult. He has forty antiabortion laws were passed in the U.S. (Tribe just changed and is in different stages of development 34). (Scharz 32). The fetus is a person from the time when The abortion controversy began to gain speed two haploid cells (the sperm and egg) unite to create in the 1950’s. This was due in part to advances a human being. These anti-abortionists argue that by in the medical field that were making abortions killing the fetus one is murdering a human in its first and pregnancies safer. Women of this time were stage of development. also beginning to enter the work force. As many Other pro-life advocates such as Landrum women began their careers, they didn’t have time for Shettles and David Rorvik, argue that the fetus is pregnancy, so they started the pro abortion argument. a potential life (Rorvik 18). Within every cell there 4 is DNA, and after conception the zygote will have no reason a women’s choice to do what she wishes. inherited its own individual, unique DNA. From Oliver uses the example of a building. He says this, the zygote’s genotype will be established, imagine if a building was about to be demolished which Shettles and Rorvik say is the “most decisive but a few onlookers said they think they saw a circumstance that makes you who you are (Rorvik boy in the window. Halting the demolition would 18).” Conception starts the series of events that leads cost the company millions of dollars but they of up to and ends in a childs birth. The fetus is able to course would stop to investigate (Oliver). This is use its DNA to direct and mature itself into a person. called the Precautionary Principle, which states By making the fetus a potential human, one would that if the consequences of an action are unknown, be killing something that will on its own become a but are judged to have some potential for major or person. irreversible negative consequences, then it is better Pro-abortionists may argue that if the fetus is to avoid that action (Precautionary Principle). With a potential life then wouldn’t a sperm or egg be abortions, there is the possibility that a human life considered a potential life? As Donald DeMarco will be irreversibly damaged, so it is best to avoid the writes, gametes are not able to direct themselves action. into development (DeMarco). So they would not be Pro-abortionists have always argued that considered a potential life because they would need to for personess to be granted, the fetus must show be able to direct their own growth into an individual. conciousness and selfconciousness. Frank Zindler As Shettles and Rorvik write, they are only parts that states that even though fetuses move, show sensitivity make up human life, not human life itself (Rorvik 19). to pain and have a heartbeat and brainwaves, this Steven Schwartz concludes that since the fetus does not mean they are persons, because earthworms guides itself into forming a child it can’t be considered have the same characteristics (Zindler 26). The just “a bunch of cells”. Nothing new gets added while difference is conciousness, but as Michael Bettencourt the fetus is forming that gives it “personhood” so, the decribes, conciousness is not easily defined but is fetus already has personhood (Schwartz 33). There easily seen in the absence. Someone who has lost is no place to draw the line to say “here is where conciousness, who is unable to see and interact with personhood was added.” The person is already in the world, or see his place in the world, is quite easily the womb by the fact that at no place does something pointed out (Bettencourt 38). While the fetus does special like personhood get added. show signs of life, it does not show conciousness until Religion takes a deep look at the Bible for help after birth. Therefore, it cannot be given the same in the abortion controversy. The Bible does not rights as a person is given. specifically refer to anything about abortion but many Pro-abortion scientists argue that based on inferences can be made. Anti-abortionist often turn studying exceptions in the development of zygotes, to Psalm 139:13-16 where David tells God “For you one cannot give a fetus personhood. If personhood created my inmost being; you knit me together in is considered from the time of conception, what do my mother’s womb (Holy Bible, Psalm 139:13-16).” we make of twins? They start off from one cell but This verse implies that God creates a person in the split to from two distinct individuals. Does this mother’s womb. The Bible often refers to the fetus as mean that the twins are one person? As Dr. Milby child or man which gives the fetus personhood. In describes, cloning could give an example on why Luke 1:15 the Bible says “he will be filled with the a fetus cannot be considered a person. Based on Holy Spirit even from birth [or from his mother’s cloning, it has been proven that it is not only a zygote womb] (Holy Bible, Luke 1:15).” This verse says that that can support the development of a person; almost even in the women’s womb the fetus is filled with the any kind of cell with the normal chromosomes is Holy Spirit. Throughout the Bible many inferences able to do the same (Milby). Another example could can be made that God creates the fetus as a person, be parthenogenesis, which is the development of an giving the fetus personhood from conception. organism from a haploid cell. Milby describes that In his article Deciding Abortion Daniel Oliver parthenogenesis has been induced and observed in looks at abortion from a different point of view by a variety of animals from lizards to rabbits (Milby). saying: What if we allow abortions and the fetus is If a fetus is given personhood because it is able to a person, and what if we ban abortion but the fetus develop into a person, then even haploid cells such as isn’t a person (Oliver)? If we allow abortion but an ovum should be given peronshood rights. Finally, the fetus is a person then we have just committed Dr. Milby describes a unique event called chimera, murder. On the other hand if we ban abortion but where two fertilized eggs become one (Milby). The the fetus is not a person then we have obstructed for only explanation is that the fetus is not yet a person
5 because two people cannot join to become one. with the world and are thus not people. They possess Through twins, parthenogenesis, and chimera, Dr. a layout of a possible personality but are not a Milby describes how a fetus cannot be considered a definitive individual. The individual comes from the person. constant relationship with the outside world and is John Robertson takes time to break down and not something written purely in genes. justify Roe vs. Wade in his piece Gestational Burdons Often, anti-abortionists will agree that abortions and Fetal Status: Justitying Roe vs. Wade. He talks about should be allowed only if the mothers’ life is how if a fetus were protected under the fourteenth endangered by the pregnancy. As Zindler points amendment, then they would be given the same out, agreeing to this is admitting that the fetus is less right to live as a person. Even by giving the fetus important than the women who is carrying it (Zindler the rights of a person, it would not give it the right 29). Just by saying that one is able to sacrifice the to the body of another person (Robertson). The right fetus to save the women, they are implying that the to use the body of another person can only come fetus holds less status than the woman. On the other from a willing candidate. According to Robertson, hand, by saying abortions should not be allowed even sexual intercourse does not constitute willingness for to save a woman’s life, then they are saying that a gestation, even though the risk of procreation exists woman is not worth more than a single cell (Zindler (Robertson). Fetuses then, should not be given the 29). status of personhood until they are viable. Both pro-lifers and pro-abortionists make some The Bible can also be used to support the strong points about the validity of their claims, pro-abortionist movement. The most convincing touching on different aspects from science, religion, argument comes from Exodus 21:22 where the Bible morality, and ethics. As one can see, proving one talks about what happens if men are fighting and hit right and one wrong is not easy. If we take a look a pregnant woman, causing a miscarriage. The Bible at what science can tell us about abortion we find says that if there is no serious injury [to the women] out that at around one month into the pregnancy then the offender must be fined whatever the husband the fetus’s heart, digestive organs, spinal cord and asks, but if there is serious injury [to the women] then backbone begin to develop. After three months the one must take an “eye for an eye, tooth for tooth, fetus starts to become recognizable as human. Its hand for hand,...”(Holy Bible, Exodus 21:22). This arms, legs, fingers, and toes are fully formed and most implies that the woman is worth more than the fetus. organs and tissues are developed. At around five The first part of the statement says that if a woman months the fetus begins to develop reflexes such as loses her baby but is not hurt, it becomes civil matter, sucking and swallowing. The sex is identifiable and with payment being what the husband asks. The the mother is able to feel the fetus moving. At eight second part of the statement talks about if the women months the fetus will be able to survive outside of the is killed or hurt, then the man who killed her must be body but would need very special care. Most organs killed. This puts the womens life in greater value than are well developed. In this stage there will be a great that of the fetus. deal of brain growth. At nine months the fetus is fully Often, anti-abortionists will argue that the fetus formed and is ready for brith (Fetal Development). feels pain and they will try to show pictures of It appears that these steps will not tell us anything aborted fetuses. As Bettencourt argues, this does unless we have a definition of personhood to begin nothing but reason with our ability to sympathize with. Science is not definitive on when a fetus gains (Bettencourt 40). Pro-abortionists even say that personhood. fetuses don’t have a well enough developed cerebral If science cannot give an answer on whether cortex to feel pain until at least the 4th month. or not a fetus is a person then maybe religion can Even then, it’s not until after birth that the nervous tell us. The Bible implies many times that the fetus connections and sensory inputs register pain. Before is considered a child or person. While many anti- that the fetus’s actions are reflexive. These tactics are abortionists may argue that this gives the fetus full used to try to get us to develop strong emotional ties and equal rights as a person, the Bible also contradicts with the fetus, but do not have any facts supporting itself by saying that the fetus’s life is worth less than them. the mothers. The fetuses’ life should be worth the In opposition of Shettles and Rorvik, Bettencourt same as the womens if it were a person. Surely, denies genes being “the most important thing in I would like to have the same right to live as my determining who you are.” He says that awareness mother. comes from constant negotiation with the world After examining both science and religion one still (Bettencourt 38). Fetuses are not able to negotiate is unable to conclude definitively when personhood
6 begins. Morality or ethics may be able to provide us and ones own interest and desires. Some social with the answer. Pro-life advocates state that human factors could include the ability to work with others, life begins at conception, so murdering a fetus would sympathize, love, encourage, and value the interest of be equal to murdering a human life. But, as Jane others (English 45). This list is not complete. It could English points out, self-defense can be a justified also be argued that just because one does not possess means to take a human life (English 44). So, not all some of these traits, they are not necessarily inhuman taking of human lives are considered immoral. On or it could be argued that just possessing a majority the other side pro-choice advocates argue that since of these traits does not make one human. Are people the fetus is not a person, a women should be able to who do not possess arms or legs, or who are blind do what she pleases. Jane English argues that, even if or have a psychological disease not considered a the fetus is not a person that does not mean that one person? Or could a robot with exceptional artificial is able to do as one pleases with it. For example, even intelligence be considered a person? As one is able though animals are not people, it is wrong to kill and to see, our definition of personhood can vary greatly torture them (English 44). Morality and ethics also depending on the situation. appear to be giving us two answers to our question. In the case in my introduction, Suzy will have Examining our definition of a person could give to examine deep within herself to see what she us a start on where personhood begins. Some general believes makes up a person. Judging abortion moral conditions could be: descendent from humans, having or immoral can only come from one’s definition of a certain type of DNA, having hands feet, head, arms, personhood. As you can see this is a very complicated and eyes. There are also psychological factors such definition to come up with. Therefore, the choice as conciousness, perception, ability to use language, should be left up for the individual to decide what a signals, ability to use tools, having a concept of self person is. The law should not be the one making this decision.
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WORKS CITED Life Begins at Conception.” Abortion: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1991: “Abortion Statistics.” Minnesota State University 17-22. Morehead. 3 April 2006
Bettencourt, Michael. “The Fetus is Not a Person.” “South Dakota Bans Most Abortions.” CNN. 3 Abortion: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: April 2006
DeMarco, Donald. “The Zygote and Personhood.” Tribe, Laurence. “Abortion: The Clash of Absolutes.” Human Life Review. Spring/Summer 2002, New York: Norton, 1990. Vol.26, Issue 2/3. EBSCO Host. U of Hawai’i at Hilo Lib. 25 March 2006
Holy Bible: New International Version. Colorado Springs: International Bible Society, 1984.
Milby, T. H. “The New Biology and the Question of Personhood: Implications for Abortion.” American Journal of Law and Medicine. Spring 1983, Vol. 9, No. 1: 31-41. EBSCO Host. U of Hawai’i at Hilo Lib. 25 March 2006 < http:// search.epnet.com>.
Oliver, Daniel. “Deciding Abortion.” National Review. May 9 2005: 25. EBSCO Host. U of Hawai’i at Hilo Lib. 25 March 2006 < http:// search.epnet.com>.
“Precautionary Principle.” Wikipedia. 4 April 2006
Robertson, John. “Gestational Burdens and Fetal Status: Justifying Roe v. Wade.” American Journal of Law and Medicine. 1987, Vol. 13, Issue 2/3: 189. EBSCO Host. U of Hawai’i at Hilo Lib. 25 March 2006 < http://search.epnet.com>.
Rorvik, David, and Shettles, Landrum. “Human
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the people in it. Moving about in our natural An Etymology of Four environment, we learn and grow and cultivate new ways of understanding. It seems logical then, that English Words, a natural law like evolution would also apply to the nature of language. Second, the study of etymology, With reference to both Grimm’s Law, and Verner’s Law demonstrate the principals of natural selection as defined by Darwin. Grimm’s Law and If word changes (including variations in spelling, pronunciation, and meaning) are useful, they are Verner’s Law preserved and passed down. Let’s look now at four individual words and how changes have evolved (or by Piper Seldon not, depending on usefulness) over time. The English word dollar was changed and What do birds and etymology have in common? borrowed from the original High German thaler, Quite a lot, I’ve recently discovered. Charles recorded in 1540 from the original Joachimstaler as Darwin’s The Origin of the Species is perhaps one a silver mine in Bohemia (“Dollar” Etymological). of the most important and influential books in Thaler or taler in High German became daler in Low history. When it was published in London in 1859, German and was modified to dollar in England before it introduced a revolutionary way of thinking about 1600. The word’s basic useful meaning has changed natural changes, evolution (Darwin 1st ed). Case little over time, mostly relating to a type of monetary in point: Darwin suggests in his book that fourteen currency. The dollar was adopted with the decimal distinct but closely related species of finch in the system of coinage for the United States in 1785 and is Galapagos Islands most likely evolved from a single still used today. Thaler or taler to daler then dollar is ancestral species. Beaks of the different birds evolved also a nice example of Verner’s Law showing a clear as needed to suit changing form and function for progression from the original voiceless th sound to a the individual, like seed cracking or nectar sipping voiced d (“Dollar” OED). (Darwin, re-1st ed. 75-80). That said, get ready for Gay in the English language is a word that has a leap: could language, which has certain organic undergone an interesting evolution in meaning characteristics, be subject to a similar process of and possibly pronunciation; I would argue it has evolution? I believe that etymology, the study of the been adapted for individual needs, like the beaks origin of words and their changes over time, points of Darwin’s finches. The word has many forms, the way to natural selection, as do the laws of Grimm including the French gai, Provencal gai or guai, and Verner, which govern sound shifts in Indo- Old Spanish gayo, Portugese gaio, and Italian gajo; European languages (Baugh 21-22). So, I’m going however, the etymology is ultimately unknown. out on a limb with the finches to say that language Experts disagree, but the word gay may originate undergoes a form of natural selection. While from wâhi, an Old High German word meaning pretty speculative, I believe the assertion is a reasonable one. (“Gay” OED), not obvious as an example of Grimm’s Darwin explains his theory of evolution by way or Verner’s Laws. Another possibility is from German of natural selection in this way: “I have called this gehen meaning “to go” (“Gay” Etymological), which principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is sounds a bit like gay. In 1310, the word was first preserved, by the term Natural Selection” (Darwin, described as joyful. By 1350, it was poetic praise re-1st ed. 109). It’s a fine scientific theory, but how for women; both Chaucer and Shakespeare use the could this concept apply to language? First, I will word this way. Gay took a stronger meaning by argue that language is organic-growing, changing, 1637 as “addicted to social pleasures... [or] of loose and evolving over time. If a language doesn’t grow, or immoral life.” Used in slang, it could also be it may eventually die out and become extinct, also a used to describe prostitution. While the word is still part of Darwin’s equation (Darwin, re-1st ed. 80). The sometimes used to describe joyfulness, it has evolved phenomenon of language is organic because human into today’s most common meaning: homosexual (of beings are dynamic creatures. As a communication person or place). Common meanings mostly revolve system, language is a reflection of culture and around bright/lively and homosexual, possibly 9 playing off stereotypes involving “showy” dress, a growing languages to reflect culture. I think Charles flamboyant manner, or perceived loose morals (“Gay” Darwin would be pleased that some 147 years after OED). the publication of his book The Origin of the Species, The word horn is a nice example of Grimm’s a fourth-year English student who studied natural Law and a natural movement suggesting a common science in the fall of 2006 would not only remember Teutonic (Germanic) ancestry: Old English horn, Old Darwin’s Law of natural selection, but find a practical Frisian/Old Saxon horn, and Old High German/ application for it in the field of her choosing-the Old Norse horn (“Horn” OED). According to The English language. And it proves one thing more: Oxford English Dictionary, Old Teutonic horno- is evolution is not just for the birds. also cognate with Latin cornu, as well as Celtic corn, and related to the Greek κερ-ας or κερ-ατ (“Horn” Etymological). This relation illustrates Grimm’s Works Cited voiceless k changing to a fricative h. Cornu to horno can be seen in the related terms “horn of plenty” Baugh, Albert, and Thomas Cable. A History of the and cornucopia, meaning something (often a horn- English Language. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River: shaped object) overflowing with abundance (“Horn” Prentice Hall, 2002. 21-22. OED). Most meanings for the word horn are related to a bony growth on the head of certain animals, first “Dale.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. described in year 1000. Perhaps the origin comes from the Greek root kar, which means “hard” (“Horn” “Dale” Skeat, Walter Rev. An Etymological Etymological). Different horn sayings and phrases Dictionary of the English language. Oxford: relate mostly to the bony growth, things made with or Clarendon Press, 1898. resembling an animal horn (including instruments), and difficult or firm things. The Oxford English Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means Dictionary lists an instrument attached to motor of Natural Selection. 1st ed. London: John vehicles, a great undertaking, and an erect penis as Murray, Albemarle Street, 1859. examples (“Horn” OED). The English word dale is my final example of an Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means evolving word. It is another example of Verner’s of Natural Selection. re-1st ed.. New York: Law: thal to dal and dale; the original voiceless th Gramercy Books, 1979. 75-190. sound has evolved to a voiced d. Similar forms of the word show common Teutonic relation: Old Saxon “Dollar.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. dal, Old Frisian del, Old Norse dalr, and German thal. 1989. The OED says: “As used in ME [Middle English] the native word appears to have been reinforced from the “Dollar” Skeat, Walter Rev. An Etymological Norse, for it is in the north that the word is a living Dictionary of the English language. Oxford: geographical name (“Dale” OED). The first notation Clarendon Press, 1898. of the word comes early, in the year 893 (“Dale” OED). There are several meanings for the word “Gay.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. dale. The first grouping has much to do with land, particularly valley spaces. Other seemingly unrelated “Gay” Skeat, Walter Rev. An Etymological Dictionary meanings relate to pronunciation and a type of tube of the English language. Oxford: Clarendon or drain. Press, 1898. Looking at individual words, their relationships, changes, and general evolution, one can postulate that “Horn.” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. Darwin’s effect may be seen in the field of linguistics, 1989. as well as the biological sciences. Just as Darwin noted several species of birds that likely came from “Horn” Skeat, Walter Rev. An Etymological an ancestral species, we can suggest that words like Dictionary of the English language. Oxford: dollar, horn, and dale come from a shared Germanic- Clarendon Press, 1898. language ancestor. Just as the beaks of different finches changed over time to suit the changing needs of individuals, so we see words like gay that This paper was written for English 320, History of changed to meet the dynamic, changing needs of the English Language.
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Those in the scientific and educational fields Artifacts and Native include archaeologists like David Forbes, museums such as the Smithsonian, field researchers and Burial Rights: Where teaching institutions including the University of Hawai’i at Hilo. Most, if not all, support the removal Do We Draw the Line? of buried remains for use in a setting other than their intended purpose and actively participate in by Jacqueline Van Blarcon the obtainment and storage of such artifacts. They support the removal of such buried remains to a Throughout human history we have gone above location outside of the item’s native environment. and beyond to bury our dead and have made extreme These scientists seek to be “inspired by studying efforts to honor them in life and death. For example, and seeing ancient remains and cultural artifacts” the Chinese ritually bathe the corpse and make food (Conklin 3). As a community, scientists act upon the offerings to the deceased, the tribes of Scotland notion “that the end (education) justifies the means buried men with their swords and finalized the burial (removal of buried items)” (Nihipali B1) and feel that with a pyre above the grave, and Native Americans everyone can benefit from experiencing these buried honor the deceased with ceremonial chanting and relics. dancing. The practice of showing respect for the dead Entrepreneurs include two types of individuals: transcends race, nation and religion. Death is a life entrepreneurs themselves and investors. process that affects us all and the practices of many Entrepreneurs intentionally seek out relics in order cultures can attest to the importance of keeping death to make a living by selling the items to the highest sacred for the individual as well as the collected. bidder. An investor, in this case, is the highest bidder. With the advent of human migration across He or she is the individual who intentionally seeks the globe, many groups have found favorable out relics in order to buy them for personal reasons. environments where others have previously been. In Robert Hicks’ “Time Crime: protecting the past in With this trend and the growth of the human the United States,” federal law enforcement officials population, it is inevitable that remains of those who have reported monetary amounts of up to $400, 000 passed on will be left behind and found by those paid for procured buried remains. In either case, each who follow. What to do with these remains and what of the two individuals involved in such transactions amount of “respect” constitutes proper action is a have “no interest in history and see these items solely recent dilemma in burial culture and protocol. Should as commodities that can be bought and sold at a secondary groups be allowed to remove or relocate profit” (Hicks). The buried remains of any culture buried remains? For those who already have removed is seen by this party as a means for personal and such remains, should these items be repartitioned to financial gain. their original place of rest, to the families who claim “Culturalists” are individuals who hold cultural, them or are the current possessors of these remains historical and family ties to buried remains. They the true owners of these items? work to protect not only the relics themselves, but the It is human nature to dispute an issue and those sites in which they are found and the integrity of the involved always have a personal agenda that can practices that keep these items sacred. Hui Malama either coincide with the group mission or upset is one such group founded in the Hawaiian isles to the overall agenda of the population. In the case protect the lost heritage of Hawai’i’s people. They, of buried remains, personal agendas can generally just as others who are part of this “culturalists” group, be deduced according to the affiliation of the party strive to prevent the desecration of sites significant to involved. There are several “parties” that currently cultural practices and seek to reclaim their culture and participate in these disputes about buried relics; and, ancestors from individuals (scientist/entrepreneurs) for the purposes of this paper will be referred to as who have taken these remains. the following: the scientist, the entrepreneur, and the As a community, each of these groups interacts “culturalist”. Each of these parties has a different view with the other within the boundaries of current on what the outcome of “recovered” relics should be society and the interpretation of the law dictates and all parties actively defend their positions. the outcome of the buried remains in question. It is 11 a crime to take something that does not belong to These requirements include all ancient relics and you, so in the case of buried relics, to whom do they pieces of cultural significance to many groups around belong? Addressing ownership is a complicated the world. However, this act is like a double edged matter. These buried remains have obviously sword; it cuts both ways. This document not only belonged to someone in the past and it is a crime to protects included relics, but also allows for the legal disturb them now. However, “the high prices attached removal and distribution of these items under the to some artifacts on the commercial market inevitably provisions of the APRA’s guidelines. Reprimanding invites criminality” (Hicks). The entrepreneur is key individuals for the desecration of remains is one in this market and facilitates the removal, buying and thing, but allowing them to do so if they follow selling of artifacts across the globe. When this occurs, guidelines still ends up with the same outcome, the a part of history has been stolen and the historical and desecration of the objects, the site in which they came cultural information these artifacts contain could be from and the cultures/religions they represent. lost forever. Desecration, by definition, is the deliberate The issue of ownership is a deficient quandry in damage of something sacred or the action of doing itself, but the procurement of these items in the first something offensive to the religious nature of an place raises an even greater concern. The process of object or person. The burial practices of many securing buried remains and artifacts itself incurs religions and cultures are considered sacred. Many the disturbance of the items’ initial place of rest. cultural practices involve intricate rituals that are According to state law: meant to ensure the spiritual well being of the deceased individual and all those with whom they A person who removes the dead body of interacted. Hawaiians held such beliefs and found a human being, or any part thereof from a the bones of a deceased individual to be of the utmost grave, vault, or other place, where the same priority in keeping protected: has been buried, or from a place where the same has been deposited while awaiting Traditional Native Hawaiians believed na burial, without authority of law, with intent to iwi (the bones) to be the primary physical sell the same, or for the purpose of dissection, embodiment of a person. Following death, or for the purpose of procuring a reward only na iwi were considered sacred, for for the return of the same, or from malice or within the bones resided the person’s mana wantonness, is guilty of a felony. (New York (spiritual essence)…Traditional Hawaiian State Cemetery Board) belief maintains that it is the kuleana (responsibility) of the living to care for and To disturb an area of burial is considered an act of to protect ‘ohana burial sites… thereby desecration punishable by law. Consider why it is maintaining the integrity of the family. socially and legally acceptable to take artifacts from (Ayau) King Tutankhamen tomb yet, to uncover the remains of any individual in any cemetery is a felony? Hawaiians and Native Americans are at the center In 1979 the Archaeological Resources Protection of the battle of buried remains, trying to recover Act was created to provide boundaries for removal what has already been taken and working to protect of buried remains and to set laws in place to protect what is still left. A major snag in this entire process the excavation and distribution of “recovered” buried is museum possession of cultural relics and the items. To be a “protected resource” under the APRA, museum’s function as a resource and educational items must fulfill the following requirements: center for the general public. Museums were established as early as the Objects must constitute evidence of past late1600’s to the early 1700’s--long before any of these human existence, possess archaeological laws were put into place. So the items they contain interest (not archaeological significance), and within their walls seem to fall under a separate be over 100 years old. Objects, or resources, category from recent findings of buried relics. Do are broadly defined to include not only relics current laws apply to past actions? In a recent case such as pottery, tools or shipwrecks, but also concerning the findings of the famous cave explorer, rock art, skeletal remains, features of houses David Forbes, Hawaiians artifacts found by Forbes of other constructions, and even vegetal were in the possession of the Bishop Museum and remains or organic waste. (Hicks) loaned to individuals of the Native Hawaiian activist group Hui Malama. This group in turn chose to
12 rebury these articles, after due process, and are now it is to see that the initial decision is realized currently in the limelight for an issue that plagues and respected. (Nihipali B2) many native people; what can be done to reclaim the artifacts of their past ? The disturbance of remains has added a new chapter History, in all its forms, is a significant key to to our history and will forever change the future connecting us to our heritage and is crucial in helping outcome of decisions made about this issue. It has also to provide wisdom that will allow us to assure directly altered the education of future generations. progress in our future. Walking the fine line between The current process of repatriation is a journey of using artifacts for education and the desecration learning. It is my hope that we can walk away with of the items sanctity will continually be an issue a new and positive outlook on what has and is that plagues our society. Future disputes and past happening so that we can benefit from what we have remains will come hand-in-hand into the world of experienced in our current situation. cultural knowledge and experience; however it can be a process that is both functional and respectful for both the scientific and cultural community. The Works Cited Smithsonian Institution’s new National Museum of the American Indian is one such example of harmony Ayau, Edward Halealoha. “Native Burials: Human between the two groups. They have found a way to Rights and Sacred Bones.” Cultural Survival. 7 merge both the cultural sacredness of artifacts with June 21
It is encouraging to see such progress being achieved Roach, John. “At New American Indian Museum, in the culmination of past and present knowledge. Artifacts are ‘Alive’.” National Geographic Perhaps this is a preview of future relations between News. 21 Sept 2004. 19 Nov 2006.
It is not for us, who live at this time, to decide the fate of these objects. The decision was This paper was written for English 100. made long ago when the personal items were placed in the cave…our function is simple;
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viridis, a member of the coffee family, is added to the Ayahuasca: Earth’s ayahuasca before it is boiled (67). These additives can be localized depending on the country of the Wisdom Revealed particular tribe. A common dose of the boiled brew is about an ounce and a half, with the effects lasting by Jennifer Francisco three to four hours. Schultes also notes that if one is using the cold water infusion, a larger dose is taken The noted ethnologist Mircea Eliade poetically because it is less concentrated (126). The effects of the describes shamans as “technicians of the sacred” brew are, of course, different for every person. because they mediate between the world of mortals The main effect of the ayahuasca brew is visions. and spirits. “Shaman” is the term for an Indian tribal These are preceded by feelings of nausea, happiness, leader that actually performs a number of functions and anxiety (“Botanical” 151). These visions occur for the tribe including artist, healer, magician, priest, in color, ranging from reds and oranges to blues and and storyteller. One of their most important jobs greens. The visions are said to show the partaker the is leading ritual ceremonies wherein nature spirits history of our existence; the first humans and animals, and ancestors are contacted to advise members of the gods, and the development of our social structure. the tribe. These rituals often involve mind-altering Plants of the Gods states that many partakers speak of plants as well as chanting, dancing, and drumming. seeing visions of snakes and jaguars, or tigers. These These experiences are lucid because the shaman and animals are the most respected animals of the area, the participants are aware during the experience due to their power and the fear they instill in the and can later recall its events. The shamans of the people of the jungle. These animals are commonly western Amazon basin use a plant called ayahuasca seen during ayahuasca trips, so much in fact, that during these ceremonies. The role of ayahuasca in this phenomenon has been studied by psychologists the shamanistic ceremonies of the Amazon basin is (Schultes, Hofmann, and Ratsch 126). Depending on to guide the participants to another realm where they the plant additive used in the brew, the visions may can be healed spiritually, emotionally, and mentally. be longer, more vivid, and in different ranges of color Ayahuasca, “vine of the soul”, is a vine that (129). grows in northwestern South America, mainly in The shaman’s job, when conducting this the Amazon basin of Peru and Brazil (Kavlin). In ceremony for a group of people, is to guide them in Plants of the Gods, Richard Schultes identifies the finding the answer they seek. A tribe member might two species of Banisteriopsis that are most widely come into the ceremony needing the remedy for an used for their psychedelic qualities: B. caapi and B. illness, solutions to family or personal problems, or inebrians respectively. Both species of vine climb the simply the location of a lost or stolen object. The trees of the tropical rainforest and are known to kill participant often works through very deep emotional their supporters in the battle for sunlight. The vine issues, sometimes causing him to cry or scream. If is usually light chocolate brown and smooth with the partaker approaches the ceremony with selfish, a diameter of up to six inches at the base. Its small greedy purposes or has been dealing with addiction, pink flowers, rarely seen, are found only in the sun he might experience intense visions of an object he (Schultes, Hofmann, and Ratsch 36). The bark is fears, such as spiders or demons. The shaman will made into a tea that is consumed at the beginning of help participants when faced with these things. the ceremony. The shaman can also provide assistance if The preparation of this ayahuasca tea is of the someone is physically sick during the ceremony. It utmost importance as it affects the intensity of the is common for one to vomit or have serious diarrhea experience for its partakers. Schultes mentions that after ingesting the ayahuasca brew as it is a foreign the brew is made mostly of the vine part of the plant; substance in the body (“Botanical” 151). The shaman it is cut into six inch pieces. The bark is pounded or will usually take a lesser dose of the brew to avoid shaved off and boiled for hours, sometimes even a getting sick himself so that he can be more involved full day. Another method is to soak the bark pieces in the ceremony itself. When alone, the shaman will in cold water for a day (Schultes, Hofmann, and take large doses to enhance his own learning and Ratsch 126). Sometimes another plant, Psychotria teaching abilities. 14 The shaman strives to provide a meaningful focus supernatural worlds are connected and dependant and a safe container for the psychedelic experience on each other; they are unified. When one learns the (Kavlin). Timothy Leary’s set and setting hypothesis perspective of the plant, one is inherently healed and applies to Kavlin’s statement. Leary’s hypothesis is strives to find solutions to his problems as well as that the psychedelic experience is a function of the those of our earth. There are many paths one can take set (the person’s intention, expectations, and basic when approaching self-healing and spirituality, and personality) and the setting (the immediate physical one of these is ayahuasca. and social environment). This is why the shaman’s job is crucial to the ceremonial experience; he supplies a good setting for the ayahuasca to take its full effect Works Cited on the patient. The shaman can also use mantras or guided visualizations to guide participants back to “Botanical Sources of the New World Narcotics.” The their focus. Psychedelic Review Nov. 1965:147-153. Oct. 2003 There are several key elements to these shamanic
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anthropogenic threats, undoubtedly taking their Beak of the Fish: What fascinating and irreplaceable stories about evolution Cichlid Flocks Reveal with them. East African Great Lakes and Their Cichlid Flocks About Speciation Like Darwin’s finches that were isolated on islands, flocks of cichlid fishes have also undergone Processes adaptive radiations within insular habitats: the Great Lakes of East Africa. These tropical lakes are among by Holly Jessop the largest lakes in the world, reaching depths of 1500-m and areas of about 69,000-km2. Fortuitously, Introduction differences in geologic origins, features, and ages The finches of the Galapagos Islands greatly are useful when studying the evolution of endemic influenced Charles Darwin’s formative ideas on cichlid fishes. Of the three lakes, Lake Tanganyika natural selection and its connections with speciation. is the oldest (forming 9-12 million years ago) and Today, the adaptive radiation evident in the beaks of deepest. This lake of 34,000-km2 hosts twelve flocks those fourteen different species of birds continues to of cichlids that have radiated into about 250 species. provide the classic textbook example of evolution in The other deep rift lake, Lake Malawi, is about the action. However, if the creation of a mere fourteen same size but is younger (formed 1-2 million years different species has been instructive, then an ago). This intermediate lake hosts about a thousand explosive creation of well over a thousand should species that have all radiated from just one flock reveal a great deal more about speciation processes. ancestor. The youngest (750,000 years old), largest, The fish family Cichlidae provides such a case: these and most shallow, Lake Victoria hosts about 500 fish have evolved thousands of new species within species that have also emanated from one cichlid their insular lake homes, and furthermore have flock. (Barlow 2000; Salzburger et al. 2005). Since the done so on extremely rapid time scales. Indeed, their greater depths of the lakes lack oxygen, cichlids are explosive and rapid cladogenesis has made cichlids confined to the surface layers and shallow benthic the greatest extant vertebrate radiation known. The habitats of the lakes. These habitats are characterized young evolutionary age of cichlids also provides a by sandy bottoms punctuated with patches of rocky window into the earliest stages of diversification, such outcroppings. (Barlow 2000). that speciation may be studied as an ongoing process of change. Moreover, the recent multitude of species Cichlid Species: A Kaleidoscope of Form and Color within the cichlid family provides an opportunity to The species composing the cichlid flocks of look for patterns in speciation processes. Such studies these East African Great Lakes possess a bounty of have suggested a three-stage pattern underlying variation in both form and color. Indeed, these fish speciation that may be generally applicable to the are prized for their beauty and interesting diversity, evolutionary origins of many other vertebrate species and as such, are popular with aquarium hobbyists. (Danley & Kocher 2001; Streelman & Danley 2003). The visual scenes within the lakes are themselves Of special interest is the stage of evolution in which reminiscent of aquaria with swarms of colorful fish in different feeding structures arise among these fishes, a myriad of hues and shapes. With this abundance of particularly since parallels exist between the beaks similar fish fauna, species and their phylogenies have of Darwin’s finches and the jaws of cichlids. Modern been difficult to determine, using only morphology genetic techniques are responsible for insight into and color characteristics; are similarly shaped but this three-step pattern, and are increasingly being differently colored fish morphs of the same or used to further uncover the detail in the processes different species? Behavioral differences in feeding responsible for the remarkable diversity of cichlids. strategies and reproduction often clarified these Unfortunately, even as cichlids are just beginning determinations: fish that looked similar but fed, to provide the post-Darwinian age with highly mated, or reared young differently were considered valuable insights into the mechanisms of evolutionary separate species (Genner & Turner 2005). However, change, these fish are being rapidly destroyed by modern molecular techniques that examine genetic 16 characteristics have recently provided an additional Not only did cichlids in the Great Lakes means by which cichlid diversification can be explosively and rapidly diversify, they also separately described and evolutionary relationships discovered. converged into very similar morphologies. Figure 2 For example, Meyer et al. (1990) found no overlaps illustrates several cichlids from Lakes Tanganyika in the mitochondrial DNA types of 14 cichlid species and Malawi that share similar body forms and engage from Lake Victoria; they concluded that these fish in parallel lifestyles. Studies prior to Meyer et al. were not merely alternative morphs of one species. (1990) argued that such cichlids were polyphyletic: That is, their classification as separate species was these outwardly similar fish from different lakes justifiable given their unique genetic characters. Now, were derived from different ancestral lines, and in cichlid species are regularly defined using genetic turn were most closely related to each other. Instead, characters, in addition to information on morphology, the advent of molecular phylogenetic studies have color, and behavioral traits (Turner et al. 2001; Genner repeatedly shown that these cichlid radiations have & Turner 2005). occurred separately, each within their own lake basin (Meyer et al. 1990, Kocher et al. 1993, Meyer 1993, Origins: Out of Lake Tanganyika Comes Explosive, Nagl et al. 2000, Verheyan et al. 2003, Salzburger et Rapid, and Parallel Evolution al. 2005). For example, the uniquely fleshy lips of the Remarkably, nearly all of the cichlid species in Placidochromis fishes of Lake Malawi arose separately the East African Great Lakes are endemic. Moreover, from the fleshy lips of the Lobochilotes cichlids of Lake none of these cichlid species are shared between Tanganyika; Placidochromis are more closely related the lakes despite belonging to the same family to their own proximate Lake Malawi flocks than to (Salzburger et al. 2005). Since they share numerous their albeit morphologically similar cousins of Lake similarities, an understanding of how these fish are Tanganyika. Even within the same lake, these fish inter-related becomes an important initial step in seem to separately evolve similar morphologies. untangling the mystery of how many differences For example, Ruber et al. (1999) found that some evolved. Again, modern genetic techniques have cichlids of Lake Tanganyika that share the same proven to be the most useful tool for this detective dentition patterns are not monophyletic. That is, work: the first examination of mitochondrial DNA different species separately evolved the same tooth of cichlids from the Great Lakes by Meyer et al. shape. Similarly, Allender et al. (2003) examined the (1990) revealed that the cichlids of each lake are genetic differences between like-colored fish from monophyletic. The family tree that emerges from the northern and southern portions of Lake Malawi. this investigation also reveals that Lake Tanganyika Using over 2000 genetic loci, they built phylogenies cichlids are the ancestors from which the cichlids in demonstrating that the same color patterns had the other two Great Lakes are derived (Figure 1). The independently evolved within different parts of finding that well over a thousand species of cichlids the lake. That is, the northern and southern fish are in Lakes Malawi and Victoria evolved from a single unrelated, but separately evolved the same color source reveals that speciation processes within these types via divergent selection. Thus, both between and lakes were remarkably explosive. within them, the Great Lakes have been reservoirs of Furthermore, Meyer et al. (1990) utilized a frequent parallel evolution (Genner & Turner 2005; molecular clock in their analysis of mitochondrial Kassam et al. 2006). DNA haplotypes, to estimate the ages of different cichlid lake flocks. They concluded that the Victorian Multistage Evolutionary Patterns cichlids are newcomers originating less than 200,000 The frequent occurrences of parallel evolution years ago, while the ages of the Lake Malawi and within cichlid flocks, added to their numerous and Tanganyika cichlids also match with the (relatively recent cladogenesis events, provide a highly useful young) geologic ages of those lakes. A recent case study of adaptive radiation. What can cichlids extensive study by Salzburger et al. (2005) that used reveal about speciation processes; are there common over twice the number of mitochondrial base pairs factors or underlying patterns? Once again, modern and ten times the number of species, confirms that phylogenetic techniques have been useful for these Lake Tanganyika is both the geographic and genetic evolutionary investigations. The 1990 mitochondrial origin for the cichlids of the other Great Lakes. This DNA sequencing study by Meyer et al. first found finding, that the multitude of species in the Great that the cichlids in Lake Malawi could be divided into Lakes occurred over relatively short time scales (0.5-2 two monophyletic groups based on habitat usage: million years), reveals that speciation processes within the rock-dwellers and the sand-dwellers. But, given these lake were remarkably rapid. that they had sampled only 24 of the 200 species of
17 this lake, they could not fully generalize the result. This division is then followed by diversification in Moreover, they found that the amount of genetic regards to the exploitation of food resources. Lastly, variation in molecular markers was extremely low differences in color and other communication-related (less than that in the human species). This paucity mechanisms result in even greater diversification. of DNA sequence variation has posed challenges for Simplification of the explosive radiations of cichlids subsequent investigations attempting to build cichlid into the three-stage model will ultimately lead to a phylogenies at finer scales. better understanding of the remarkable speciation However, increases in the types and extent of that has occurred in this vertebrate group. molecular techniques have recently begun to address this problem. Notably, Albertson et al. (1999) utilized Speciation Process Stage 1: Division of Habitat over two thousand amplified fragment length One key to the early success of cichlids may be polymorphism (AFLP) loci, in a genetic survey of that they were simply in the right place at the right representatives from many of the rock-dwelling time; they were among the first to colonize the East cichlids in Lake Malawi. With this data they were African Great Lakes (Barlow 2000). With a minimum able to confirm the findings of Meyer et al. (1990): of competitive interspecific influences, early cichlids rock-dwellers are monophyletic. In addition, the were able to seek food resources throughout all the large extent of their investigation, in which they available shallow lake habitat. Thus, one cichlid group examined 2,247 characters spread across the entire adapted to the benthic sand habitat, while others genome, allowed researchers to examine the inter- adapted to the other available benthic substrate that relatedness of these fish at a much finer scale. The consisted of rock. Such a split very early in their resulting more detailed phylogeny shows that fishes evolutionary history is well supported by cichlid having morphological similarities related to feeding, phylogenies from all three Great Lakes; the cichlid are themselves monophyletic. That is, each rock- family trees for Lake Tanganyika (Sturmbauer 1998), dweller has a unique jaw morphology that best serves Malawi (Meyer 1993), and Victoria (Nagl et al. 2000) its feeding habits and the family tree groups of the all feature an early split between rock and sand- species by such physical differences. For example dwellers. Pseudotropheus species have a mouth that is somewhat subterminal, at the bottom of steeply sloping face; Speciation Process Stage 2: Division of Food and this flock is all very closely related. However, Resources Labeotropheus species are grouped together based on As illustrated in the phylogenetic tree of the their completely subterminal mouths and protruding cichlids of Lake Malawi built by Albertson et al. fleshy snouts. Consequently, the genetic similarities (1999), the fish next began to divide food resources. between species in these flocks parallel their They accomplished divisions by exploiting food morphological groupings. resources using a multitude of strategies. Their Albertson et al. (1999) initially hypothesized differing strategies are now reflected in their adaptive that if early speciation processes were not driven by feeding morphologies. For example, some cichlids adaptations to different feeding habits, then closely (e.g. Labeotropheus) specialize in feeding on rock- related species would differ in jaw morphology. clinging algae by swimming parallel to the rock The genetic similarities that they found between surface. Their fleshy snouts and ventral-facing morphologically similar species showed the opposite mouths are adaptations that increase the efficiency to be true; closely related species may differ in color of this feeding mode. In contrast, Metriaclima cichlids or other traits but not in their general jaw features. utilize an approach to grazing on algae that involves So, their findings suggest that diversification between a perpendicular orientation to the rock surface. Their these species first occurred as a result of trophic sloped head and forward-facing mouth are ideal influences. adaptations for their alternative algae feeding mode. Danley and Kocher (2001) have incorporated Indeed, cichlids have exploited a plethora of all these results regarding the phylogenetic histories possible food sources, which is reflected in both their of the cichlids of Lake Malawi, into a generalized behavior and myriad trophic adaptations. There description of cichlid speciation processes that are vegetarian cichlids that are highly specialized involves three evolutionary stages. At each stage, a phytoplankton collectors, algae grazers, algae different primary force acts to drive selection along rippers, or algae scrapers. Each has physically a different adaptive axis. In the first stage, a single evolved to best pursue the specific vegetative food cichlid progenitor colonizing the lake divides up the of choice. Carnivorous cichlids specialize in stalking, available habitat into rock versus sand substrates. ambushing, or out-running their prey. Those
18 needing speed are streamlined powerful swimmers; Males of some cichlid species have expanded their while those utilizing the element of surprise possess advertising activities to go well beyond just colorful speed at suddenly sucking in prey. Other cichlids good looks; they also show off with sandcastle methodically sift the bottom for detritus, while building activities. Like bowers constructed by many others aggressively nip the scales of their neighbors. birds, males will construct and then defend towers Fascinatingly, some scale nippers are so specialized at of sand that can be meticulously created. Females attacks to one particular side (e.g. the left) that their are free to select any sandcastle territory, and its jaws are appropriately inclined in that direction. A owner, with whom to mate. So, male reproductive particularly mischievous cichlid carnivore from Lake success also increases as a function of coloration Malawi feigns death by lying flat on its side so that and/or bower building finesse. Thus, the last stage it can spring up quickly to attack those that are lured in cichlid speciation involves numerous divisions, into feeding on the “corpse;” it wears a blotchy color all based on colors and behaviors that communicate pattern suggestive of decomposition to complete the reproductively significant information. trickery of its feeding strategy. Carnivorous cichlids do not limit their predation to conspecifics, as many Similar Speciation Processes in Other Vertebrates specialize in consuming molluscs, insects, or insect The generalized three-stage model for larvae; those needing shell crushing power are speciation also successfully describes patterns equipped with powerful jaws. (Barlow 2000). in the phylogenies, and thus evolution of other vertebrate taxa. This is especially true for many Speciation Process Stage 3: Division via other fish species. For example, stickleback fish also Communication diversified first into bottom- versus water column- Many closely related species of cichlids share dwelling types, and did so independently in a physical attributes that match their feeding lifestyles, number of different lakes. Like cichlids, sticklebacks but they often differ in color or other traits. Often, subsequently radiated based on body morphology. the differences are most notable in male secondary Tropical parrotfish are another analogous example. characteristics that involve rainbows of color. Since These fish first ecologically split available habitat females are usually doing the choosing during between reef and sea grass. The reef-occupying mating, male coloration may serve as a kind of parrotfish further diversified morphologically into advertising. In addition, females may utilize colors either algae scrapers or algae excavators. Later these to select not only the best male, but also to select a groups radiated into many different color forms male of her same species. So, while adaptive forces related to reproduction (Streelman et al. 2002). So have physically shaped and diversified cichlids, the like cichlids, parrotfish species may have similar forces of sexual selection have played a leading role feeding morphologies, but differ in male mating in subsequent cladogenesis (Danley & Kocher 2001). colors. Terrestrially, an example of this behavior is Certainly, since all female cichlids invest heavily in found in the Anolis lizards of the Caribbean who have their offspring by faithfully brooding their eggs, the undergone diversification first by dividing available choice of mate is an important one. habitat types, and later by changing physical form to Some female cichlids brood their eggs in their best suit their lifestyle. Evidence for the operation of mouths where the eggs can be kept especially safe these stages in the speciation of Anolis comes from until hatching. For these mouth-brooding cichlid a number of different islands where they evolved species, the actual fertilization process is rather separately. Finally, even Darwin’s finches have, from unique and is also usually driven by visual cues. For their genetically-based phylogenies, first speciated example, after laying eggs, the female will quickly based on habitat (tree- versus ground-dwellers) and gather them into her mouth. Her persistence at then by their remarkable beak-shape adaptations collecting all of her eggs draws her to her mate’s anal to different feeding strategies. (Streelman & Danley fin spots. These spots mimic the shape, size, and 2003). color of the eggs. With the female thus appropriately positioned, the male then fertilizes the eggs she But Why So Many More Cichlids? holds in her mouth. Fertilization rates are thought While evolutionary scientists have made to increase when females can see male egg-spots significant progress in describing speciation patterns (Wickler 1962), potentially further driving the with the three-stage model, understanding the basal forces of diversifying markings and color via sexual evolutionary mechanisms responsible for the uniquely selection. explosive and rapid speciation in cichlids is more elusive. Why and how have cichlids radiated into so
19 many more species than other vertebrates? If there enabled increased ecological speciation. Thus, it has are thousands of cichlid species, why aren’t there been proposed that these jaw adaptations, unique to thousands of Darwin’s finches? A complete answer cichlids, were the ‘key-innovation’ that fueled their to this question continues to evade theorists, but explosive radiations (Liem 1974). This hypothesis is numerous clues to the puzzle have been uncovered supported by recent bio-mechanical investigations by a veritable army of investigators. One set of clues (Hulsey et al. 2006). revolves around the details of the cichlid feeding Additional clues to the mechanisms of evolution apparatus. in cichlids have recently been provided by studies The overall cichlid body plan tends to be that are now seeking to uncover the connections highly conserved, but their heads and jaws have between genotype and phenotype. Since trophic- changed into numerous different forms. From the related morphology changes may have played a perspective of the fish, a body plan lacking limbs crucial role in cichlid speciation, discovery of the leaves jaws as the only mechanism by which food genes responsible for these modifications should be can be captured and manipulated. Cichlids have illuminating. In 2003, Albertson et al. took the first responded evolutionarily by renovating their outer step in this direction of study, by performing genetic oral jaws into ones that are remarkably flexible and experiments with two cichlids from Lake Malawi. multifunctional (Liem 1980). Such jaws are able to They chose two monophyletic rock-dwelling species fantastically protrude, and each jaw side can move that both feed on algae but employ radically different independently of the other. These abilities greatly strategies and so possess quite different head and jaw increase the numbers and types of food items that features. Labeotropheus fuelleborni (L) swims parallel to can be manipulated (Hulsey & De Leon 2006). In rocks and so its ventral-facing mouth allows it to most fact, of all fish, the outer jaws of cichlids are the most efficiently collect algae in this position. Metriaclima prehensile in their abilities (Figure 3). zebra (M) approaches rocks at a ninety degree angle However if one highly flexible jaw is good, and so its forward-facing mouth is also specially then two might be better. In fact, fish do possess a well positioned. These two species also differ in their second set of jaw-like structures within their throats dentition characteristics, with L having shearing called pharyngeal jaws (Figure 3). In most fish, scissor-like teeth and M having comb-like teeth this structure mostly aids directional movement of (Figure 4). food from the mouth into the body. Cichlids have Albertson et al. (2003) crossed L and M, and expanded its usefulness by physically modifying then examined both the F1 and F2 progeny. Their their pharyngeal jaws so that they can perform even results indicated that many teeth, jaw, and head more food manipulation feats (Liem 1974; Hulsey features are inherited together, and that remarkably 2006; Hulsey et al. 2006). Their pharyngeal jaws can few (1-11) genes control these morphologies. For squeeze, chew, and grind material much like regular example, the dentition features in the F1 generation jaws. For example, cichlids that have specialized their were intermediate to that present in the parents, diet to molluscs, suction up snails with their outer and this pattern persisted into the F2 generation. jaws and then crush the shell using their powerful Such a segregation pattern is consistent with control pharyngeal jaws. Often the snail shell must be of this trait by a single gene. The lateral lower jaw exactly positioned so that its weakest element can also becomes intermediate in the F1 generation, but be exploited for crushing. The outer jaws serve to the spread in frequency becomes wider in the F2 repeatedly and adroitly perform this positioning to generation. Their QTL analysis found control of the enhance the squeezing power of the pharyngeal jaws trait was best explained by about 11 genes. Similarly (Hulsey 2006). Other cichlids utilize their pharyngeal the lower jaw was found to be controlled by 9 genes, jaws for different specialized consumption services the maxilla by another 9 genes, and the premaxilla such as stacking fish scales or masticating filamentous by 8 genes. This discovery, that so few genes control algae (Liem, personal communication). such great differences in the teeth and jaws of cichlids, These jaw adaptations may have been may have unveiled one means by which cichlids instrumental in allowing cichlids to take advantage diversified so numerously and rapidly in response to of every possible food resource, and so to radiate selection on these trophic features. into many different feeding specialists during the Terai et al. (2002) have endeavored to specifically second stage of their speciation process (Liem 1974; identify these jaw-shaping genes, and their findings Hulsey & De Leon 2006; Hulsey et al. 2006). That is, are also illuminating in regards to exploring the cichlid jaw adaptations increased the diversity of mechanisms underlying cichlid speciation processes. trophic resources, and fine-tuning of these structures They hypothesized that if genes controlling jaw
20 morphology have changed along with morphological and reflection on a more macroscopic-scale are also diversification in cichlids, then the amino acid beneficial; one reason that there are so many more substitutions should have occurred more frequently in cichlids than finches, despite so many similarities Great Lake cichlids than in other fishes. Conversely, in the mechanisms involved in their speciation, if these genes are not responsible for producing the may simply be due to time. Darwin’s finches have cichlid diversification in jaws, then the rate of amino been evolving for about 3 million years, whereas the acid substitutions should be similar in these cichlids cichlids of Lake Malawi have only been evolving for and other fishes. To test this, they amplified parts of about half that time (or less). Thus, the case of cichlids the cichlid genome known to be homologous with provides a kind of time-travel backward, showing genes that control jaw and dentition features in mice. the very earliest events in speciation. As time and They also amplified the genome of an outgroup evolution proceed toward higher levels of ecological fish. From the DNA sequences, they found that the stability, the number of species may decline. Such highest evolutionary rate of change in this part of the a pattern is suggested by comparisons between the genome corresponded to a single gene previously species of cichlids themselves. As the oldest lake, known from mice called Bmp4. Furthermore, they Tanganyika’s cichlid species number is much less found that the rate of amino acid substitutions in than the younger Lake Malawi. Also, Tanganyika’s Bmp4 was five times higher among the Great Lake cichlid species are more diverse. Such differences in cichlids than among the outgroup fish. Thus, results both species number and diversity suggest that after suggest that Bmp4 changed at an accelerated rate, as speciation rates level off, some species out-compete did jaw morphology changes, during the speciation others to extinction; then interspecific competition of cichlids. Albertson et al. (2005) have confirmed the continues to drive a wedge between remaining role of Bmp4 in regulating jaw features. successful species. This temporal pattern in speciation Terai at al. (2002) then analyzed the specific is also evident from comparisons of cichlids to protein domain areas affected by these numerous their cousins, parrotfishes (Scaridae). Cichlids and amino acid substitutions in the Bmp4 gene. They parrotfish share components of the same ‘key- found that all substitutions affected the portion of the innovation’ (i.e. pharyngeal jaws), yet there are about protein responsible for post-translational control of ten times more species of cichlids than parrotfish. the protein. The amino acid substitutions in cichlids One significant difference between them, however, do not change the function of the protein made by is that parrotfish originated about 40 million years the Bmp4 gene, but instead affect how that protein ago, and have had a great deal more time to stabilize is used downstream in more complex molecular into a lesser number of highly diverse species. signaling pathways. This discovery, that a small If we could time-travel back to the early days of change in the Bmp4 gene can generate bigger changes parrotfish speciation, we might be met with the kind via a cascading pathway, may have unveiled another of profusion in species that we see today in cichlids. way in which cichlids generated so many different (Barlow 2000; Streelman & Danley 2003). adaptive jaw forms so quickly. It is further interesting to note that it has Disappearing Cichlids recently been found that the Bmp4 gene also plays an Unfortunately, anthropogenic causes are important role in the cranio-facial development of destroying cichlids, and with them the clues they Darwin’s finches (Abzhanov et al. 2004; Grant et al. hold regarding speciation processes. Due to the 2006). In fact, the investigators concluded from their remote location of the Great Lakes, rigorous scientific study that, “…variation in Bmp4 regulation is one examination of these endemic cichlids has only been of the principal molecular variables that provided undertaken within the last forty years or so. In the the quantitative morphological variation acted on meantime, the nature of threats facing cichlids has by natural selection in the evolution of the beaks of rapidly multiplied and intensified. the Darwin’s finch species.” Thus, more detailed Fish from Lake Malawi provide communities comparisons of Bmp4 sequences, expression, and there with seventy-five percent of their animal regulation between cichlid flocks and finches should protein; cichlids are the primary catch. The entire provide future clues to the puzzle of explosive fishing industry supports about two million people, speciation in cichlids. but is doing so in a non-sustainable way. Cichlids Undoubtedly such examinations of the genetic captured are decreasing in size and quantity. factors involved in the control and modification of Similarly, the introduction of commercial methods of phenotype will continue to shed new light on the fishing to Lake Tanganyika in the 1960s precipitated puzzle of speciation processes. However, studies a decline in cichlid catch after only twenty years
21 of exploitation. Besides being a food resource, Conclusion cichlids are also valued by the aquarium trade and It is perhaps ironic to note that many of the cichlid such harvests place additional pressure on them. traits involved in their explosive and rapid adaptive In addition, certain particularly valuable cichlids radiations into a spectacular menagerie of species, are being moved to locations more convenient are the same traits that are now subjecting them to for harvesting. Since phylogeographic patterns of greater threats, putting them at risk for extinction. speciation are evident in cichlids at small scales, this They are highly specialized and so require habitat practice will undoubtedly disrupt cichlid population that is narrowly defined (e.g. very clear water). While structures and also confound scientific studies. albeit numerous, they exist in small populations (Barlow 2000). (e.g. subpopulations within lakes) that can easily be However, perhaps a greater threat to cichlids are wiped out by either slow, deteriorating influences human changes to their environment. For example, or sudden stochastic catastrophes. (Barlow 2000). in Lake Victoria pollution and increased run-off Having ecologically dominated their own lake basins has caused rapid eutrophication and increased throughout their evolution, they are perhaps poorly turbidity. Seehausen et al. (1997) report that the equipped to meet the challenges and predation transparency of the water decreased from eight to threats of an invasive species (e.g. Nile Perch). While three meters between 1920 and 1990. And in the 1990s, a mere fourteen dull brown-black finches inspired transparency decreased by another 50%. Noting these Darwin in his greatest contribution to biology, changes, they investigated what consequences this perhaps thousands of spectacularly colored fish will may have for Victorian cichlids. Unfortunately, they inspire future conservation biologists toward their found that females were no longer able to recognize preservation. conspecific males. Their experiments demonstrated that cichlids choose their mates and distinguish their Figures own species based primarily upon color (i.e. color is the reproductively isolating mechanism). When the ability to properly perceive color was interfered with, females mated indiscriminately with males of many different species. They inferred that a deterioration of water quality in Lake Victoria was responsible for observed decreases in cichlid species diversity resulting from hybridization. Humans have further changed cichlids’ environment by introducing the Nile Perch to the Great Lakes. Present in Lake Victoria probably since the 1950s, these fish erupted in the 1980s and a precipitous decline in cichlids was noted. Fishing catch of cichlids plummeted by 80%. Nile perch are huge (up to 2 meters and 135 pounds) predators that directly wiped out much of Lake Victoria’s cichlid Figure 1: fauna. As an invasive species, Nile Perch have Great Lake Cichlids Are Monophyletic and Derived from Lake Tanganyika Flocks. also indirectly contributed to declines in cichlids. After Meyer et al. (1990). Increased destruction of local forests for firewood used in the processing of the Nile perch catch has further contributed to the increasing turbidity in the lake. (Barlow 2000).
22 Figure 2: Similar Cichlid Forms Evolved Independently and Convergently. From Albertson & Kocher (2006).
Figure 3:
Cichlid Outer Jaw Flexibility and Pharyngeal Jaw Apparatus: Key Innovations. From Barlow (2000).
Figure 4: Head, Jaw, and Dentition Differences Between Two Cichlids. From Albertson & Kocher (2006). References Hulsey, C.D., F.J.G. De Leon, R. Rodiles-Hernandez. Abzhanov A., M. Protas, R. Grant. 2004. Bmp4 and 2006. Micro- and macroevolutionary decoupling morphological variation of beaks in Darwin’s of cichlid jaws: a test of Liem’s key innovation finches. Science 305:1462-1465. hypothesis. Evolution 60(10):2096-2109.
Albertson, R.C., and T.D. Kocher. 2006. Genetic Hulsey, C.D., and F.J.G. De Leon. 2005. Cichlid developmental basis of cichlid trophic diversity. jaw mechanics: linking morphology to feeding Heredity 97:211-221. specialization. Functional Ecology 19:487-494.
Albertson, R.C., J.T. Streelman, T.D. Kocher, P.C. Kassam, D., S. Seki, M. Hori, K. Yamaoka. 2006. Yelick. 2005. Integration and evolution of the Nuclear markers reveal that inter-lake cichlids’ cichlid mandible: the molecular basis of alternate similar morphologies do not reflect similar feeding strategies. PNAS 102(45):16287-16292. genealogy. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40:383-388. Albertson, R.C., J.T. Streelman, T.D. Kocher. 2003. Genetic basis of adaptive shape differences in the Kocher, T.D., J.A. Conroy, K.R. McKaye, J.R. Stauffer. cichlid head. Journal of Heredity 94(4):291-301. 1993. Similar morphologies of cichlid fish in Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi are due to convergence. Albertson, R.C., J.A. Markert, P.D. Danley, T.D. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 2(2):158- Kocher. 1999. Phylogeny of a rapidly evolving 165. clade: The cichlid fishes of Lake Malawi, East Africa. PNAS 96:5107-5110. Liem, K.F. Fish biology course professor, at Harvard Extension, Spring 2005. Allender, C.J., O. Seehausen, M.E. Knight, G.F. Turner, N. Maclean. 2003. Divergent selection Liem, K.F. 1980. Adaptive significance of intra- and during speciation of Lake Malawi cichlid fishes interspecific differences in the feeding repertoires inferred from parallel radiations in nuptial of cichlid fishes. American Zoologist 20:295-314. coloration. PNAS 100(24):14074-14079. Liem, K.F. 1974. Evolutionary strategies and Barlow, G.W. 2000. The Cichlid Fishes: Nature’s morphological innovations; Cichlid pharyngeal Grand Experiment in Evolution. Perseus jaws. Systematic Zoology 22:425-441. Publishing, Cambridge, MA. Meyer, A. 1993. Phylogenetic relationships and Danley, P.D., and T.D. Kocher. 2001. Speciation in evolutionary processes in East African cichlid rapidly diverging systems: lessons from Lake fishes. Trend in Ecology and Evolution 8:279-284. Malawi. Molecular Ecology 10:1075-1086. Meyer, A., T.D. Kocher, P. Basasibwaki, A.C. Wilson. Genner, M.J., and G.F. Turner. 2005. The mbuna 1990. Monophyletic origin of Lake Victoria cichlids of Lake Malawi: a model for rapid cichlid fishes suggested by mitochondrial DNA speciation and adaptive radiation. Fish and sequences. Nature 347:550-553. Fisheries 6:1-34. Nagl, S., H. Tichy, W.E. Mayer, N. Takezaki, N. Grant, P.R., B.R. Grant, A. Abzhanov. 2006. A Takahata, J. Klien. 2000. The origin and age of developing paradigm for the development of bird haplochromine fishes in Lake Victoria, East beaks. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society Africa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of 88:17-22. London Series B 267:1049-1061.
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24 Salzburger, W., T. Mack, E. Verheyen, A. Meyer. 2005. Terai, Y., N. Morikawa, N. Okada. 2002. The evolution Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, of the pro-domain of bone morphogenetic protein key-innovations and phylogeography of the 4 (Bmp4) in an explosively speciated lineage haplochromine cichlid fishes. BMC Evolutionary of East African cichlid fishes. Mol. Biol. Evol. Biology 5:17. 19(9):1628-1632.
Salzburger, W., A. Meyer, S. Baric, E. Verheyen, Turner, G.F., O. Seehausen, M.E. Knight, C.J. C. Sturmbauer. 2002. Phylogeny of the Lake Allender, and R.L. Robinson. 2001. How many Tanganyika cichlid species flock and its species of cichlid fishes are there in African lakes? relationship to the Central and East African Molecular Ecology 10:793-806. haplochromine cichlid fish faunas. Syst Biol 51:113-135. Verheyen, E., W. Salzburger, J. Snoeks, A. Meyer. 2003. Origin of the superflock of cichlid fishes Seehausen, O., J.J.M. van Alphen, F. Witte. from lake Victoria East Africa. Science 300:325- 1997. Cichlid fish diversity threatened by 329. eutrophication that curbs sexual selection. Science 277:1808-1811. Wickler, W. 1962. ‘Egg dummies’ as natural releasers in mouth-breeding cichlids. Nature 194:1092-1093. Streelman, J.T., and P.D. Danley. 2003. The stages of vertebrate evolutionary radiation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution Vol. 18(3):126-131. This paper was written for CBES 694: Special Streelman, J.T., M. Alfaro, M.W. Westneat, D.R. Topics – Tropical Forests. The assignment was Bellwood, S.A. Karl. 2002. Evolutionary history of for a literature review of contemporary scientific the parrotfishes: biogeography, ecomorphology, investigations on the origins of biologic diversity. The and comparative diversity. Evolution 56(5):961- professor was Dr. Elizabeth Stacy. 971.
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25 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
atmospheric temperatures substantially (Sigurdsson Climactic Effects of et al. 2000). In order to understand atmospheric dynamics and the role that volcanism plays, it helps to the 1815 Eruption of have knowledge of the key components of the Earth’s atmosphere: Tambora The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into several regions based on its thermal structure (Figure 1). by Jacob Smith There are two primary divisions in the atmosphere: the homosphere and the heterosphere. The ‘Civilization exists by geologic consent, subject to homosphere contains the troposphere, tropopause, change without notice” - Will Durant stratosphere, ozone, stratopause, mesosphere, the mesopause and 5% of the ionosphere. The INTRODUCTION: homosphere is a region in which the composition In 1815, Tambora catastrophically erupted after and molecular weight of air varies little throughout three years of increased rumbling. This was one of (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). While the mixing ratios the largest known ash-producing eruptions in the last of trace elements may vary greatly it is primarily 10,000 years, reducing the volcano to half its former composed of 80% N2 and 20% O2. The heterosphere size. Tambora is still a large stratovolcano (2860 m tall contains the thermosphere, exosphere and the 3 and >1000 km in volume) located on the Indonesian remaining 95% of the ionosphere. This paper will island of Sumbawa (part of the Lesser Sunda Islands) focus on the region from the troposphere to the This is a segment of the Sunda Arc, a string of stratopause and the effects that volcanic aerosols have volcanic islands forming the southern chain of the within this region. Indonesian archipelago. Tambora lies 340 km (211 mi) north of the Java Trench system and 180 - 190 km Troposphere and Tropopause (112—118 mi) above the upper surface of the active The troposphere is the region of the atmosphere north-dipping subduction zone. The 1815 eruption occupying the lowest layer on Earth. It is where has had a significant impact at the global scale. weather is created by instability, due to the absorption Vast amounts of aerosols were injected into the of solar radiation at the surface that heats air, which atmosphere, clouding out the Sun in the region for may then rise through the colder, more dense air several days after the initial eruption. The year after above. The troposphere contains naturally occurring the eruption became known as the “Year Without N2, O2, H2O, Ar, CO2 and a variety of other pollutants a Summer” for people throughout Indonesia, the such as O3 (ozone), NO2, OCS (carbonyl sulfide) English Isles, and even America. This year has and SO2. Particles of various composition and type, also been linked to massive crop failure that led to many arising from surface sources such as soil and widespread famine, disease and social stress. organic gases, pollute this region heavily (Sigurdsson An understanding of the composition and et al. 2000). Tropospheric particles are typically dynamics of Earth’s atmosphere will provide a base removed from the atmosphere after several weeks knowledge to what role volcanism play in the system. by precipitation. For example, rainout provides the It is then possible to recognize to what extent its dominant sink for volcanic sulfur injected into the effects, both regionally and globally, will have on troposphere, which will be discussed in more detail weather and the Earth’s inhabitants. later. The transition boundary between the troposphere EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE and the layer above is called the tropopause. The Earth’s radiation budget dictates that incoming temperature and altitude of the tropopause vary from radiation from the Sun must be balanced by about -83°C (- 118°F) and 18 km (11 mi.) at the equator outgoing radiation. As the Sun heats the Earth, the to -53°C (-64°F) and 8 km (5 mi.) in the polar regions. temperature increases, causing it to radiate in the Both the tropopause and the troposphere are known infrared spectrum. Infrared radiation tries to escape as the lower atmosphere. into space, but greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. These particles can therefore increase overall
26 Stratosphere occurs homogeneously while aerosols are in their The stratosphere is the region above the gaseous phase. However, heterogeneous chemistry tropopause containing the ozone layer, which of an aerosol can occur between any combinations heats the atmosphere by absorption of high-energy of phases (gas, liquid or solid). The rates of ultraviolet rays from the Sun. The increasing heterogeneous reactions increase strongly as these temperature profile of the stratosphere insures it is aerosols become more dilute, thus, the reactions often a much more stable region of the atmosphere than go faster at colder temperatures. Odd oxygen and the the troposphere. Air from the troposphere enters ozone are believed to be controlled dynamically in the stratosphere in the tropics, where convective the lower stratosphere, and chemically controlled in storm systems create strong updrafts that can break the upper stratosphere where temperatures are colder through the cold tropical tropopause. Much of the and promote heterogeneous chemistry (Sigurdsson water vapor freezes out of the rising air, leaving et al. 2000). Transport of aerosols in the stratosphere the stratosphere much drier than the troposphere. generally takes weeks to months to circulate air Therefore, particles in the stratosphere are not globally. While odd oxygen is produced and rained out, and may remain in the stratosphere until destroyed within several hours at 60 km, it survives transferred with ambient air particles (Sigurdsson et for weeks at 35 km, and for several years at 20 km. al. 2000). At midlatitudes, tongues of stratosphere are The Antarctic Ozone Hole folded into the troposphere. These tongues are As winter approaches and temperatures decrease responsible for transferring about 75% of the air in the polar stratosphere, sulfate aerosol becomes very into the stratosphere (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). The dilute, taking up not only water but also significant air mixture that is transferred in this zone remains quantities of nitric acid (HNO3) from tropospheric in the stratosphere for ≈ 2 years. The remaining pollutants. Ice core chemistry provides further 25% of the air mixture is again transferred by air information on the atmospheric impacts of the moving downward at the poles by the strong winter eruption. Oppenheimer (2003) found that Greenland jet stream. The transport of air out of the tropics to ice core ratio of winter-to-summer deposition of NO3 higher latitudes depends on the direction of zonal increased following the eruptions of both Tambora winds over the equator. By the time this air reaches and Katmai (1912). He attributes this to condensation high latitudes, chemical tracers indicate that the air is and removal of stratospheric HNO3 for the Antarctic ≈ 3-5 years old. stratosphere during the winter, and slower formation
of HNO3 during the summer because of removal of
Stratospheric Chemistry OH through oxidation of SO2. Looking at Antarctic
The stratosphere contains elements such as N2, ice core chemical stratigraphy, evidence is lacking
O2 (atomic oxygen), O3 (ozone), OCS, Cl, and Br. for changes in atmospheric chlorine thought to have Stratospheric chlorine is derived from anthropogenic been released by the eruption (100 Tg). It is thought chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and methyl chloroform that most of the halogens were rapidly and efficiently (which has natural sources), rather than volcanic scavenged by the troposphere as the eruption clouds eruptions (Fig. 1). Stratospheric bromine comes from ascended (Sadler and Grattan 1999). anthropogenic halocarbons and methyl bromide, not Though stratospheric chlorine and bromine volcanoes. Halocarbons are one or more atoms of C are expected to decline over the 21st century due covalently bonded with one or more halogens such as to international treaties regulating CFC’s and Cl, Fl. Br, or I, and are typically produced as solvents halocarbons, their ozone- depleting effects may still for industrial cleaning. Volcanic aerosols alter be greatly magnified over time by volcanic eruptions. stratospheric chemistry in such a way that it activates Recent examples include the 1991 eruption of chlorine and bromine for ozone depletion by means of Pinatubo and El Chichón in 1982 (Table. 1). Following reactions on molecular surfaces. their eruptions, springtime Antarctic ozone declined relative to pre-eruption levels by about 15 to 20%, Ozone Chemistry respectively, before recovering somewhat as aerosols
Ozone (O3) and atomic oxygen (O) make up the declined over several years (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). “odd oxygen” family of atmospheric species. The two species can interchange rapidly with one another by means of numerous chemical reactions. The reactions that produce or destroy total odd oxygen are much slower. Stratospheric chemistry typically
27 AEROSOLS Aerosols from tropical eruptions have the potential Stratospheric Aerosols to spread globally in the stratosphere, as was the case Aerosols play a very important role in the climate with Tambora in 1815 and Mount Pinatubo in 1992. because they can potentially be an external forcing However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions mechanism on the global climate. Proof for the (such as El Chichón in 1982) have remained largely existence of a layer of particles in the stratosphere in their hemisphere of origin. Plumes which do not was discovered in 1961 by a team led by Christian break through the troposphere, or which occur at high Junge with the use of high-altitude balloons. They latitudes, have fewer global consequences. Volcanic determined that a non-volcanic source is responsible aerosol clouds produced during such eruptions may for maintaining stratospheric sulfate aerosol. In 1976, result in a significant drop in surface pressure across Paul Crutzen suggested carbonyl sulfide (OCS) as the midlatitudes of the North Atlantic sector (Rampino et major source of “background” layer (Sigurdsson et al. al. l988). 2000). OCS originates from biological, volcanic, and Tambora-size (≈ 100 km3 of magma) explosive some anthropogenic sources, such as the burning of volcanic eruptions emit large quantities of sulfur fossil fuels. The troposphere is relatively inert and has dioxide gas into the stratosphere, where it is a chemical lifetime of about 30 years. The long-lived converted into a sulfuric acid aerosol dust veil that existence of OCS allows it to be distributed relatively encircles the Earth (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). The sulfur uniformly throughout the troposphere (figure 2). The mass injected into the stratosphere by the Tambora mixing ratio is about 500 parts per trillion by volume eruption has been estimated by several independent (pptv), making OCS the most abundant sulfur bearing methods including modeling of polar ice core compound in the atmosphere. sulfate concentrations, petrological measurements In the stratosphere, ultraviolet light reacts with of 1815 tephra, and analysis of atmospheric optical atomic oxygen to destroy OCS, this produces SO2, phenomena. The results vary by an order of which then oxidizes to sulfuric acid. While OCS magnitude but excluding the outlying estimates, clearly provides an important source of stratospheric the figures average around 60 Tg of estimated sulfate, it breaks apart at a rate too high to account stratospheric aerosol loading of SO4 (Oppenheimer for the aerosol observed in volcanically quiet periods. 2003). In contrast, Sigurdsson et al. (2000) suggests
SO2 of tropospheric origin, via anthropogenic that the 1815 Tambora eruption to be >100 Tg of SO4. pollution and reduced biologically produced sulfur They also further estimated the amount for the 1991 compounds, strongly influences aerosol(s) in the Pinatubo eruption to be 30 Tg of SO4 and the 1982 El lower stratosphere. Chichón, 12 Tg of SO4 . Generally, for a given mass of aerosol, a large Oppenheimer (2003) states that it is difficult to number of small particles provides a greater optical separate this total from the different phases of the depth than a small number of large particles. The eruption and, in particular, to determine the different albedo of an aerosol layer is dependent on its optical parts that derived from plinian versus co-ignimbrite depth. Increases in the planetary albedo decrease (‘phoenix’) clouds. the amount of radiation absorbed, which results in decreasing the Earth’s temperature (Sigurdsson et al. THE 1815 ERUPTION OF TAMBORA 2000). Understanding Volcanic Impact on the Atmosphere Humans have unknowingly experienced the Volcanic Aerosols global atmospheric affects of volcanic eruptions for Whether the net effect of aerosol absorption and thousands of years. While people close to an active reflection is to cool or to heat the Earth depends on volcano might have been able to account for strange particle size. For the warming effect to overcome local phenomena, correlation between the effects on the cooling effect, particles must be larger than the atmosphere on a global scale would not begin about two μm in radius (Sadler and Grattan 1999). to be linked to volcanism until the 18th century. Volcanic eruptions introduce large quantities of ash Sigurdsson et al. (2000) stated that Benjamin Franklin and magmatic gases into the atmosphere. The major might have been the first to report the link between gases released are water vapor (>80% by volume) volcanism and unusual atmospheric phenomena in and carbon dioxide (~10% by volume), with smaller, 1784, when strange “dry fog” and unseasonably cold more variable contributions of SO2, H2S, CO, H2, N2, weather struck Europe. Franklin speculated that the HCl and HBr (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). The global fog was the cause of the cold summer, and that it distribution of aerosols from volcanic eruptions originated as smoke from either meteorites or volcanic depends primarily on its latitude and intensity. eruptions he knew to have occurred in Iceland over
28 the course of the previous year (1783 eruption of The Summer of 1816: “The Year Without a Summer” Laki). This would be confirmed only recently and For two to three days after the eruption, there was has now been linked to the famine that reduced the complete darkness within a 600 km radius of Tambora population of the Nile valley by one-sixth. It was accompanied by a reported dramatic lowering of air not until the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, that strange temperature, although it is not clear to what extent atmospheric effects would be linked to volcanoes (Oppenheimer 2003). Light eventually returned worldwide. to regions furthest away after one or two days and gradually by the second or third day, faint light was The Eruption visible near the volcano. Sunsets were orange or red Tambora became active at least 1 year prior to near the horizon, purple to pink above, and were the 1815 eruption (Self et al. 1989). On the evening sometimes streaked by diverging dark bands for of April 5 1815, Tambora had a short-lived two-hour almost a year after the eruption (Oppenheimer 2003). plinian eruption. The first eruption had an intensity This phenomena was observed nearly everywhere that exceeded 108 kg s-1, propelling the plume 33 km from Indonesia to Western Europe and all the way above sea level, and the total mass of erupted material to New England. This provides strong evidence for was 1.11 X 1012 kg (Oppenheimer 2003). atmospheric disturbance into the stratosphere. This On April 10 1815, around 19:00 local time, the is further supported by accounts that claim, “neither second major, more powerful, phase of the eruption surface winds, nor rain would disperse” the lingering began and only lasted <3 hours. It is estimated that haze. the phase of the eruption had a discharge rate of History has shown us that volcanic eruptions are ≈ 3 X 108 kg s-1 and the plume reached over 43 km associated with colder-than-normal temperatures at above sea-level (Oppenheimer 2003), making it the the Earth’s surface, and Tambora was no exception. second highest estimated eruptive cloud in the last Average temperatures fell 1°C to 2.5°C below normal 2000 years. The last major phase of the eruption throughout New England and the British Isles, and was ignimbrite dominated. It has been estimated the global average is estimated to have fallen by 0.4 to that during the duration of this ignimbrite phase 0.7°C. (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). of the eruption, the mean intensity must have been This had significant human impact on many around 5 X 108 kg s-1(Oppenheimer 2003). This would regions across the world throughout the next 2 years. have propelled the phoenix clouds to around 23 km Abundant evidence exists for extreme weather in above sea level, a modest height considering the 1816, especially during the spring and summer in eruption intensity (Oppenheimer 2003). His estimate Indonesia, the British Isles, North America, and parts is probably sufficiently close enough because he of Canada. compared phoenix plumes to plinian columns in terms of their thermal efficiencies. GLOBAL HUMAN IMPACT Self et al. (1989) estimated that 175 km3 of Indonesia nepheline-normative trachyandesitic pyroclastic The area within up to a 200 km radius from material (the equivalent to about 50 km3 of dense Tambora was hardest hit by the 1815 eruption. Of rock) was erupted over the duration of the eruption. the island of Sumbawa’s 12,000 inhabitants, only Of particular interest, the largest known increase in 26 survived. In addition to the death toll from the the estimated stratospheric aerosol loading, >100 eruption and the subsequent earthquakes, pyroclastic
Tg of SO4, (more than 6 times the amount of the flows and tsunamis associated with the event are 1991 Pinatubo eruption) resulted from the eruption conservatively estimated to have a death toll of (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). Ash fallout was noted over 90,000 just within the first couple of days. For those an area in excess of 4 X 105 km2 (and probably fell over who survived the initial devastation, there was little an area of more than 106 km2) (Rampino et al. 1988). refuge. The vast amounts of ash quickly tainted the In addition to vast amounts of material erupting water supply and made the air chokingly thick with from several pyroclastic flows, tsunamis and pumice fine dust and ash. Famine and disease quickly spread rafts were reported over the next couple of days. throughout the region and the exact number of dead Meteorological conditions spawned by the explosion may never be known. started with a hot, followed by an “extremely cold,” pocket of air directly under the tropospheric ash British Isles clouds, as reported at Banjuwangi, 400 km from the The volcanic cloud traveled around the world, volcano. Freezing temperatures were recorded in and within 3 months, its optical affects were observed Madras, India, two weeks later (Rampino et al. 1988). at distant locations in Europe (Rampino et al. 1988).
29 As stated in the section on “aerosols”, the effect of and September 1816 and to the favorable ratio of the volcanic aerosol clouds may produce a significant population to resources. drop in surface pressure across midlatitudes of the North Atlantic sector, leading to a southward shift in CONCLUSION the track taken by middle-latitude cyclones. Rampino Plumes which do not break through the et al. 1988 then predicts that a major anomaly would troposphere, or which occur at high latitudes, have thus be centered over England and would extend over fewer global consequences (Oppenheimer 2003). much of Western Europe, giving rise to a cold and wet Volcanic eruptions can introduce large quantities summer. of ash and magmatic gases into the atmosphere, The summer of 1816 was cool and exceedingly which may affect atmospheric dynamics, and thereby wet. Massive crop Failures led to famine, disease, determine its own distribution throughout the and social unrest (Rampino et al. 1988). In central atmosphere and may have had strong impacts on England, the temperature was about 1.5°C cooler regional and global climate (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). than during the summer of 1815 (Oppenheimer 2003). Large eruptions do not necessarily produce greater or Typhus was reported in almost every town and more protracted temperature anomalies, rather only village in England, and was reported in many cities those volcanoes with very explosive eruptions are of throughout Scotland. An interesting side note, this concern to the climate and stratospheric chemistry. period coincides with publication of Mary Shelley s Aerosols from tropical eruptions like Mount Pinatubo Frankenstein and Lord Byron’s poem Darkness. in 1991 (15ºN) did spread globally in the stratosphere. In Ireland, around 800,000 people were infected However, aerosols from many tropical eruptions, during the typhus epidemic, and of that, 4,300 such as El Chichón (l7ºN) in 1982, have remained perished from the joint ravages of famine, dysentery largely in their hemisphere of origin (Oppenheimer and fever (Oppenheimer 2003). Elsewhere in Europe, 2003). Natural dynamical perturbation lasted less the summer of 1816 was also reported to one of the than a year in the case of Pinatubo, making it less most miserable winters in recent history. worrisome than long-term ozone depletion observed at midlatitudes (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). North America Particles of radius greater than two μm fall 1816 was marked by a persistent dry fog, or at rates of more than 30 km per year in the lower dim sun, as reported in the northeastern United stratosphere, ensuring their removal within months. States. According to a report from New York, the Thus, sedimentation limits the size of stratospheric atmospheric pollution reddened and dimmed the sun aerosol, making it unlikely that volcanic aerosol could so much that sunspots were visible to the naked eye be large enough to warm the Earth for significant (Oppenheimer 2003). The total lunar eclipse on June periods of time (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). The volcanic 9th-10th was also reported to be extremely darker than cloud from the Tambora eruption traveled around normal. The summer of 1816 was the coldest in New the world, and within three months, its optical Haven, Connecticut, for the entire period from 1780 effects were observed at distant locations throughout to 1968 (Rampino el at. 1988). On June 4th, frosts were Europe (Rampino et al. 1988). History has shown reported in Connecticut and, by the following day, us, however, that volcanic eruptions associated with a cold front gripped most of New England. On June colder-than-normal temperatures at the Earths surface 6th, snow fell in Albany New York, and Dennysville because of increases in the planetary albedo decrease Maine, and there were killing frosts at Fairfield the amount of radiation absorbed, and also the Earth’s Connecticut. Severe frosts had spread as far as south temperature (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). The following as Trenton New Jersey the next day (Oppenheimer year (1816) was marked by a persistent dry fog, or 2003). Such conditions persisted over the next 3 dim Sun, as reported in the northeastern United Slates months, which shortened the growing season and (Rampino et al. 1988). resulted in almost total failure of main crops. Weather recorded in Indonesia, the British Canada also experienced severe weather and the Isles and North America fits in closely with the same cold wave that hit New England. In Montreal, summer cooling and winter warming expected for snow fell June 6th to the 8th 1816, and 30 cm of snow the northern hemispheres response to major sulfate accumulated near Quebec City (Oppenheimer aerosol veils. Estimates from northern hemisphere 2003). Unlike Indonesia, America and the British temperature data suggest that Tambora cooled the isles, the Canadian population avoided serious atmosphere by 0.4 to 0.7°C (Sigurdsson et al. 2000). social distress from the severe weather, primarily The atmospheric and climatic effects of the eruption thanks to an embargo on grain exports between July
30 affected the Northern Hemisphere until 1817 (Self et on climatologically marginal lands, and there was al. 1989). increased competition from the mid-western USA and It seems plausible that Tambora’s eruption, central Canada (Oppenheimer 2003). and its global climatic reach really played a role in A Tambora-size eruption in the 21st century will the outbreaks of disease from 1816-19. Far beyond have much more profound affects on humans living Indonesia, the pattern of climatic anomalies has been on an overcrowded Earth, where natural resources are blamed for the severity of a typhus epidemic and the already strained to the limit. It has been calculated great epidemic of cholera that broke out in Bengal in that there is perhaps as high as a 10% chance of a 1816-17 (Oppenheimer 2003). However, the epidemic Tambora-sized eruption occurring somewhere in of cholera is thought to have arisen because of troop the next 50 years, and that it is more likely to be movements in India displacing people out of the in Indonesia than any other country (Rampino et endemic source of the disease, and the epidemic did al. 1988). Will Durant offered us this simple, yet not reach Europe until 1831-32. The New England profound statement: “Civilization exists by geologic region was probably particularly vulnerable to consent, subject to change without notice!” disaster because farming was already taking place
FIGURES
Figure 1: Divisions of Earth’s atmosphere
Figure 2: Aerosol sources and cycles into the atmosphere (from US Climate Change Science Program) http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/ stratplan2003/final/graphics/images/ SciStratFig3-1.jpg
31 Table 1: Comparison of selected volcanic eruptions (after Oppenheimer 2003).
WORKS CITED:
Oppenheimer C. (2003). Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (indonesia) 1815. Progress in Physical Geography: Vol. 27: pg. 230 -259.
Rampino, M.R., S. Self, R. B. Stothers. (1988). Volcanic Winters. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences: Vol. 16, pg. 83-85.
Rampino, M.R., Newton, M.S., and Wolff J.A. (1989). Volcanological Study of the Great Tambora Eruption of 1815: Geology, Vol. 12, pg. 659-663.
Sadler, J.P and Grattan. (July 1999). Volcanoes as Agents of Past Environmental Change. Globa1 and Planetary Change: Vol.21, pg. 184-187, 192
Sigurdsson H., Houghton B.F., McNutt S.R., Rymer H., Stix J. (2000). Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press, San Diego: pg. 10-11, 932-935, 937-941
This is research paper written for Geology 470 (Volcanology).
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cooling rate and pentagons are more likely with a Columnar Joints: higher cooling rate (Toramaru, 2004). The faces of the joints show surface markings An Examination of Features, Formation, and Cooling called striae or plumose structures. Each of these Models striae is composed of a smooth band and a rough band perpendicular to the direction of joint by Mary Mathis propagation. Together, these bands represent an increment of joint growth. The striae widths, and Introduction therefore single increments of joint growth, range The Devil’s Postpile in California and the Giant’s from two to forty centimeters (Grossenbacher, 1995), Causeway in Ireland are well known geological increasing with column diameter (Budkewitsch, 1994). tourist attractions. What makes them so attractive Since the smooth band always forms before the rough is columnar joints, joint systems that intersect at band, the striae can be used to determine the direction about 120° to form polygonal columns of rock with of joint propagation (Grossenbacher, 1995), leading to three to eight sides (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006) the next topic, columnar joint formation. found in a wide variety of rocks such as basalt flows, rhyolite tuffs, and dehydrated opaline quartzarenites Formation of Columnar Joints (Budkewitsch, 1994). What process formed such an According to Budkewitsch (1994) columnar joints unusual, unnatural looking feature? This paper will are systems of “thermal cracks oriented perpendicular provide the answer. to the direction of maximum tensile stress.” When the edges of a hot body of rock begin to cool and solidify Features of Columnar Joints they contract to a greater degree than the still-hot Columnar joints are “the only system of interior. This causes the development of horizontal natural fractures to approach an optimal hexagonal tensile stresses between the hotter and cooler areas honeycomb-like pattern” (Gray, 1986) but pentagonal in the rock, in turn causing the rock to crack (Saliba, columns are just as abundant (Budkewitsch, 1994). 2003). These stresses are directed parallel to the In addition to variations in sides the columns also isothermal planes within the body, with the cracks vary in scale. Sources do not agree on the amount of perpendicular to the isothermal planes. The direction variation, the largest range being seven centimeters of crack propagation is also important and from to six meters in diameter (Encyclopedia Britannica, studying the striae, as described above, it has been 2006). found that the cracks propagate inward from and It has been observed that the surface expression perpendicular to the cooling surfaces (Grossenbacher, of columnar joints is not as regular as the pattern 1995). expressed at depth within the cooling body A fracture occurs when thermal contraction (Budkewitsch, 1994). The honeycomb-like pattern stresses exceed the yield strength of the rock mass at depth was proposed by Mallet in 1875 to be (Grossenbacher, 1995). Once initiated, the crack the jointing pattern that would most efficiently propagates inward until it reaches the isotherm release tensile crack energy per unit crack length corresponding to the glass transition temperature (Budkewitsch, 1994). However this does not account and continues to follow the solidification front for the abundant five, three, and eight sided polygons (Budkewitsch, 1994). In other words, along a given found in columnar joints worldwide. In 1976 a plane parallel to the cooling surface the body cracks mathematical formula was demonstrated to predict soon after it solidifies. According to Grossenbacher the number of sides per polygon: and McDuffie (1995) the “temperature interval (∆Tinit) n=2(2JT + 3JY + 4JX)/(JT + JY + 2JX) [for each increment of crack growth] is thought to wheren is the number of sides per polygon and JT, be a constant, with a measured value of 53°C for a JY, and JX are the fractions of T-type triple junctions, Hawaiian basalt.” Y-type triple junctions, and quadruple junctions, This means that each stria, representing one respectively. Experimentation has found that increment of joint propagation, is equivalent to 53°C hexagons are more likely to form with a slower of cooling (for Hawaiian basalt) and that stria width
33 is dependent on the thermal gradient of the cooling and McDuffie (1995) proposed a solely conductive body (Grossenbacher, 1995). If the thermal gradient is model; while Budkewitsch and Robin (1994) proposed steep, e.g. a large change in temperature over a short a conductive-convective combination where the distance, then the stria will be thin (Grossenbacher, convecting medium is water, mixed water and vapor, 1995). If the thermal gradient is shallow, e.g. a small volcanic gas, or air. change in temperature over a long distance, then the The conductive model of Grossenbacher and stria will be thick. McDuffie (1995) predicts that the ratio of stria There has been direct evidence for the thermal width to column diameter is nearly constant and cracking hypothesis of columnar joint formation that column diameter and stria width increase from detailed kinematic analysis of basalt fracturing inward from the boundaries of the rock mass. Both in columnar structures and through studies on the predictions are supported by field observations of thermal history of cooling lava lakes (Budkewitsch, columnar joint structures such as those exposed in 1994). The cooling lava lake studies have also the Makaopuhi Crater at Kilauea Volcano, Hawai’i. confirmed that the cracks propagate close behind the The columns have a diameter of one foot at the top solidus isotherm (Grossenbacher, 1995). Since the and twelve feet at depth (Peck, 1968). Mathematical cracks do follow the solidus isotherm they can be analysis also supports the conductive cooling model used to deduce much about the thermal history of a (Grossenbacher, 1995). rock mass. For example, if the upper eighty percent of The confirmation of the conductive model a rock mass is fractured with downward-propagating through field observations and mathematical analysis joints, then the upper cooling front must have been does not, however, rule out the coupled conductive accelerated with respect to the lower, since usually and convective model because it is “supported by only the upper sixty percent is cooled through the top direct field measurements of the cooling Hawaiian (Grossenbacher, 1995). lava lakes, data on glass transition, and mathematical It has been noted that column diameter is cooling models” (Budkewitsch, 1994). With two dependent on the cooling rate (∂T/∂t) with narrow cooling models, both supported by field observations columns signifying faster cooling and wide columns of lava lakes in Hawai’i and mathematical analysis, signifying slower cooling (Grossenbacher, 1995). at first glance it may seem that a definitive answer is A slow cooling rate allows viscous dissipation to not forthcoming. Further inspection, however, reveals act over a wider region resulting in larger columns that the coupled model states that heat loss is through (Grossenbacher, 1995). The inverse relationship (a) conduction toward the cooler joints from inside the between cooling rate and column width has been flow and (b) convection out of the flow through the confirmed by the starch-water experiments of cracks when the cooling front is over a certain distance into Toramaru and Matsumoto (2004). It has also been the interior of the cooling body. Therefore, it is possible confirmed by higher percentages of mesostasis, and that the conduction model is valid close to the edges the presence of dendritic iron-titanium oxides (both of the body and the coupled model in the interior. indicators of a faster cooling rate) in narrow columns The coupled model allows heat to be removed (Grossenbacher, 1995). Toramaru and Matsumoto from the interior of the cooling body through the (2004) found that if the cooling rate was accelerated crack network of the columnar joints. This helps to past a critical point no joints would form, and if explain the regularity of the column size by allowing the rate was slowed past a certain point the cross- the advance of the cooling front to be a quasi-steady sectional area of a joint would “approach infinity.” state process (Budkewitsch, 1994). Another feature of There are also other factors that have an effect, the coupled model is that it enables the solidification though not as striking, on column diameter. They are time to be a linear function of the thickness of the elasticity, thermal expansion, crack density ratio at cooling body where in the conductive model the maximum stress, the crack growth coefficient, and glass transition temperature (Toramaru, 2004). Conclusion Columnar joints are systems of joints that formed Cooling Models through thermal contraction from the outside-in as There is some debate over whether the cooling a hot body of rock cooled. Direct observations of mechanism for columnar joints is conduction, cooling lava lakes in Hawai’i have provided much convection, or a combination of the two (Budkewitsch, insight into the mechanisms of columnar joint 1994). Conduction is the transfer of heat through formation. However, even with these observations physical contact, and convection is the transfer of conflicting ideas on the cooling mechanism remain. heat through an intermediary fluid. Grossenbacher Whether the mechanism is agreed upon or not,
34 solidification time is proportional to the square of the Grossenbacher, Kenneth A. and Stephen M. McDuffie. thickness (Budkewitsch, 1994). “Conductive Cooling of Lava: Columnar Joint columnar joints such as those at Devil’s Postpile Diameter and Stria Width as Functions of will retain the mystery that draws tourists and Cooling Rate and Thermal Gradient.” Journal of scientists from around the world. Volcanology and Geothermal Research 69.1-2 (1995): 95-103.
Works Cited Peck, Dallas L. and Takeshi Minakami. “The Formation of Columnar Joints in the Upper Part Budkewitsch, Paul and Pierre-Yves Robin. “Modelling of Kilauean Lava Lakes, Hawai’i.” Geological the Evolution of Columnar Joints.” Journal of Society of America Bulletin 79.9 (1968): 1151-65. Volcanology and Geothermal Research 59.3 (1994): 219-39. Saliba, R. and E. A. Jagla. “Analysis of Columnar Joint Patterns from Three-dimensional Stress “joint.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopedia Modeling.” Journal of Geophysical Research 108.B10 Britannica Online. 11 Dec. 2006
This paper was written for Geology 470 (Volcanology) as the final research paper project.
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indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterobacter Coral Health and aerogenes by using Coliscan® tests. It was found that the Waiopae tide pool ecosystem contained levels of Water Quality the fecal indicator bacteria E.coli and total bacteria coliforms in excessive levels according to EPA and Evaluations at state guidelines. Due to the excess nutrients and sewage inputs into the Waiopae tide pools, the coral Waiopae Tide Pools, communities in the tide pools may be at great risks Kapoho, Big Island of from these anthropogenic stresses. Introduction Hawai’i Coral ecosystems in the Waiopae tide pools consist of many marine species. Corals are a keystone by Cheresa Coles species that defines an ecosystem and provides its basic three-dimensional structure (Birkeland, 2004). The phylum Cnidaria consists of many orders of coral. The stony corals are in phylum Cnidaria, class Anthozoa, subclass Hexacorrallia, and order Scleractinia. These corals have anemone like polyps that secrete calcium carbonate skeletons and live in benthic colonies. Corals can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In Hawai’i, there are about 50 species of shallow-water corals in 17 genera (Hoover, 1998). In the Waiopae tide pools there are about five dominate species of coral. Corals are sessile benthic animals. This organism’s survival is completely dependent on the Abstract quality of their environment. Scientific evidence has The Waiopae tide pools contain several reef indicated that coral reefs are deteriorating rapidly communities that have recently been designated around the world (NOAA, 2005). Some causes of the as a Marine Life Conservation District (MLCD). coral’s deterioration are pollution, natural weather Patches of coral are scattered throughout the A’a and patterns, global warming and trampling by observers. Pa’hoe’hoe lava substrate that make up this unique The increasing threats to coral, coincides with an ecosystem. A continuously and rapidly expanding expanding population along the coastlines around the community is being built around the tide pools. All world. Although, reefs have been degraded by human of the dwellings have cesspools or septic systems. activities, evidence shows that they will recover, These sewage systems allow raw residential sewage provided remedial measures are implemented to leak directly into the underground water table that on land to restore water and substrate conditions flows into the tide pools. As a consequence, excess (Wolanski et al., 2004). Reefs are especially important nutrients are leached into the coral communities that to protect because they contribute to our world live in the Waiopae tide pools. Coral ecosystems are economy by providing food, tourism, jobs, recreation easily affected by inputs of nutrients that can change and protection from storms and tidal surges (Cesar et the conditions of the marine environment needed al. 2004). for survival. Field experiments were conducted in Steady environmental conditions must exist for Kapoho, Hawai’i, USA, (latitude: 19.5195, Longitude: coral communities to develop and survive. These -154.8135) to determine the amount of bacteria in necessary stable conditions are: water movement, several locations of the MLCD, as well as in areas water temperature, and clear water. Wave action outside of the MLCD. A total of eight locations were provides the water movement that is necessary monitored weekly over an eight month period. to supply the corals with oxygen and prevents Bacterial levels were quantified using the fecal sediments from collecting on them, since they are 36 sessile organisms. This is a process that is controlled There are two guidelines or standards that are by natural ocean currents and the geomorphology commonly used in the U.S. to determine recreational of the coral reef (Smith, 2004). Some scientists have water quality are: the fecal limit of 100 E. coli colony suggested that exposure to severe wave action may forming units (CFU)/100mL and a total coliform limit coral development and abundance (Maragos, et limit of 1000 CFU/100mL ( Cabelli et al., 1983). The al. 2004). Waves naturally keep the surrounding water U.S. EPA acknowledges that Escherichia coli, the most clean and circulated. commonly used a fecal indicator bacteria, is the best Corals need a constant water temperature that indicator of potential health risks to humans (EPA is approximately 31º C for optimal health. Some website, 2005). It has been well documented that E. researchers have suggested that temperature extremes coli cannot survive for long in marine ecosystems may contribute to decline of coral species and after it’s introduction; therefore, most e. coli that abundance (Maragos, et al. 2004). In lagoons and tide is found in the marine environment comes from a pools like the Waiopae tide pools, water temperatures recent source ( Perez-Rosas and Hazen, 1987). One may also fluctuate with tidal variation and weather. study has determined that exposure to solar radiation Corals need to have clear water so the symbiotic completely eliminated all E. coli in their water sample algae called zooxanthellae, located within their cells, after two days and E. aerogenes still remained after can photosynthesize. Most reefs have developed in three days (McCambridge and McMeekin, 1981). areas where the water quality is adequate for their Total coliforms alone are not adequate as a health risk survival. If the surrounding water is affected by indicator because there can be many contributors, like nutrient run off it has the potential to cause and algal other warm blooded animals (Cabelli et al., 1983). The bloom. An algal bloom will cause the ocean water above guidelines were mandated because it has been to have an opaque or cloudy appearance. This is estimated that when the bacteria limits are exceeded detrimental to coral which need clear water. In turn, that approximately 8 per 1,000 individuals may eutrophication of the coral reef may occur after an experience some type of gastrointestinal illness, flu algal bloom. like symptoms, or respiratory irritations (Francy et al., The Waiopae tide pools are located on the island year ). of Hawai’i’s east coast. Part of this unique marine In this water quality assessment of Waiopae tide area was established as a Marine Life Conservation pools it is expected that the tide pools close to shore District (MLCD) in 2003 (DLNR, 2004), and the other will have higher levels of fecal indicator bacteria part was left as an unrestricted public use area. In the than the tide pools farther away from shore. Due to MLCD zone of the tide pools no commercial activities, the development of the shoreline it is predicted to fishing, or aquarium collection is allowed. see high quantities of both E. coli and total coliforms The Waiopae tide pools are situated in a in the marine waters. By determining the amount distinctive area of the eastern coastline on the Big of fecal indicator bacteria in the tide pools, we can Island of Hawai’i. This area of the coastline was assume the coral communities may be experiencing created by the 1950’s lava flow and consists of several anthropogenic stresses due to excess nutrient influxes tide pools that vary in size and depth. The tide pools from residential sewage. are connected to the underground water table and are a mix of fresh and marine water. Materials and Methods Furthermore, the tide pools are surrounded by a rapidly expanding residential community and all of Field experiments were conducted in Kapoho, the dwellings are on cesspool or septic systems. The Hawai’i located on the Big Islands east coast, USA naturally occurring water table is close to the surface (latitude: 19.5195, Longitude: -154.8135), shown throughout the community that surrounds the tide below. pools. Therefore, when a large hole or cesspool is dug, water fills the hole. A septic system is a cement or plastic tub that is placed into the hole; this type of septic system holds solid material but allows liquid to be released into the surroundings. Both of these sewage disposal systems allow for raw sewage to be released into the Waiopae tide pools. Raw sewage Figure 1 Waiopae Tide that is released into the tide pools will eventually be pools are located on the dispersed throughout the entire tide pool ecosystem. east coast of the Big Island indicated by the arrow 37 Water samples were collected weekly from eight then recorded as CFU per 100ml. This process was locations throughout the Waiopae tide pools during a conducted over eight months for all eight tide pool variety of recorded tidal and weather conditions. monitoring sites. Four out of the eight tide pools were chosen for monitoring saturation percent of dissolved oxygen and temperature. To collect this data a YSI meter was used and these tide pools were monitored weekly for 3 months.
Results
Several water quality conditions were discovered in the Waiopae tide pools. The Coliscan® analyses determined that most of the tide pools had excessive levels of E. coli, according to Hawai’i Department of Health (DOH) recreational water standards of 100cfu/100ml water. The E. coli levels decreased when the tide pool distance from shore increased. Figure 3 shows how the abundance of E.coli decreased to lower levels in the outer tide pools.
Figure 2 This aerial satellite picture shows where the eight tide pool monitoring sites were located. The residential subdivision can be seen behind the tide pools.
Samples were collected in sterile bottles and analyzed within one hour of collection. The eight tide pool locations were chosen haphazardly for this analysis. Every one of the tide pools were similar in size and depth. All of the locations were within the MLCD except for one location which was located in the non-MLCD zone. The salinity of the water Figure 3 E. coli levels tend to decrease as the tide pool distance from shore increases. samples was determined using a refractometer. The water samples were analyzed for bacteria using Total coliform analyses found that most of the Coliscan® tests. The Coliscan® method of bacteria tide pools exceed the 1000cfu/100ml safe guidelines analysis allowed Escherichia coli and Enterobacter indicated by the DOH. Some of the inner tide pools aerogenes bacteria to be identified by color and easily had higher cfu/100ml counts but there was no general quantified in units of colony forming units per 100 trend that indicated the inner tide pools always had milliliters (CFU/100mL). higher total coliforms than the outer tide pools. For each analysis, 2mL of the water sample was The majority of the tide pools were in excess of mixed with the Coliscan® easy gel media and placed the 1000cfu/100ml safe levels for recreational waters. in a pre-treated Coliscan® Petri dish. In addition, a Only two tide pools that were located away from replicate Petri dish was also prepared for each water shore had total coliform levels that met the DOH sample using a 4mL of the water sample mixed to the recreational water quality standards (Fig. 4). easy gel. Interestingly, the salinity values of the tide pools The Petri dishes were incubated at room were found to be low in the near shore tide pools temperature 30-37ºC for 48 hours. The E.coli turned and increased in the outer tide pools to salinity a dark blue color colonies and the total coliforms values of pure seawater which is 33-36 ‰ (Fig. 5). formed red colonies. Next, E. coli colonies were quantified and then recorded in CFU/100mL. Total bacteria coliforms were calculated using the total of red and blue colonies in the Petri dish and 38 Figure 4 Total coliform levels (cfu/100ml) in tide pools when distance from shore is ranked. Tide pools one is Figure 7 Total coliform per 100ml of seawater results closest to shore. showing the differences for tide pools with different salinities
The four tide pools that were monitored for the percent dissolved oxygen content, all had adequate levels for recreational waters as required by DOH. The dissolved oxygen levels were lower for tide pools that had low salinity values and increased exponentially when the salinity increased (Fig. 8). All tide pools exceeded the required 60% dissolved oxygen levels. Again, the inner tide pools had slightly lower dissolved oxygen levels when compared to the outer tide pools (Fig. 9).
Figure 5 Salinity (0/00) values for the ranked tide pools
Furthermore, the fecal indicator bacteria levels were found to be highest in the inner tide pools that also had the lowest mean salinities (Fig. 6 and 7).
Figure 8 The dissolved oxygen percent saturation increases in tide pools with higher salinity (0/00)
Figure 6 The effects of salinity on E. coli abundances in the tide pools. 4 shows that there was a variety of levels in all of the tide pools with no general trend. These results may be due to survivorship of the bacteria in the water column. Perez-Rosas and Hazen suggested that E. coli may only survive in seawater for 12 hours due to high solar radiation (1987). The Coliscan® test gives results in E. coli and total coliforms per 100ml. However, many different types of Enterobacteracea colony forming bacteria may be present and show up in the total coliform results. The differences in survivorship in marine waters may be the reason no general trend was seen in the total coliform results. More specific analyses would need to be done to determine exactly what other types of bacteria are in the water column. The four tide pools that were analyzed for percent Figure 9 The results of the dissolved oxygen percent saturation in tide pools, ranked in distance from shore saturation of dissolved oxygen had adequate levels. The department of health requires recreational waters Discussion to have 60% or more percent saturation of dissolved oxygen. All of the four monitored ponds exceeded The Waiopae tide pools have only been these required levels. Figure 6 shows that salinity designated a marine life conservation district for the does affect the amount of dissolved oxygen in the last three years. There has not been any published water column. The tide pools with high salinities had data on the conditions of this unique marine the greatest amount of dissolved oxygen. ecosystem. The primary purpose of this research It can be concluded that the low salinity tide project was to determine the relative condition of the pools have less dissolved oxygen, but the cause of water quality in several areas of the Waiopae tide pool this needs to be further investigated. Several reasons ecosystem. Several conclusions may be drawn from may have caused these results. It seems that the outer this eight month monitoring project. tide pools have more water circulation than the inner It was unexpected to find that the inner tide pools pools, which may be a result of water motion caused have a mean salinity lower that the normal seawater by wave action. Also, high amounts of algae in the salinity of 33-35‰. As figure 5 shows, the inner-most water column may increase the amount of dissolved tide pools have much lower mean salinities. Table oxygen in the water column. 1 illustrates that the salinity does fluctuate to even In conclusion, Waiopae tide pools are a unique lower salinity values as low as 14‰ in some of the marine ecosystem composed of several coral tide pools. This suggests that the tide pools have a communities of different sizes in various locations. fresh ground water source that may flush out into This is a distinctive marine conservation area that has the tide pools near shore. The outer tide pools mean a rapidly expanding community built almost on top salinities were at levels of pure seawater 33-35‰, but of the tide pools. also had low minimum salinities at some point during Coral communities require specific water quality the monitoring project. conditions and if these conditions are not met the Interestingly, the salinity of the tide pools played coral’s health is at risk. Therefore, this marine life a major role in amount of E. coli and total coliforms conservation district is also at risk of deteriorating. that resided in the water. It was surprising to find The inner tide pools have higher levels of fecal that the lower mean salinity tide pools had the indicator bacteria than the Hawai’i DOH recommends highest mean amounts of E. coli and total coliforms for recreational waters. This information indicates CFU/100ml of water (Fig.6 and 7). It was amazing to there is a source of sewage leaching into the near see that the bacteria levels dropped significantly as shore tide pools and some of the outer tide pools. soon as the salinity increased to 33-35‰. Since the dwellings are located on the coastline very The tide pools closest to shore had higher mean near the tide pools and they have cesspool systems, it E. coli cfu/100ml than the outer pools. This is a result is very likely that the residences are the source of the that was expected (Fig.1). There seemed to be no real sewage that has been found in the tide pools. relationship between the distance from shore and the The fecal indicator bacteria levels are an amount of total coliforms present in the water. Figure indication of excess nutrients being put into the
40 marine life conservation district. This has the potential to affect the health of the coral communities, especially in the inner area of the tide pools. Further research should be done on the condition of the coral communities in the protected MLCD and non-protected Waiopae tide pools for both inner and outer tide pools. In addition, more specific analyses should be done to monitor the amount of residential sewage that leaks from the cesspools of the residences closest to the coastline of the Waiopae tide pools over a long term period. It is very important to monitor the fecal indicator bacteria because the presence of the bacteria indicates that coral health, as well as recreational marine enthusiasts, may experience negative health effects.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to have the opportunity to accomplish this research in such a unique ecosystem nearby to where I have lived for many years. I have always wanted to learn more about it. Most importantly, I would like to thank Dr. Lisa Muehlstein of UH Hilo for all of her encouragement, guidance and the opportunity to conduct this research project. Also, I thank the UHH Biology and Marine Science departments for the use of their equipment to complete the research--particularly Dr. Tracy Weigner. In addition, I must thank Clifford Furukado at the Department of Health’s Clean Water Branch for his advice and willingness to share his knowledge and long term data of Waiopae tide pools.
41 Literature Cited Smith, W. 2004. Hawai’i Coral Reef Assessment & Monitoring Program, 2004. www.cramp.wcc. Birkeland, C. 2004. Ratcheting Down the Coral Reefs. Hawai’i.edu. [accessed 2005 June 26]. Bioscience. 54: p. 1021-1028. Wolanski, E, Richmond, R. McCook, L. 2004. A model Cabelli, VJ., A.P Dufour,L.J. McCabe, M.A. Levin. of the effects of land-based, human activities on 1983. A marine recreational water quality the health of coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef criterion consistent with indicator concepts and and in Fouha, Guam, Micronesia. Journal of risk analysis. Journal of Water Pollution Control Marine Systems. 46: p. 133-145. Federation. 55:10. p1306-1314.
Capitini, C., Tissot, B., Carrol, M., Walsh, W., Peck, Table 1 The minimum and maximum ranges S. 2004.Competing Perspectives in Recourses of the ranked tide pools were recorded. This Protection: The case of Marine Protected Areas in demonstrates that salinity fluctuates in all of the tide West Hawai’i. Society & Natural Resources. 17: pools. 763-779.
Cesar, H., Van Beukering, Pieter. 2004. Economic valuation of the coral reefs of Hawai’i. Pacific Science. 58: 231-242.
Department of Land and Natural Resources. 2005. Table 2 Overall results for the water quality www.state.hi.us/dlnr. [accessed 2005 June 27]. evaluations at Waiopae tide pools. Tide pools were ranked in distance form shore. Tide pools 1 is closest Francy, Donna, Donna N. Myers, Kevin D. Metzker. to shore and tide pools 8 is farthest from shore. Escherichia coli and Fecal-coliform bacteria as indicator of recreational water quality.
Hoover, J. 1998. Hawaiian Sea Creatures: A guide to Hawai’i’s Marine Invertebrates. Mutual Publishing; 1998.
Maragos, J., Potts, D., Aeby, G., Gulko, D., Kenyon, J., Sicillano, D., VanRavenswaay, D. 2004. Rapid ecological assessments of coral on shallow reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Part 1: Species and Distribution. Pacific Sciences. 58: p. This was a research paper for Mare 399: Marine 211-230. Science, a directed studies class that focused on tropical marine research investigations at Waiopae McCambridge, J. and T.A McMeekin. 1981. Effects of Tide Pools. solar radiation and predacious Microorganisms on survival of fecal and other bacteria. Applied My professor was Dr. Lisa Muehlstein, Marine and Environmental Microbiology. 41:5. p. 1083- Science Division. 1087.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005. www.cop.noaa.gov. [accessed 2005 June 27].
Perez-Rosas, Nerybelle and Terry Hazen. 1988. In suit survival of Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli in tropical coral reefs. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 54:1. p. 1-9.
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traditions. In the article “Kanaka Maoli Resistance to Culture Clash Annexation,” Noenoe Silva gives background of the events that occurred up until the complete annexation by Brandi De Mello of Hawai’i. She quotes, “Before the trial, the queen had been forced to sign a statement abdicating her th Hawai’i, it is more than just the 50 state. It is throne under threat that the rebels would be executed the symbol of what was once a thriving Nation, if she did not” (56). Silva tells the true story of what a government with complete independence. All the Queen endured because of the unconditional love this slowly began to change as Westerners, mainly she had for her people. The Western men could care missionaries, began integrating into its culture in less about the Native Hawaiians; they were focused 1820. Eventually, others would come, recognizing on one thing, control. At the end of Silva’s article, Hawai’i’s prime location as a valuable asset. Natives it summarizes the end of Hawai’i as a Nation. She of Hawai’i welcomed them with open arms, naïve quotes, “the Newlands Resolution was passed-it to what their real agenda was, total control of the made Hawai’i a territory of the United States, an Hawaiian Islands and its people. act that was illegal by both U.S. constitutional and The arrival of Captain James Cook should have international law” (65). The illegal takeover of the been the first sign for Native Hawaiians to be more Hawaiian Kingdom is the main reason why Natives cautious of visitors. Captain Cook’s appearance have built up animosity towards Westerners or Non- around the time of the Native Hawaiians Makahiki Natives. However, this is only a small fraction of season was definitely a case of mistaken identity. the effects of Non-Native influence. Not only did However, instead of being honest with the Native Hawaiians lose their kingdom, they lost their identity. Hawaiians, Cook used their innocence to manipulate The identity of Native Hawaiians is portrayed and take advantage of them. It wouldn’t end there. through their language. It was once spoken fluently Missionaries began settling in Hawai’i, attempting to among all Native Hawaiians, until foreigners banned “save” Native Hawaiians and make them “civilized.” them from speaking their native language in their This brought about new rules and regulations own land. It was a scheme of the Non-Natives to keep marking some of the first changes in the Native Native Hawaiians quiet and powerless. David and Hawaiian culture. Karen Gegeo recognize, “the foundation of a people’s Changes ranged from wearing clothes, to the identity and cultural authenticity is their culturally introduction of a new language, English. The Native shared indigenous epistemology, embodied in and Hawaiians lack of the English language proved to be expressed through their heritage language.” From beneficial to “Big Businessmen” who sought to attain an anthropological perspective it is made clear that the land necessary to set up their plantations. These language is essential to every culture. The Hawaiian Businessmen then pressured King Kalakaua to sign language may have been taken away, but it was never a Reciprocity treaty with the United States, allowing forgotten. Although oppressed, Native Hawaiians them to sell their sugar cane tax-free. In 1887, held on tight to their language, salvaging what they descendants of missionaries forced the Native people could to pass down through the generations. As a to conform to the “Bayonet Constitution.” The details result, today a small amount of people still speak of the constitution stated that only male Hawaiians Hawaiian with the numbers rapidly increasing. Yet, and Westerners (excluding Asians) were granted full Native Hawaiians are still outnumbered and over- voting rights if and only if they met their standards of powered by their foreign counterparts. having wealth and education. Of course, they knew Many foreign groups, when deciding to move, that at this time Native Hawaiians, full and part, were attracted to the image of “paradise,” thus made up less than half of Hawai’i’s population and transforming “paradise” into a “melting pot.” were not all well versed in the English language. Having a “melting pot” in which the Natives were Unfortunately, that wasn’t enough. Soon, outnumbered resulted in a shift of power. Because Westerners demanded complete control of the there was so much foreign influence, the Westerners government. This led to the imprisoning of Queen formed a hierarchy among the people in Hawai’i. Lili’uokalani in her own home, the shutting down of This ultimately left Native Hawaiians at the bottom of Native resistance, and the destruction of Hawaiian the totem pole. In an essay written by Trask it states: 43 Given that Hawaiians are indigenous, that In this short excerpt, Rampell acknowledges that, our government was overthrown, and that we the reason land was put on the market for purchase are entitled, as a nation, to sovereignty, the by Non-Natives was the “Great Mahele.” The Great argument that we should share power with Mahele was a decree issued by the King allowing non-Natives who benefit from the theft of our foreigners to buy property. Instead, they again took sovereignty is, simply, grotesque (3). advantage of Native Hawaiian kindness and sought out the most valuable properties in Hawai’i. Now, Trask expresses her anger towards the idea of a many Native families are unable to afford and have skewed hierarchy. She disagrees that Natives should access to property near a once widely used resource. adhere to the suggestion of sharing power with Non- While efforts to gain back rights have been a struggle, Natives. A perfect example of the “power shift” is Native Hawaiians continue to fight. the high amount of Non-Natives in political seats. In order for the Native Hawaiian people to Trask affirms that, “As a majority of voters at mid- have the upper-hand in the constant evolution of century, the Japanese and other Asians moved into society, Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop established the middle class and eventually into seats of power a school designed for the Native Hawaiian children. in the legislature and the governor’s house” (2). Here The school was created to provide a high quality she brings attention to the foreign influence in our education so Native Hawaiian children could gain an government. Many Native Hawaiians agree that advantage over foreign policies. Kamehameha School Hawai’i is governed in a biased manner, granting is now one of the most prestigious schools in the favors to the Non-Natives. Today, Hawaiians are state and has served as a wonderful asset for Native trying to educate themselves in the governing process Hawaiians. As of recently, the government labeled her of Hawai’i and making attempts to exercise their will as an act of discrimination against “non-natives.” Native Rights. Now, they’ve allowed “non-native” children to attend The biggest issue among Native Hawaiians Kamehameha schools, stripping us of another right today, is the unfair distribution of Native lands and we once possessed. resources. These days, it is quite normal to find high Another very recent issue involved the removal skyscrapers, busy streets, and expensive homes on of bones from old burial sites for the purpose of land that was once sacred. There are many beautiful constructing more buildings. In the Hawaiian culture, beaches and ocean front properties that are being bones, or “iwi”, are valued and represent the symbol purchased by rich businessmen who have no respect of “mana” or power. In an article titled, “Native for the Hawaiian culture. Land, which is a big part Burials: Human Rights and Sacred Bones” Ayau of the culture and a very important resource for wrote: Native-Hawaiians, has been deceivingly purchased by Non Natives. In their eyes, beaches serve only Ancestral bones were guarded, respected, one purpose, “recreation”. However, for the Native venerated, and even deified. It was believed Hawaiians it serves as a resource for food as some that the ‘uhane (spirit) of a person hovered of the beaches are prime fishing grounds. For many near na iwi. Desecration of na iwi resulted in people, fishing is the only way they obtain food, an insult to the ‘uhane and trauma and harm making it very important for beaches to be accessible. to living descendants (1). An article written by Ed Rampell, “Incident at Kea’au”, documented the story of various Hawaiian Ayau gives sufficient background on the significance groups coming together to protest on private property carried in “na iwi”. He makes it quite clear that for the access to one of the most beautiful beaches on any disturbance to these bones would cause great the east side of the Big Island. Rampell writes: distress to the Native people. Sadly, again to make a quick buck, Non-Natives chose to ignore the cultural Now, 150 years after King Kamehameha practices of Native Hawaiians. Ayau also quoted, III proclaimed the Great Mahele, which “the iwi of approximately 3,000 ancestral Native allowed for the selling of Hawaiian land to Hawaiians were systematically removed from the non-Hawaiians, the Big Island trespassing sand dunes of Mokapu Peninsula” (2). The Native case currently on appeal before the Hawai’i Hawaiian people were upset and protested against Supreme Court could result in another major the disturbance of their ancestral bones. Together reconsideration of land-access rights for they fought and used their knowledge to establish a Hawaiians. law that protects many Native Hawaiian burial sites. As time continues Native Hawaiians are beginning
44 to recognize and understand the unjust acts of Non- Works Cited Natives. To resolve the hurt inflicted by Non-Natives, the Ayau, Edward H. “Native Burials: Human Rights and Native Hawaiian people have united together and Sacred Bones.” Cultural Survival. 7 June 2001 devised several plans to regain their independence.
Both groups have one thing in common: to regain power over their land and its resources. The clash between the Natives and Non-Natives is due mainly to the unwillingness to learn and respect the Native Hawaiian culture. The Native Hawaiian people have painfully endured the effects of an illegal annexation of their Hawaiian Kingdom. It is no question whether or not “Kanaka Maoli” deserve retribution for the invasion of the Non-Native lifestyle. Many might think that the overthrow is ancient history, and that Native Hawaiians should forgive and forget. However, the clash between Native Hawaiians and Non- Natives goes beyond the annexation of the Hawaiian Kingdom; it is the continuous neglect of the Native Hawaiian culture. To fight back, Hawaiians use their voice. As one it is faintly heard, but as a united body, they seek to reach, revive, and restore the culture of the Native Hawaiian people. Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘aina I ka pono (The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness). 45 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
think I was dead and leave. This became my nightly Family and Fern Boxes pattern and I dreaded going to bed. Mama turned on a small table lamp in the hall after tucking me in by Ann Hassler each night, but I still cried myself to sleep. I didn’t tell anybody about that or about the Evil that had come to The weeks after Daddy died are a blur. You live with us. know how it feels when you wake up from a dream? Mama didn’t mention Daddy at all the day I came You can remember some of what was happening home, or for several weeks afterward. But I knew before you awoke, but the details are fuzzy and, that she was thinking about him all the time, just like I after a while, you can’t recall what happened or did. Frank and I went back to school and our even when. I remember believing that I was lost or routine. Since I could remember, Mama had stayed forgotten. Frank and Mama were just next door, but home while Daddy went to the city to work. Now, I had to stay with Aunt Muriel. Oh, how I wanted to she felt she needed to get a job and start a career. First go home! I felt left out, scared, and comfortless. she thought she’d sell insurance, so she went to school I know Mama thought I was too young to attend and took the state test for a license. But after a month a funeral, but I didn’t even get to say goodbye to or so working in an insurance office, she decided she Daddy. That made me angry and hurt my feelings hated it. I think she was continually reminded of at the same time. I felt betrayed and abandoned, not Daddy and found it hard to convince people to pay only by my father but also by the rest of my family. for something only useful if they were dead. It only Mama came to get me from Aunt Muriel’s and we depressed her more. walked home together. The house was quiet and sad-- Next, she tried real estate. She went to school for a stark contrast to the chaos of Daddy’s last night at that license too, but after working at that for three home full of firemen, noise, and equipment. An odd or four months, she realized that she just wasn’t cut emptiness greeted me like an invisible whirlwind that out for selling anything. Mama had a Bachelor’s sucked away happiness and joy, leaving uncertainty degree in psychology from Washington University and fear for the future. in St. Louis. After graduation, she had worked as Two new white wicker fern boxes flanked the a psychiatric social worker and in disaster relief for fireplace hearth. They were filled with Boston ferns the American Red Cross. She’d been part of a first and looked out of place in our living room. I found response team during the floods of the 1920s in the out they had been filled with funeral flowers sent by Deep South. She loved that job, but had given it up to the Army Ordinance office where Daddy had worked be wife and mother—a typical path for women in the during the war. As Mama walked by them, she ran 1930s and 1940s. While she was trying to get a handle her fingertips over the white braided wood. She on what to do next, I was having a harder and harder stopped and stood with her hand still on the planter. time. I couldn’t adjust to the change. Daddy was gone She looked lost. I turned away so Mama wouldn’t and Mama was always worried and unhappy. I really know I’d seen the tears in her eyes. I’m not sure why missed our evening ritual, especially our ride up the that was important, but it was. driveway on the running board of Daddy’s green “We’ll be okay.” Mama murmured more to Packard. herself than to me. “Okay. Shall we make some Frank changed too. He had always been the quiet supper?” She turned toward the kitchen and a task sort. He studied hard and was interested in sports, she could do without too much thought. particularly basketball and tennis. But Frank had The three of us ate dinner that night sitting retreated completely and had simply stopped talking around the kitchen table instead of in the dining to me--and everyone else for that matter. As for me, I room. I wasn’t feeling good so Mama put me to bed kept everything to myself and didn’t tell Mama how early. The next thing I knew, I was awake and it was much I was hurting. I guess I was still angry with her. very dark in my room. I’d been crying in my sleep Dinner time was especially hard. The silver and woke with a feeling something bad was hiding candlesticks stayed on the table, but nobody lit them in the shadowy corners of my room or just outside anymore for meals. Where we had always turned my door. I tried to lie very still and I tried to breathe off the radio during supper, Mama left it on now and shallowly, so that if Evil came to get me, it would we listened to newscasts by Gabriel Heater, H.G. 46 Caltenbourne and Walter Winchell. I can still hear “Frank?” Mama spoke very softly. “What’s one of the newsmen saying, “Good evening Mr. and wrong?” Mrs. America and all the ships at sea.” I wondered My big brother whirled on his feet to face us. His how the ships could hear anything out on the ocean. hands were clenched into fists at his sides and his face Who were they, and what exactly were they doing was all screwed up. He looked like he was going to out there? Adults rarely think about explaining such explode. things to children. “Wrong? What could possibly be wrong, It was Sunday afternoon and Mama called Frank Mama?” he yelled. “Everything’s just peachy!” Each and me into the living room. “I’ve decided that I word of his outburst cut through the air like a meat am going to become a teacher,” she began. “But that cleaver…chop, chop, and chop— hacking away at the means that we’ll need to make some changes. I’ll family’s heartache. Mama stood silently, her knuckles have to go back to school for a year or so to get my whitening from her grip on the fern box. The house teaching certificate. And while your father provided held its breath while we fought to recover from the well for us, we may not be able to afford to do some blows struck. of the things I’d hope to do.” Mama stopped talking “Mama? I’m so sorry. I didn’t mean…” Frank’s and looked down at her left hand resting on the edge voice was raw, barely a whisper. of the fern box. “So, I’ve asked Mother and Father to “It’s alright, Frank. Everything will be alright.” come over this afternoon. Before they arrive, though, Mama gathered both of us into her arms. Tears rolled I’d like to ask you both how you’d feel if I asked them down her cheeks. “I know it’s not fair. I know. But to move out of their apartment and share our home things will be okay. Give it some time. Just give us with us.” Mama looked first at Frank and then at me, some time.” waiting for a response. “Mama?” I asked. “Would Grandpa and Grandma live here all the time?” It’s interesting how major decisions that affect the Mama smiled at me and nodded. “Yes, sweetie rest of your life are made at the table where you eat. pie—except for the time they visit Aunt Lois in That afternoon, my grandparents arrived and Mama Tucson. But that’ll only be during the winter when had a long talk with them in the dining room. A time it’s too cold here.” I was a little confused. If St. Louis schedule and basic ground rules were laid out for was too cold for Grandpa and Grandma, why wasn’t everyone. Mama felt she needed rules so there’d be it too cold for me? no question later about who’d decide what was best “But whose room will they sleep in, Mama?” I for us as a family. It had to be pretty hard on Mama, asked. Maybe I was being pretty selfish, but I was but also on my grandparents. If they moved in with worried I’d lose my room with its window seat and us, they’d have to let go of all major decision making. my beautiful bird’s-eye maple furniture. They had strong personalities and I’m sure that “We’ll have to work that out, if and when the time relinquishing authority was hard. comes. I haven’t even asked them yet,” Mama said. The situation couldn’t have been any easier for “We have four bedrooms, so there’s one available for Mama. She was making the rules, but they were them. But it’s important for me to know how you and her parents, after all. And she had always been your brother feel about your grandparents living with a respectful, dutiful daughter. Shortly after that, us.” Grandma and Grandpa moved into our house on “I think it would be super duper, Mama,” I Sweetbriar Lane. My grandmother taught me girlie bubbled happily. My grandpa was one of my favorite things: how to do embroidery, how to hem a garment people. He always had time for me and he told me with stitches so tiny they’re almost invisible, how to funny stories about when he was little. He’d start make lemon meringue pie, and how to rice potatoes them with, “Well, when I was a little girl…” Then I’d so they’d whip nice and smooth. My grandpa taught start to giggle. I knew he was pulling my leg; he’d me boy things: how to catch and throw a softball, never been a girl. He was a boy, for heaven’s sake! how to parallel park the old Mercury, how to putt “Frank?” Mama waited. My brother stood up, and read a golf green, and how to hunt—though we walked to the window, and looked out at the redbud mostly walked in the woods and shot tin cans off tree ablaze with crimson blossoms. He hesitated for a fence posts. Mama got her state certificate and started few seconds and said, “I guess it’d be alright.” But I teaching school at Manchester Elementary. Family could tell he wasn’t as happy about the prospect as I life took on a different routine, a new rhythm, and was. rough times started to smooth out for all of us.
47 Soon after my grandparents moved in, the fern boxes disappeared. I was happy when they were gone and Mama didn’t have to touch them as she moved through the living room. I hated those white wicker reminders of what had been lost. I was more than happy to replace them with my grandparents who made me feel safe and enriched my life enormously. Looking back now, I am amazed at how truly brave Mama was during this terrible, bittersweet period in our lives. And the most important thing I discovered at that time became the center point of my life: family is everything.
This paper was written for English 204. The assignment was a personal essay/memoir.
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of greenhouse gas emissions, 30% of raw materials Green Building in use, 30% of waste output/136 million tons annually, [and] 12% of potable water consumption (USGBC). Hawai’i: Improving those statistics could greatly reduce our overall ecological footprint. by LeAna Gloor Green building proponents claim that the environmental benefits of green building “enhance Akamai Stewardship of our Land, or Just an and protect ecosystems and biodiversity, improve air Expensive Mainland Fad? and water quality, reduce solid waste, [and] conserve The State of Hawai’i stands at a pivotal epoch. natural resources (USGBC). On the economic side, Out of all the states in the union, we pay the most green building is intended to, “reduce operating costs, for our energy costs. We also have scarce supplies enhance asset value and profits, improve employee of freshwater and finite options for waste disposal, productivity and satisfaction, [and] optimize life-cycle and we are the most reliant on outside resources to economic performance” (USGBC). Other factors, not be shipped across the Pacific Ocean. Considering to be overlooked, are the health and social benefits those issues, we have reason to be a good model for of green building. Green building focuses attention sustainable development. Or, at least we should be on the community in ways that traditional building heading towards sustainability. However, Hawai’i methods never consider. Green building projects trails behind many other states in addressing basic are reported to “improve air [quality], [provide environmental strategies and has been known to for] thermal and acoustic environments, enhance fluctuate hesitantly when it comes to adopting and occupant comfort and health, minimize strain on local enforcing restrictive environmental mandates. That infrastructure, and contribute to overall quality of tide may be turning for Hawai’i because the state has life” (USGBC). recently addressed the issue of sustainable building In May of 2006, Hawai’i Governor Linda Lingle standards. Whether Hawai’i continues to lag behind signed a law requiring that all new state construction progressive states or no depends largely on how projects be built “green” according to Leadership effectively it adapts to the sustainable building in Energy and Environmental Design, (referred to standards that are quickly becoming industry henceforth as LEED) Silver certification (Dowling). standards for the rest of the country. This law is a large progressive planning step for the What exactly is sustainable building and why State of Hawai’i, and a significant move towards does it matter? Sustainable building is often called sustainable development. While often private entities green building (it is also sometimes referred to as adopt green building strategies to reflect their ethics environmental building), and generally refers to a and visionary commitment, “when a public entity method of building strategies that are intended builds green, it reflects an entire community’s efforts to significantly reduce the environmental and to support and promote sustainability, and the public social impacts of a development. In a nutshell, the commitment has the opportunity to educate society objectives of green building are: and build momentum for the cause” (Busch). By To significantly reduce or eliminate signing this bill into law, Governor Lingle put Hawai’i the negative impact of buildings on the on the map towards becoming a sustainable model for environment and on the building occupants, responsible development. This paper will examine green building design and construction the implications of that law, and explore exactly what practices address: sustainable site planning, green building is all about in order to answer the safeguarding water and water efficiency, fundamental question: is this tool right for Hawai’i? energy efficiency, conservation of materials LEED standards for sustainable buildings are and resources, and indoor environmental stipulated by the U.S. Green Building Council quality. (USGBC) (referred to henceforth as the USGBC). The USGBC To illustrate why a strategy that evaluates sustainable is a nonprofit organization of professionals whose building methods is advisable, consider that, “in the core purpose “is to transform the way buildings United States, buildings account for: 36% of total and communities are designed, built and operated, energy use/65% of electricity consumption, 30% enabling an environmentally and socially responsible, 49 healthy, and prosperous environment that improves professionals will be introduced and trained in the quality of life” (USGBC). In 2000, the USGBC green building techniques. The public will also be launched LEED to serve as “a voluntary certification introduced, educated, and possibly influenced by the program for building owners and developers. . . success of such building projects. According to an that stresses state of the art strategies for sustainable industry observer, “the lessons derived from these site development, water savings, energy efficiency, standard-setting public buildings have an opportunity materials selection and indoor environmental quality” to reverberate throughout a much larger community (Switzer). of individuals than a private building might According to the USGBC website, the “LEED influence” (Busch). Green Building Rating System™ is the nationally Is Governor Lingle going out on some political accepted benchmark for the design, construction, limb in mandating green building? If she is, she’s and operation of high performance green buildings. not out there alone. Lingle has brought Hawai’i . .[and] provides a roadmap for measuring and into good company, as states such as Oregon, New documenting success for every building type and York, Maryland, and Nevada already offer tax phase of a building lifecycle” (USGBC). As a design/ credit programs for high-performance buildings. If construction tool, it uses a 4-tiered approach to certify a recently introduced bill passes in the district of buildings as Certified, Silver, Gold, or Platinum – Washington D.C., it will become the first major city depending on the number of credits the project earns in the United States to require that private developers toward a sustainable rating. build green on all large commercial and city-funded What is noteworthy about this organization is residential construction (Stewart). Meanwhile, cities that it is just that, a private organization and not such as Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Monica, Austin, a regulatory governmental agency. In fact, there Madison, Wis., Portland, Ore., and New York City is no such governmental entity that is focused have specific offices dedicated to green building that on regulating the building industry in regards provide resources such as guidelines, education, to sustainability. While various governmental advocacy, and direction towards financial incentives agencies may have some influence into what goes (Dowling). Despite the lack of federal mandates, into the Uniform Building Code, overall, the U.S. the federal government has been an ardent LEED government has taken a backseat approach to proponent. The U.S. Navy, Air Force, General ensuring that construction design and materials are Services Administration, Department of Energy, and sustainably developed. Considering the nation’s the Department of State all reference LEED standards energy shortage and the subsequent rising costs of with a total of 7% of LEED’s projects being owned by energy, the health considerations with toxic building the federal government (“Army” 9). The Army is also syndrome, the implications of global warming, making a sustainable commitment by announcing and our copious amounts of solid waste build-up, that it will be changing its standards from its own it seems obvious that the government should take Sustainable Project Rating Tool to LEED standards as of an active role in stipulating that environmentally 2008 (“Army” 9). sound building strategies be practiced. However, However, if green building is much healthier and so far organizations like USGBC are leading the more sustainable, why isn’t everyone doing it? The way towards sustainability and not waiting for largest obstacle to adopting green building at the the federal government to catch up. It is cities and industry and private level has been misconceptions states that have shown the most willingness and about the costs. While ten years ago the up-front interest in adopting green building standards, and costs for building green were estimated around 15%- it is with cities/states that we are seeing progressive 20% more than conventional construction, now the sustainable planning initiatives that are redefining estimates range from only 2%-4% higher upfront, with industry standards across the nation. a payback of energy savings estimated to take around As previously noted, Hawai’i’s new law 3-5 years (Switzer). Other estimates put the range stipulates that all new construction projects for state at 10% less to 2% more than conventional buildings buildings will need to be LEED Silver Certification. (Switzer). The new thinking is that green building, This regulatory mandate is seen as a legislative tool over the course of the life of the building, is actually to pave the way for Hawai’i’s private industries more economical than conventional techniques; to be introduced to green building strategies. By however, the myth that green building costs more is requiring that state building projects be built green, alive and well and remains a major obstacle to the it necessarily requires that green building materials green building movement. According to a recent be developed and available locally, and Hawai’i survey:
50 The majority of executives (70%) queried building strategies. It is noteworthy to remember that indicated that they “perceived” higher construction financial concerns are not the primary drive behind costs as the biggest hindrance to adopting green green building; sustainability is about more than building practices. Conversely, two-thirds of the dollar signs. executives with actual experience in green building The primary drive behind the green building reported a higher return on investment (ROI) movement is a fundamental shift towards sustainable for green buildings over conventional buildings. values. This shift is not a new direction for Native (Switzer) Hawaiians, but more of a return to traditional This disparity between reality and professional philosophies that were practiced for thousands of perceptions has been an impediment to green years before the Anglo invasion of the Hawaiian building but it is slowly changing. According to islands. According to a nonprofit Hawaiian a 2003 report by California’s Sustainable Building organization on the island of Hawai’i, Kanu o ka ‘Äina Task Force, “a 2% upfront investment in green Learning ‘Ohana, they are choosing to build green building design results in 20% savings on total because it supports the traditional value system of construction costs” (Switzer). While the life cycle cost “malama ‘aina” and “aligns with the ancient wisdom factors, including improved health, environmental of our ancestors who perfected systems that preserved sustainability, and community enrichment, are not resources and fed millions” (Marshall). Kanu o ka typically quantified in traditional cost-benefit analysis ‘Äina Learning ‘Ohana is currently in the process models, the idea that green building is good for of designing and constructing a three-phase green business is helping to drive new interest in LEED project in Waimea, including a Community Center, standards. According to the founding chairman of the and two Hawaiian schools. Opus Group, a $1.4 billion dollar real estate developer There are already other impressive green building that builds sustainable buildings routinely, even structures in the State of Hawai’i. On the island despite their clients preferences, “Sustainable design of Oahu, Iolani School’s Weinberg-Multipurpose is good business from an operational standpoint” Building is a multistory educational building (Switzer). The investment community is also being designed to save 28% on its annual electric bill of won over to the green building revolution and is $32,000 by designing the rooms to reflect sunlight developing a major pension fund that will consist indirectly into the interior spaces, thereby reducing exclusively of LEED projects because “buildings with the need for electrical lights. It is expected that these better amenities and better working environments design improvements will lead to payback in savings will ultimately be more attractive to tenants over the in as little as 8-9 years if energy costs do not continue longterm, making them more valuable than those to rise (Kaneshiro). Another school that went green which are less environmentally friendly” (Switzer). is Hawai’i Baptist Academy, which will save 45% How do these numbers translate to Hawai’i on their annual electric bill by using 20 to 30% less concerns? One of the main factors that can drive water through waterless urinals and rainwater up the costs of green building is the learning curve catchment for irrigation of its grounds (Kaneshiro). involved in exploring the technologies and products The Big Island’s Natural Energy Laboratory has involved. When the learning curve is diminished by a building called Gateway Center, which has the training and experience, there are zero cost differences distinction of being the only building in Hawai’i between green building and conventional, or green with the Platinum LEED rating – the highest rating building often comes out cheaper (Oliver). Another possible. This building serves as a site for research factor that can drive up costs is finding a general and meetings on renewable energy, modeling such contractor that is interested in it. According to the advanced technologies as cold/deep seawater for National Association of Home Builders, the number their air conditioning units, an advanced solar array, of U.S. builders enrolled in green building programs and an overall design that works like a thermal are around 1,000 – and though they are growing, chimney in drawing the hot air up out of the building this still represents a tiny fraction of the housing (TenBruggencate). Even the moisture that condenses industry (Weber). Temporarily, while Hawai’i on the exterior of the cold water pipes from the coast struggles to catch up with the new techniques, the is used to irrigate the vegetation around the building costs of building green may prove to be higher than (TenBruggencate). conventional standards. Even in this case, we should This is only the beginning for Hawai’i. There view the higher costs as the natural growing pains are numerous other projects in various stages of that are to be expected as we adapt to a new model, design and construction that demonstrate sound and not as signs of the inherent failures of green environmental strategies. The new law requiring
51 state buildings to be built to LEED Silver rating will behind sustainable building is the bottom-line for mean that we will see more municipal green buildings many adherents to the movement. Especially in leading the way towards sustainability, which will in our island state of Hawai’i, where the benefits of turn become the model for the private sector. conserving our finite resources are clear, where Green building is good for Hawai’i. According improvements to our overall health and satisfaction to the Deputy Planning Director for Hawai’i County, are drastically needed, and where the development of Brad Kurokawa, green building is not a fad and a sustainable model worthy of our keiki is in line with isn’t going to go away. Trained in LEED standards, traditional Native values – green building represents Kurokawa believes that green building is an industry what is best for our communities on every level. We standard that Hawai’i will have to spend some time must reduce our dependence on outside sources catching up with in order to remain competitive for energy and goods. We must develop an akamai with mainland states (Kurokawa). However, more stewardship approach to our land if we are to live up important to Kurokawa than the business bottom-line to our state motto: is the overall philosophy behind green building that connects back to the traditional Hawaiian value of Ua mau ke ea o ka aina I ka pono cherishing the ‘aina – the land. The ethical philosophy The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.
Works Cited
“Army Moving to LEED.” Indoor Environmental Oliver, Felicia. “It’s Not Expensive Being Green.” Quality Strategies. September 2006. Professional Builder. 8 August 2006. Lexis-
TenBruggencate, Jan. “‘Green’ building gets Honor.” Nexis. 2 November 2006. Path: Green Building. The Honolulu Advertiser. 9 January 2006. Stewart, Nikita. “D.C. Moves to Become Pioneer in 23 October 2006
Dowling, Everett. “Government must practice Switzer, Toccoa. “Altruistic or Opportunistic?” Sustainability.” The Honolulu Advertiser. National Real Estate Investor. July 1, 2006.
19 October 2006 23 October 2006
Kurokawa, Brad. Personal Interview. 6 March 2006.
Marshall, Kehaulani. E-mail to the author. 20 The paper was written as a research paper for November 2006. ENG 315: Advanced English Composition.
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the long-term goal of Hawaiian independence while Hawaiian Sovereignty: also recognizing Native Hawaiians as a group with all the same rights as American Indians and Which Path Should Be Alaskan Native tribes. Subsequent treaties would help create an easier transition into nationhood for Taken? Hawai’i. However, not all Hawaiians wish to declare independence from the U.S. by Michael Johnson There are some plans for sovereignty which do not include separation from the U.S. The most The Hawaiian people have endured many prominent of these would be Ka Lahui Hawai’i. wrongs at the hands of foreigners. They currently Mililani Trask and Haunani-Kay Trask are the make up the lowest portion of many social statistics outspoken leaders of this group. In her essay “Settlers in their own state. These include statistics on health, of Color and ‘Immigrant’ Hegemony: ‘Locals’ in education, and poverty (Keppeler 203). Foreign Hawai’i” Haunani-Kay Trask explains the objectives landowners and politicians have been making of Ka Lahui as follows: rules for Hawaiians to live under since the 1800’s. The goals of Ka Lahui Hawai’i are simple: Hawaiians should be given a chance to improve final resolution of the historic claims of the their status. Now, thousands of Native Hawaiians Hawaiian people relating to the overthrow, are calling for sovereignty. There are some within State and Federal misuse of Native trust this growing movement who feel that anything short lands (totaling some two million acres) and of complete sovereignty, including governmental resources, and violations of human and civil autonomy and land and resource control, would be rights. (18) yet another injustice: Ka Lahui has drafted a constitution and currently When asked if he’d be willing to settle for holds over 8,000 citizens. Citizenship is open to all Kaho’olawe, plus the Hawaiian Homestead Hawaiians. Non-Hawaiians may obtain honorary lands and the ceded lands, Burgess replied, ‘If citizenship, but they may not vote or hold office. someone stole eight of your children, would Citizenship in Ka Lahui will not change a person’s you be satisfied if he returned only one and status as a U.S. citizen; nor will it affect people’s jobs, bits and pieces of the other seven?’ (Kamau’u retirement funds, or pensions (Mililani Trask 6). and Keppeler 296) Some Hawaiians don’t feel they need to establish Hayden Burgess, also known as Poka Laenui, a new government. They are content with their would like to see Hawai’i decolonized and established current political status, but they are upset with past as an independent nation. The Hawaiian tradition injustices by the U.S. government. They support and culture would continue to be the backbone of this measures which would allow Hawaiians as a class to new nation. His vision involves extending citizenship sue the U.S. for reparations and would also like an to those willing to pledge allegiance to Hawai’i. Then, official apology from the government (Kamau’u and citizens could vote for the type of government they Keppeler 300). wish to establish (Kamau’u and Keppeler 296). It is fair to say that Native Hawaiians are entitled Another plan for sovereignty involves a more to much more than an apology from the government gradual shift away from U.S. control. Ka Pakaukau of the U.S. The military of the U.S. has been involved and its leader Kekuni Blaisdell advocate Hawaiian in several violations of the rights of Hawaiians. In independence and complete U.S. withdrawal, “Ka 1887 the military supported a group of men who Pakaukau asserts that all acts that brought Hawai’i forced King Kalakaua to sign a constitution under into its present status were illegal under both the threat of gunfire. This constitution is fittingly international law and the U.S. Constitution…The only known as the Bayonet Constitution. The document remedy is U.S. withdrawal and Hawai’i’s complete changed the political landscape of the islands because independence” (Kamau’u and Keppeler 297). This the constitution “stripped (King Kalakaua) of his group seeks a process involving several treaties executive powers and disenfranchised the majority between representatives of the U.S. government and of Kanaka Maoli by imposing wealth and property the Hawaiian people. The first treaty would establish qualifications on voters” (Silva 43). 53 In 1893 when Queen Lili’uokalani tried to re- Hawaiians need to be allowed to establish their own establish a Hawaiian government, U.S. marines forms of government. Current lawmakers may not helped to overthrow the new government and fully understand the impacts that issues such as burial establish a provisional government (made up of 13 rights have on the Hawaiian population. non-Hawaiians) recognized by the U.S. ministry. This An organization called Hui Malama I Na government went on to secure annexation despite the Kupuna O Hawai’i Nei was created as a result of the efforts of many Native Hawaiians to prevent such Honakahua controversy. Hui Malama is primarily actions. concerned with recovering, correctly reburying, and Congress tried to make up for some wrongdoings protecting ancestral remains for the betterment of by enacting the Hawaiian Homes program in 1921, all Hawai’i. The burials at Honokahua, Mokapu but sugar interests lobbied for the exclusion of the Peninsula, and recently Forbes Cave have all been good agricultural lands used by the plantations. The of concern for Hui Malama. The Forbes Cave trust lands ended up being 200,000 acres of some controversy has gotten the most attention in the of the worst land in the territories (Keppeler 198). media and has even been debated in the Honolulu Congress may have started the program with good Advertiser. intentions; however, the legislation was ultimately In 2000, 83 artifacts discovered in the Forbes Cave used to benefit wealthy landowners while trying to were loaned to the Hui Malama organization by the silence Native Hawaiians’ requests for land of their Bishop Museum under NAGPRA (Native American own. Graves Protection and Repatriation Act). Hui Malama There have also been many occasions where planned to redeposit the artifacts in the Forbes Native Hawaiian remains have been dug up, usually Cave. The Bishop Museum apparently knew the during some kind of construction. During the late organization never planned to return the artifacts to 1930s and early 1940s remains buried in the sand the museum (Conklin 4). Some people feel that all 13 dunes of the Mokapu Peninsula, on O’ahu, were claimants to the artifacts were not given a fair shot at excavated by the University of Hawai’i, Department gaining repatriation; others are upset that the artifacts of Anthropology. Construction of a Marine Corps will never be on public display to educate people Base on Mokapu Peninsula followed the excavation about Hawaiian history and tradition. Kenneth and continued the removal of bones from the burial Conklin makes it clear on his website that he thinks site. According to Edward Halealoha Ayau, about Native Hawaiians aren’t the only people who should 3,000 ancestral Native Hawaiians were removed from discuss these matters: Mokapu Peninsula from 1915-1990 (2). But in Hawai’i, the Hawaiian culture is the The 1988 construction of the Ritz-Carlton Hotel core of what makes Hawai’i distinctive for in Maui unearthed about 1,100 ancestral Native all Hawai’i’s people, and many who have Hawaiians from the proposed site for the building no Hawaiian blood participate actively at Honokahua. Disinterring such burial sites has in Hawaiian culture; thus, the general far reaching implications for Hawaiian people. The population should have a strong voice in treatment of a person’s bones is of great importance in helping to decide what happens to Hawaiian Hawaiian tradition: cultural artifacts. (5) Traditional Native Hawaiians believed na This is where Mr. Conklin is inherently wrong. iwi (the bones) to be the primary physical Decisions regarding cultural artifacts and Hawaiian embodiment of a person. Following death, burials are solely the responsibility of Native only na iwi were considered sacred, for Hawaiians. It is a privilege that they let others within the bones resided the person’s mana participate in their cultural activities, but participation (spiritual essence). Mana was greatly valued, is not grounds for political inclusion in decision and Native Hawaiians spent their lives making. Haunani-Kay Trask makes this clear when maintaining and enhancing their mana. Thus, she speaks of sovereignty, “Of course, the notion supreme care was accorded to iwi following that settlers would participate in any form in the death…Desecration of na iwi resulted in an sovereignty process is ludicrous. In principle and insult to the ‘uhane (spirit) and trauma and in practice, Native sovereignty must be controlled harm to living descendants. (Ayau 1) by Natives.” The fact that citizens of Hawai’i are After insistent protests against the continued removal calling for a voice in native politics shows a need for of the remains at Honokahua the hotel construction a form of self-government among Native Hawaiians. was moved and the ancestral remains were Organizations such as Hui Malama could easily ceremonially reburied. This is a great reason why become committees which have elected officials
54 and structured debates concerning artifacts and Works Cited reburials if they were part of a sovereign Hawaiian government. Ayau, Edward Halealoha. “Native Burials: Human A sovereign Hawaiian government, whether Rights and Sacred Bones.” Cultural Survival. 1-4. linked to the U.S. or not, is essential in the progression 7 June 2001
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gear their curriculum to the needs, strengths, and Is there a need for wants of their students. It is the thought of many educators that charter charter schools? schools will benefit gifted students more than a normal G/T program in a traditional high school. A by Lara Stroud group of educators, including Nina Buchanan, got together to do research on G/T programs in high In today’s public schools, teachers are having schools. They wanted to create a model for other high an increasingly difficult time giving each child the schools’ G/T programs. In their article, “Meeting the attention they need, especially the gifted children. Needs of Gifted Learners through Innovative High Often teachers spend so much time trying to help the School Programs,” they looked at five high schools students that are behind that they leave the gifted that had successful G/T programs and pointed students to fend for themselves. These children are out what these schools did to make their programs left feeling bored and neglected. successful. First, they had to select the schools that Many school systems have implemented “gifted they were going to use. They looked for sites “that and talented” programs to fight this situation. These had successful integrative, integrated, or strong programs are supposed to be challenging. Ultimately, interdisciplinary curricula, a diverse student body, they are supposed to provide children who have a and had been judged exemplary by at least one high talent or learning capacity with a way in which external evaluator” (Buchanan et. al. 1997). After they can develop their skills to the highest potential. locating the schools they were going to use, this team These programs provide things such as “advanced of educators evaluated each school and pointed out placement” classes and bringing in outside resources what qualities had made their schools successful. to help these children reach their potential. However, They pointed out that student-to-teacher ratios were it is the belief of many educators that most gifted and more favorable than in a traditional high school talented programs that are placed in high schools are setting, highlighted different programs that challenge ineffective. They are ineffective because they fail to the students, and students usually participated in get their job done. Most educators seem to think that the curriculum (Buchanan et. al.1997). These are there is a better solution than shoving these children important things to note when trying to set up a G/T in a traditional high school setting and letting them program, but the interesting piece of information fend for themselves. One solution to the lack of good was located at the end of the article. It stated that, G/T programs in high schools would be to establish “They were all schools of choice…” (Buchanan et. al. alternative or charter schools that will cater to these 1997). This means that they were non-traditional high students’ individual needs and strengths. schools that students chose to go to instead of being In the glossary of terms for the “No Child forced to attend. This important item seems to be key Left Behind ACT” of 2001, charter schools are in giving gifted students the education needed to defined as “independent public schools designed and achieve their potential. operated by educators, parents, community leaders, Some may wonder why there is a need to set up educational entrepreneurs, and others. They are new schools instead of integrating G/T programs sponsored by local or state educational organizations in traditional high schools. There is thought in who monitor their quality and effectiveness but allow the education community that G/T programs are them to operate outside of the traditional system of insufficient in a traditional school setting for a number public schools” (Glossary 2001). The basic goals of of reasons. a charter school are to provide a more focused and It is mandatory in 30 states to identify gifted often hands on learning experience. Charter schools and talented students but only twenty six states are often focused on certain subject areas such as have mandatory G/T programs (Systma 2000). In math and science or the arts. And the ability to a preliminary survey that was distributed by the operate outside the traditional goals of public schools University of Connecticut, 86% of high schools that is an advantage because a charter school doesn’t have responded said that they did not offer learning to teach to a certain set curriculum, which is usually opportunities beyond internships, independent unbeneficial to most students. They are allowed to studies, academic clubs, and early college programs. 56 After being asked if the schools offered something already in process and meeting with an advisor on a beyond these basic programs, 34% responded “yes” regular basis is already done (VanTassel-Basaka 1992). and a resounding 66% responded “no”(Systma 2000). Another plus to starting charter schools is that This survey showed that high schools do not have the students would be pulled out of the traditional high funding or resources to back a good G/T program. school setting. That means there will be less students They lack monetary resources as well as man power. in the traditional schools and teachers can begin Often in a traditional high school, teachers are focusing more attention on the students that are left. stretched thin and they have to cover many subject This would be an advantage to the students as well areas instead of focusing on one area. In these cases, as the teachers. If this were the case teachers would the students suffer from their teachers’ lack of have an easier time combating the problems of their knowledge because the teachers cannot provide the students instead of trying to combat their problems as same experience as teachers with smaller classes or as well as the issues that are faced by the gifted students. teachers that are experts in the subject. This is another Another thing educators believe is key to these reason a charter school could be considered as an students succeeding is advanced opportunities alternative to the traditional high school setting for outside of the traditional high school setting. Charter these students. schools often provide these types of opportunities Another reason a good gifted and talented without the student having to look for one on their programs in a traditional high school setting is hard own. For example, North Carolina is home to The is because the methods of teaching these students are North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics. insufficient. Many high school G/T programs use This school provides plenty of outside programs a technique known as grouping. Grouping simply for their students. “These services include distance implies that you group gifted students together learning courses and enrichment and mentoring according to the subject in which they excel. It also activities, Summer Ventures in Science and Math, and includes, especially at the elementary level, pulling program evaluation” (NCSSM 2003). The external students out of class to work one-on-one or in smaller programs at NCSSM provide opportunities for groups with an outside instructor (VanTassel-Baska). students to take courses online, participate in summer This method often works in a charter school because camps and programs and attend special workshops that is basically what a charter school does; it groups and various programs. A charter school often students together according to their strengths. provides camps and other “hands-on” experiences However, it is hard to implement and follow through that enrich the students learning experience and back with grouping in a traditional setting. Often there up what they have been studying. are not enough resources to back a program like this. Nina Buchanan is a professor of education at Once again, there is either not enough money, or a the University of Hawai’i at Hilo with experience in lack of qualified instructors. However, in a charter her field with G/T programs. Professor Buchanan school where the student to teacher ratio is more has theories on why G/T programs don’t work in favorable and the funding is better this alternative traditional high school settings and she has many could and does work. Also, a charter school usually ideas on alternatives that can be taken to improve already uses these methods and therefore do not have these conditions. One thing that she thinks is to make adjustments to add it when there is a need. important is to set up more charter schools. She also Learner’s outcomes are also thought to be a believes that although gifted students would benefit necessity for gifted students. A learner’s outcome is an greatly from a charter school, all students could assessment of the student. It shows what the student benefit from them. She said, “I believe that 80% of is capable of and what their goals are for the academic students would do better in a non-traditional setting” year. This so helpful to the child because it pinpoints (Buchanan). She has had experience with charter exact goals that they want to achieve. Learner’s schools. She helped establish one on the Big Island of outcomes also help because they are geared towards Hawai’i. It is a hands-on school that focuses on the that individual child and not to a whole student body, resources Hawai’i can offer. For example, the students as often happens when traditional schools make the do a lot with marine biology. The students spend a lot curriculum. Learner’s outcomes are often hard to do of time in the water. They do things like catch their in traditional school setting because, once again, there own fish for experiments and study other marine is not enough man power for someone to sit down organisms. She said that the students just finished a with an individual student and make goals for the fascinating experiment with octopuses. students. However in charter schools, this is generally When I asked her why she thought there was a need for charter schools instead of simply starting
57 more G/T programs in traditional high schools she Works Cited responded, “High schools are trying to do everything for everyone and not succeeding” (Buchanan). She Buchanan, Nina K. Personal Interview. 6 March 2006. continued by saying that if they would focus on one subject area that the student was interested in, there Charters in Our Midst: Are Charter Schools would be a higher success rate. That is why she likes Productive Schools? NCREL’s Policy charter schools so much because that’s what they do. Publications. 1997.
The North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics: External Programs. 2003 NCSSM. 22 March 2006.
VanTassel-Basaka, Joyce, Ed.D. Basic Education Options for Gifted Students in Schools.
College of William and Mary. 6 March 2006.
VanTassel-Basaka, Joyce. Developing Learner Outcomes for the Gifted Students. 1992. 1992 The Clearing House on Disabilities and Gifted Education. 6 March 2006.
This paper was written for English 100T.
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Report, The Economist, and The New York Times can Mass Media and be viewed as some of the most credible sources in American media whose primary audience is business Propaganda in the and political leaders. These three present a similar message that states, “we are in a battle, and that more context of the War on than half of this battle is taking place in the battlefield of the media” (Zuckerman 76). The irony is that these Terror three sources express this point emphatically but the above quote does not come from an American by Das Flagg source but from none other than Ayman al-Zawahiri, “Osama bin Laden’s deputy” (76). In the aftermath of September 11, 2001, the mode The Economist features a book review from a of thought in the United States changed dramatically. university professor in Israel, which details how “the Since those first horrific images flashed before 40 organizations designated as active terrorist groups our eyes, there has been a steady influx of media by America’s State Department now maintain more commentary on what the implications of this act are than 4,300 websites” (Terror.com). This excessive use and will be. In a survey of published material five of new media, the internet, highlights the struggle the years after the terrorist attack, three perspectives West is in with terrorist organizations. A tool that has stand out. In each there is an understanding that become a necessity in the lives of the American public in our new technological post-industrial society can at the same time be utilized as a weapon against the lines between journalism and propaganda have them. significantly blurred. The three perspectives that will This double edged sword of media epitomizes be addressed are shaped by how each relates media the comments made by John Tierney in his New York propaganda to the war on terror. Times column entitled “Osama’s Spin Lessons.” His The most obvious and mainstream argument is first sentence declares, “Once again he (bin Laden) that in this era of worldwide media proliferation, the has beaten America at an American game: public “terrorists” utilize propaganda to its fullest and in relations” (“Spin Lessons”). The article details how, order for the civilized world to emerge victorious, throughout the war on terror initiated after 9/11, bin we must in turn harness the power of media for all Laden has used media presentation to further his its worth (Zuckerman 76; Terror.com; Tierney). The motives even while the U.S. decimated al-Qaeda’s second perspective states that the media have altered infrastructure. The essential point to take from these our perception of war by utilizing language that periodicals is that in this post-modern age, war has justifies our military actions both at home and abroad dramatically changed and these days words can often while demeaning and demonizing the opposition be as dangerous as bullets. (Hammer 232; Pilger 23; Wekerle and Jackson 35). The second mode of thought certainly agrees that The third argument recognizes that propaganda is words are dangerous but feels that the words used by being used on a massive scale, but the concern is that the media provoke violence by hiding its true danger. a great majority of it is being used on the American Rhonda Hammer, in her work “Militarism and Family public to shape opinion and rally support for the Terrorism: A Critical Feminist Approach,” feels the Bush administration’s militaristic agenda. While media “sanitize and aestheticizes war” (232). She similar to the second idea, this third argument goes argues that modern media packages and presents war one step further in asserting that the government in the same way it presents its television shows. This is deliberately shaping public policy and opinion in framing of war allows the people to view the death of order to pursue a scripted plan to maintain American human beings as they do the characters on TV. “The global supremacy (Newswise; Dalglish and Leslie 1; bombing of Afghanistan…is translated as a “war on Rampton and Stauber 6). terrorism,” rather than a war on men, women, and In assessing the first perspective on media children” (232). propaganda, it is essential to recognize that the Hammer details how the media continually sources read as a who’s who in terms of American bombard us with images of war that are always in the intellectual print media. U.S. News and World context of a struggle against terrorism. John Pilger 59 continues with this line of thought by saying that version of the story that allowed the country to go while many people and organizations do commit acts in the direction it did. As was shown in the first of terror, the primary source of violence in the world perspective, the mainstream print media are still comes from governments. This fact is concealed using the same approach. Altheide points out that from us in the ways that Hammer described, but “the use of “entertaining fear” applied to the war Pilger adds that another level to the problem is on terrorism,” was used on the American people that, “the media have no language to describe state (“Book Details Use of Fear”). This is precisely what terrorism” (23). Thus, when “the enemy” detonates Hammer described. Pilger noted how the real small explosives they become terrorists and make terrorists are the governments engaging in war while headline news, but when the United States, Britain, Altheide describes the group who drew up the plans and Israel massacre thousands of innocent civilians, for preemptive war a decade before The Iraq War not a word is paid to that destruction of life. “If the included many of Bush’s cabinet members as well as word terrorism has any modern application, it is this the vice-president. His book also corroborates the industrial state terrorism” (23). opinions of Wekerle and Jackson when he says, “the While Hammer and Pilger discuss how the media goal is to encourage the U.S. people to relinquish “sanitize” the war on terror that is going on around certain privacy rights for protection and a safer the world, Wekerle and Jackson write about how the world” (“Book Details Use of Fear”). internal spaces of America are being shaped by “the It is important to reiterate the difference between anti-terrorism Agenda” (35). This agenda involves the second group of perspectives from this third analyzing how every space within the country could opinion. The second group consisted of scholarly be utilized for a terrorist act and taking steps to journals that detailed aspects of the war on terror mitigate the danger. A consequence of this has been and its repercussions. Altheide is making a leap that social movements within the country have had to from the actual occurrences, which can be viewed tread lightly in terms of the political and social actions as a natural unfolding after a dramatic event, to an they take because of the possible repercussions of intent to orchestrate this unfolding. With this in being branded a terrorist by the media, who have mind, the comments by Lucy Dalglish and Gregg also learned to tread lightly and not question the Leslie in Homefront Confidential take on dramatic administration’s motives because “the ‘War on consequences. The forward to their yearly report Terrorism’ quickly expanded to a generalized chill on on the public’s access to information states, “In dissent” (35). In an effort to police those who dissent the days immediately following September 11, the too much, there has been a formation of “’pop-up U.S. government embarked on a disturbing path of armies,’ the collaboration of military, security, and secrecy” (1). They go on to describe the countless local police forces” (35). In their uncompromising breaches of civil liberties that were once the hallmarks adherence to public policy, the mainstream media of American society. have projected this terrorist label on the social Finally, a book entitled The Best War Ever by progressive movements and failed to question the Sheldon Rampton and Jon Stauber reiterate the heavy-handed tactics of the militarizing police forces implication that the administration deceived the who have targeted these groups. American people again and again. “One of the The previous authors have given us clear saddest realities about Iraq is that the American examples of what has and is happening in the war people have had to relearn a lesson they already on terror but the final three share a perspective learned during the Vietnam War: that the nation’s on why this is happening. David Altheide is a leaders, like the leaders of other countries, are capable Regents’ Professor at Arizona State University and of misleading the public even with respect to matters has recently released a book that claims, “the U.S. of life-and death importance” (6). government used the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks The opinions presented in this review, while on the World Trade Towers in New York and the espousing three different perspectives, make one Pentagon in Washington, D.C., as a catalyst to unleash point perfectly clear. Terrorism affects virtually every a sophisticated propaganda campaign” (“Book aspect of modern American life. Because media, Details Use of Fear”). The article that reviews the television, internet, and print, pervade our culture, it book hits on many of the topics that have already is impossible to escape the barrage of propaganda that been discussed, as well as indicating that the events continually flash before us. Many Americans spend that have happened since 9/11 were planned well their entire days in a media propaganda vacuum. before the attacks happened. Altheide asserts that They wake up to headlines of destruction in their it was the media going along with the government’s newspapers, drive to work with reports of terrorist
60 activity on their radios, are employed in buildings WORKS CITED that are considered “soft” targets for terrorists, utilize the internet for a variety of workplace tasks and “Book Details Use of Fear to Support War on Terror.” view the latest breaking news stream across their Newswise. 15 Sep. 2006. http://www.newswise. screen, watch the evening news with stories of the com/articles/view/521877/ government’s daily efforts to enact legislation to protect them, and settle into bed with their favorite Dalglish, Lucy A., and Gregg P. Leslie. “How the War magazine’s description of what could’ve, should’ve, on Terrorism Affects Access to Information or would’ve been done if only we knew more about and the Public’s Right to Know.” Homefront why “they” hate “us”. Confidential Sep. 2005.
Hammer, Rhonda. “Militarism and Family Terrorism: A Critical Feminist Perspective.” Review of Education, Pedagogy & Cultural Studies 25.3 (2003): 231-256. Academic Search Premier. U of Hawai’i-Hilo Lib., Hilo. 13 September 2006. http://search.ebscohost.com
Pilger, John. New Statesman 133 (2004): 23-24. Academic Search Premier. U of Hawai’i-Hilo Lib., Hilo. 13 Sep. 2006. http://search.ebscohost.com
Rampton, Sheldon, and John Stauber. The Best War Ever. New York: Tarcher, 2006.
“Terror.com; The internet.” The Economist. 29 Apr. 2006. LexisNexis. U of Hawai’i-Hilo. Lib., 18 Sep. 2006.
Tierney, John. “Osama’s Spin Lessons.” New York Times 12 Sep. 2006. http://select.nytimes. com/gst/tsc.html?URI=http://select.nytimes. com/2006/09/12/opinion/12tierney.html
Wekerle, Gerda R., and Paul S. B. Jackson. “Urbanizing the Security Agenda.” City 9.1 (2005): 33-49. Academic Search Premier. U of Hawai’i-Hilo Lib., Hilo. 13 September 2006. http://search.ebscohost.com
Zuckerman, Mortimer B. “What It Will Take to Win.” Editorial U.S. News & World Report 140.18 (2006): 76-76. Academic Search Premier. U of Hawai’i- Hilo Lib., Hilo. 13 September 2006. http://search. ebscohost.com
This paper was written for English 215 (Writing for the Humanities and Social Sciences).
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Webster’s defines “pimp” as “a man who solicits Op/Ed: Pimpology is for a prostitute or a house of prostitution, and lives off her earnings” or as “a person who lends himself Wrong to some corrupt or corrupting activity; Scoundrel”. Wow, that’s what I thought it meant! A pimp is a very by Timothy Fallis bad character, a person who puts women who are desperate and poor to work as whores. Being a pimp Our American society has a fondness for taking is the only occupation I can think of in our society that words and modifying their meanings for popular use. still institutionalizes slavery; frequently women who In the last 50 years or so, we’ve accepted “cool” to try to leave their pimps are beaten, or killed. Pimps mean something good and up to date, and “hot” to sell the bodies of women to be used as impersonal sex mean the same thing. We’re accustomed to “cherry” objects by whatever slob is willing to pay him a fee, meaning exceptionally fine, and taking “hairy” to not robbing the women of dignity, self-respect and social necessarily mean hirsute but to denote something status. They endanger women’s lives by putting them fraught with difficulty. The word “gay” is now rarely into submissive situations with men who may become used in its original meaning of happy and carefree, violent, exposing them to sexually transmitted but only to refer to homosexuality. One has to be very diseases, and frequently offering them solace with clear about using the word “bitch” when properly narcotics. A pimp is a leech, a criminal, and one of the referencing a female dog, it’s become so sadly worst examples of how men abuse and marginalize common to use it to deride a woman; conversely, women. “bitchin” always denotes something positive. While So, why is the word “pimp” and the lifestyle of surely there has been eye-rolling about many such a pimp being glamorized by our popular culture? Is new usages of words, most are taken in stride and it somehow rebellious and liberating to identify with end up being used by people of all classes. However, I this element, an extension of the “sticking it to the think a line needs to be drawn about one such term. man” mantra of the sixties and seventies? Why be Somehow, the term “pimp” has developed a merely rebellious and contrary, when you can take whole new life in the popular diction. “Pimpin’” it to the nth degree and idolize an outright criminal? has become a positive adjective describing a person After all, movies don’t portray pimps beating women who is on the cutting edge of style, or to refer to the for not bringing back enough money, or stringing stylishness of one’s vehicle. “Pimpology” is now used them out on drugs, or housing them in festering to reference a man’s corpus of knowledge on how flophouses. No, pimps are portrayed as wealthy, to garner sexual favors with the most attractive and popular, handsome men dripping with jewelry, popular women. A person can tune into the television driving expensive cars, and adored by fawning network MTV and see a weekly show titled “Pimp My groups of gorgeous, scantily clad women. Ride,” which showcases an auto shop’s efforts to turn I object to this glamorization of a horrible class of junker cars into customized dream machines. At the person and the sleazy lifestyle he represents. I don’t 2002 SEMA auto show in Las Vegas, the aftermarket want young people growing up thinking that it’s wheel manufacturer MHT Alloys introduced a wheel cool to wear a t-shirt displaying some permutation that can project color designs and words onto itself; of “pimp”, or to idolize celebrities who purport to this new innovation was dubbed the “Pimpster.” At lead a “pimpin’” lifestyle. I don’t want to turn on my the mall recently I saw two young men with t-shirts TV and see shows with “pimp” in the title on prime emblazoned with “Master Pimp,” and one young time. Counterculture and rebellion are vital to our lady, maybe 15?, wearing a little tank sequined with society, but a counterculture based on glamorizing the “Pimpilicious.” There’s a rap artist who styles himself subjugation of women’s bodies is wrong, as wrong as “Pimp Tea.” Kooltones.com advertises a ringtone for it would be to glamorize slavery or codified racism. cell phones called “pimp,” based on a tune by rapper I think it would be great if this word went back to 50Cent. A quick internet search for music reveals just referring to an unmentionable scoundrel and not the existence of a genre called “Pimp Rock.” There proudly emblazoned in sequins on the chest of a 15- is even a webzine Pimp Rock Palace (theprp.com) for year-old girl. The fact that people can use the word keeping track of concerts and album releases. to refer to something else does not change the fact 62 that it also means Whoremonger; we do a profound disrespect to ourselves and to all women who have been subject to one of these miserable creatures when we use “Pimp” to describe something desirable. Most of us are not gangsters; we are decent people trying to “live and let live” in society. We are scandalized when we are robbed or victimized by hoodlums, and would be devastated to find that our sister, our daughter, or our classmate had been turned out as a prostitute. None of us are willing to accept quietly the affects of pandering on people we know and love; why then do we allow “pimpin’” the gloss of acceptability we give it when we make it an everyday part of our mainstream culture? By using this term we blithely invite the gutter, the lowest sensibility of society, into our everyday lives, and we shouldn’t. It’s not who we are. It’s not who we want to be. We shouldn’t pretend otherwise.
This paper was written for English 494. The assignment was an op/ed piece on any topic.
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(Cheng 2). As the nationalists held the preservation Paralysis and of the Irish language as the most important aspect of nationalism, it was no surprise he eventually felt Epiphany: How Joyce compelled to leave the country he so wished could free itself. As a result of his refusal to live by the Could Save Dublin standards of the nationalists, Joyce’s writings were deemed apolitical, and until the 1970’s, critics only by Anne Michels saw Dubliners as an influencing force in changing literary styles. It was ignored as a call to action for When James Joyce finally got his collection the people of Ireland. This undoubtedly occurred of short stories Dubliners published nearly eight because the hope he held out for Ireland that was years after its completion, he remarked that his deeply buried in his writing was nonexistent in his sole intention was to “write a chapter of the moral interactions. In a letter he wrote: “I call the series history of my country [choosing Dublin because] that Dubliners to betray the soul of that hemoplegia or city seemed to me the centre of paralysis” (O’Neill paralysis which many consider a city” (Heffernan 85). He believed that the people of Ireland had the 172). His works were ignored as political writings capacity, but lacked the true desire, to come to a because they didn’t preach the same solutions that the realization about their situation. He thought that other Irish writers espoused. His quarrel was with the their refusal to open their eyes to their situation government that allowed Ireland to whither away like (and also to accept some responsibility for it) was a third world country under British imperialist rule, the reason they were trapped in a state of paralysis. against the church which was too full of corruption Physically, emotionally and sexually, the people of to add to a solution, and against an academia that his Dubliners could do no more than float through didn’t believe the Irish could help themselves (Cheng a life that barely scratched the surface of what they 2). It was upon his style instead of his message that could truly experience. The collection presents us the critics focused, because he had to invent his own. with characters mired in the stagnant existence that He refused to follow in the footsteps of Shakespeare, he believed was the fate of all Dubliners. However, or Milton, because they represented to him British Joyce planted in each individual story the possibility oppression. He saw in the writers of the comic of awakening. These little epiphanies typically only Irish tradition the tendency to act as nothing but let the reader and the narrator understand the truth of clowns dressed up as writers to impress their British the situation, but there were also moments where the oppressors. And when the traditionalist Irish writers characters were painfully close to breaking through turned to the church when they saw the paralysis and realizing their plight and their ability to change it. of their people, Joyce could do no such thing, for It is through these little moments that we see Joyce’s he could not imagine a free Ireland so willingly hope that his home country of Ireland has the ability submitting itself to spiritual tyranny (Manganiello to awaken from its paralysis. It is the individuals 174). Though modernist scholars did not always see of Ireland that he hopes, or more accurately wishes, Dubliners as such, it is now clear that Joyce’s collection can save his country. He holds out little hope that of short stories is not only a history of the city of the larger movements of Irish Nationalism will end Dublin, but also a wish for its salvation. Joyce was the paralysis, each individual must realize the truth advocating delliverance, not only from the oppression about Dublin, and no larger group can do it for them. of England, but from the paralyzing effects of the Though this is not to say that Joyce believed it would oppression from within Ireland itself. be easy for the peoples he chronicled to achieve the The stories in Dubliners were divided into four lofty goals he had set for them. sections, each one representing some aspect of Joyce was initially ignored by the people of Dublin’s collective consciousness. They appear in Ireland because he rejected the ideals of the other the order in which Joyce wrote them, “The Dead” artists involved in the literary revival, specifically, he being written nearly a year after the rest of the rejected nationalism. He remarked to his brother that, stories were completed. Not only do they show “If the Irish programme did not insist on the Irish how different parts of Dublin society experience language I suppose I could call myself a nationalist” their paralysis, they also show how Joyce’s attitude 64 towards it evolved. The first three stories are those of of paralysis, for they are looking for guidance from young childhood, representing the time of Dublin’s those who cannot even provide it for themselves. In absolute ignorance towards its state of being. Youth “The Encounter,” the adult/father figure that the boys and early adolescence, in which a problem is noticed find in the field is nothing more than a pervert, yet but not fully comprehended, is given the next four the boys feel they must give him proper respect by stories. Late adolescence and adult life, in which listening to his stories and feigning interest. This is the characters are presented with the reality of their what they’ve been told to do, to respect their elders no lives, but choose to look the other way, is also given matter how ridiculous it may seem. In “Araby,” the four stories. The last four stories are about Public little boy narrating the tale sees himself “bearing his Life, pointing to what Joyce saw as the cause of chalice safely through a throng of foes” (Joyce 28) as if Ireland’s problems: overwhelming Catholicism, it were a grand and noble task, though the only other pub life, and the corrupt dealings of those in power mention of a chalice in these stories is when Father (Kenner 53). The false connections of the church and Flynn was clumsy and broke his own (Kenner 53). the self betrayal of those governing Ireland were As readers, we get our epiphany when we see to him slowly leeching away the true culture of the how ridiculous it is for this little boy to aspire to be country, and filling their lives with empty promises something that should be admirable, but in Dublin instead of substance (Stewart 44). The things they turns out to be nothing but farce. The priest that this held the dearest were keeping them in stasis. All boy is aspiring to be like is found sitting in his own of these stories involve some sort of epiphany, be it confession box weeping and laughing madly at the for the reader or the characters; but the only story cruel joke he sees as his own life. His own confession in which the character truly realizes something and (omitted in later versions of the text): “Gazing up learns something of themselves is “The Dead.” This into the darkness I saw myself as a creature driven realization is the husband knowing that he can never and derided by vanity; and my eyes burned with truly have what he had imagined he had with his anguish and anger” (Joyce 11). The closest that any wife, that he can never escape the ghost of her dead of the children get to realizing their idols may not be suitor. This is hardly the sentimental epiphany so so perfect is in “The Sisters,” when the young boy many critics claimed was at the heart of all the stories, looks at the dead priests old arm chair and says, “I and that caused so many of them to brush off the felt annoyed at discovering in myself a sensation of stories altogether. Frederick Jameson claimed that freedom as if I had been freed from something by the collection was simply a sentimental and shallow his death” (Joyce 11). Unfortunately, this thought is account of Dublin, claiming the stories, “suggest that quickly shaken away by the lad. But why did it even epiphany or revelation is conceivable as an event appear if Joyce was trying to get us to see that the within the secularized world of modern capitalism” people of Dublin were incapable of seeing the things an idea which he thinks is absurd (“Magical” 146). keeping them paralyzed? This is the first story in The husband in “The Dead” has realized that he has the collection, and the only other than “The Dead” spent his entire married life stuck in his own little that has even a hint of the cloud being lifted from the reality where he was the center of his wife’s world, vision of the Dubliners. Joyce couldn’t simply allow an assumption that was clearly wrong, not really each of his characters to realize their problems and the most sentimental of realizations. The rest of the come out victorious. Life doesn’t work like that, and stories merely clue the reader into the cause of the Ireland didn’t work like that. The only way to show paralysis being experienced by each given set of how close the people of Dublin could be to a true Dubliners, they do nothing to romanticize Dublin or epiphany was to show how close they could be while suggest that revelations are easy to come by. Instead, still ignoring the awful truth. It would have been they show how the paralyzed city cannot fully so simple for the little boy to look at this enthroned experience what they should be capable of (Heller 15). image of priestly goodness and virtue and realize In the first three tales that center around he would be better off without it, but instead he childhood (“The Sisters,” “An Encounter,” and ignored what the voice in his head was telling him. “Araby”) the children, who represent events from It was easier for him to look to his elders for advice, Joyce’s childhood, are confronted with the stark no matter how incapable of giving it they may have reality of the paralysis of the adults that should be been; which parallels how it was easier for Ireland to providing them guidance. It is painfully obvious accept British control, or to blindly obey the whims to the reader that the children’s trust in the adults, of the priestly class. When the adults in “The Sisters” particularly in their delusion of the virtuosity of questioned Father Flynn’s integrity, it was the man those in the priesthood, is the beginning of their life they were questioning, not the occupation. They were
65 incapable of imagining that a blameless priesthood “A Painful Case”). The people in these stories are could be the problem, so instead they had to assume experiencing an intense loneliness, cut off from the that Flynn just wasn’t cut out for God’s work. The world around them, but are too paralyzed to seek real problem couldn’t be God, or his institution. camaraderie from their fellow Dubliners. They are no The next set of stories representing youth and longer the young adults of “Two Gallants” striving early adolescence (“Eveline,” “After the Race,” “Two to impress each other, they are grown men afraid Gallants,” and “The Boarding House”), deal with to read their beautiful poetry to their wives, who the characters themselves causing or perpetuating take their aggression out on innocent children, and their paralysis, and being absolutely unaware of it. pretend they are not lonely because they share a few In the cases of the women involved in these stories drinks with “friends” who are practically strangers. we see the virgin (Polly) and the temptress (Eveline) Their epiphany is that they have no real connections; both perpetuating the paralysis present in the story. they see that they cannot connect with those closest Eveline is foisting the end results of her paralysis on to them, and instead of trying to bridge the gap they Frank, instead of having to experience it herself, while foster false connections, hoping they can ignore the Polly is slyly manipulating a marriage without having loneliness inside them. In “Clay,” Maria attempts any idea that she is involved with the planning of to bury this loneliness in little acts of kindness. She her future paralysis (Kenner 55). With the males hopes that if she surrounds herself with these small, in these stories we see a kind-hearted man (Frank) yet grand, gestures, she will no longer be alone. She left out in the cold because of someone else’s failure hopes she will no longer cease to fit into the world to act, and the men in “Two Gallants” reduced to in which she lives (Heller 23). Her continuing all of prostitution, ending their night’s adventures with a these small acts, no matter what it has done to both shiny gold coin, exceedingly proud of their night’s her repressed sexuality and her entire mindset, is her work. These characters are clearly presented with paralysis. She is trapped in a tiny world from which the knowledge that they are not fully in control of she can’t escape. Her epiphany cannot save her, for their own destinies, that they are letting outdated it is merely a realization that she is trapped, and that expectations of them run their lives, but they continue she would rather live in the adolescent world where on anyway. They simply do not care, it is easier for she could pretend otherwise. them to do what is expected and let other people The last four stories of Dubliners deal with manipulate their lives than it is for them to take a those who are in the Public Life (“Ivy Day in the stand and think for themselves. The characters in Committee Room”, “A Mother,” “Grace,” and “The “After the Race” are the ones you would assume to Dead”). These stories illustrate what happens when be the most free of paralysis, they are after all racing the paralysis of the previous two sections leaks cars around town, free as could be. But even these over into the daily routines of those in power. The relatively free youth are described as “pellets in a priestly members of these stories compare themselves groove” as they travel the road. They still have no to accountants, trying to balance the spiritual freedom of movement, are still stuck on a track while checkbooks of those they encounter. They don’t they are pretending to be free (Werner 36). These actually think they are helping people or making are perhaps the most frightening stories in Dubliners, Ireland a better place. They see their vocation as because these young adults just close their eyes to the merely that, they have given up on the idea that what reality of what they have become. They are setting they do is more than a job. The spiritual wellbeing of themselves up for a lifetime of paralysis, and making Ireland is in their hands, but they couldn’t care less. the same mistakes that their parents before them had Arguably the most important story of the made--which are presumably the same mistakes that collection, “The Dead” is the only story where the they will push their own children into when the time epiphany brings a hopeful note. Gabriel spends comes. These stories seem to be Joyce’s fear for the most of his night realizing that his friends care future of Ireland. He hopes that Ireland realizes what more about showing him up, and about their own it has become, that it would rather be a comfortable problems than they do about him. The only thing monster than break free of the pitiful existence in that stops him from cracking is his sudden desire which it is trapped. This is our epiphany as readers, for his wife. His entire walk home he builds up and the frightening truth that people as a whole are not builds up the anticipated encounter, when his wife, willing to break away from the norm; no matter how out of the blue, brings up a man from her past. A terrible it is. man that died because of his love for her, someone The next four stories deal with the lives of mature she had kept hidden in her mind all the years they adults (“A Little Cloud”, “Counterparts,” “Clay,” and had been married. At first this seems like a shattering
66 of illusions just like all of the rest of the epiphanies in power who have put them in such despair. Joyce in Dubliners. It first appears that the only realization wrote these stories because he believed that Ireland Gabriel will achieve is that he will never truly know had the potential to break itself free of paralysis, and his wife. But this interpretation couldn’t be farther because he believed every man and woman in Ireland from the truth. The entirety of their relationship up could have Gabriel’s epiphany, if only they would to this point in the story is what wasn’t real, it was open their eyes. their paralysis. Gabriel has finally made the greatest connection possible with his wife, he is now a part of the biggest occurrence in her life. It matters not that he was not there when it happened and that they Works Cited didn’t even know each other. What matters is that now he can understand her, and she can trust him Cheng, Vincent. Joyce, Race, and Empire. New York: with her innermost secrets. Gabriel certainly hasn’t in Cambridge University Press, 1995. this moment overcame his paralysis, but we certainly see him beginning his journey to overcome it. The Heller, Vivian. Joyce, Decadence, and Emancipation. best analogy is Dante’s vision at the close of the Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995. Inferno, it is a daunting vision, but one that precedes his eventual departure from hell. At the close of Heffernan, James. British Writers Retrospective “The Dead,” Gabriel is the visionary, gazing out at Supplement I “James Joyce”. the lonely snow falling over Dublin (Heller 40). This seems not to be a story ending on a note of hopeless Kenner, Hugh. Dublin’s Joyce. Boston: Beacon Press, desperation, but rather foreseeing Gabriel’s journey 1956. out of the land of the dead. Could we expect Joyce to let it be an easy journey for Gabriel? We know he Joyce, James. Dubliners. New York: The Viking did not see Ireland’s journey out of paralysis as an Press, 1961. easy one, but “The Dead” ending on this note allows us to see that no matter how difficult he thought the Manganiello, Dominic. Joyce’s Politics. London: journey would be, he did still believe that the people Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980. of Ireland had the potential to awaken themselves. When editor after editor refused to publish Werner, Craig. Dubliners: A Pluralistic World. Joyce’s collection of stories, he wrote unapologetically Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988. that: It is not my fault that the odour of ashpits and old weeds and offal hangs round my stories. I seriously believe that you will retard the This paper was written for English 464 (Modern course of civilization in Ireland by preventing Literature), as a final research project. the Irish people from having one good look at themselves in my nicely polished looking glass. (Werner 12)
Through all of the stories of Dubliners, we see frustration after frustration. We readers get moments of epiphany while seeing how the people of Dublin are perpetuating their own paralysis. For the most part though, the characters themselves are unable to see through the looking glass at what they are missing, and what their paralysis has reduced their lives to. In “The Dead,” Gabriel sees the truth. He got a good look at his reality and realizes his need for a long and difficult journey. His epiphany is the one that Joyce hopes all of Ireland will be able to experience--he wants his people to see that their great mistake is failing to question the world they have been given, failing to question the wisdom of those
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of symptoms and degrees of infection occur, often in Syphilis: Evolution relationship to specific environmental changes. Pinta, or the “blue stain disease”, is a childhood Due to Social Changes infection that often persists into adulthood. It is found in tropical climates and is much less aggressive then Keywords: syphilis, Treponema, social the other manifestations of Treponema. The localized change, sedentism infection affects the skins pigmentation, causing blue or white patches to appear. This mild infection lacks by Alice Neikirk the ulcerations that mark the other three subcategories of Treponema. From an evolutionary standpoint, Abstract pinta is frequently considered to be the first strand The spiral shaped bacterium Treponema of Treponema that infected the early hunter gatherer pallidum, translated as “pale turning head”, causes societies globally. the endemic diseases of the tropics known as pinta, Yaws is a common skin infection that occurs yaws and bejel. Within and outside of the tropics, this in tropical South America. Children are usually same bacterium causes the venereal disease syphilis. infected, developing a mild skin rash that is easily Syphilis is present in the archaeological records passed to their peers. Children in hot, humid of Central America, Europe and China. Historical environments have little need for clothes, therefore documents go further, suggesting the venereal infection transmits easily without a marked degree Treponema bacterium have shared a long history with of genetic mutation. This strand of Treponema could humans. The corresponding dates of each respective survive easily on a single host that did little bathing appearance suggest a cross-cultural shift towards and facilitated distribution, i.e. survival, through a a sedentary lifestyle, movement out of the tropical substantial amount of commingling. There is evidence regions, and changes in social practices which result of more aggressive manifestations of this disease that in the form of syphilis we see today. have an especially detrimental effect on the skin, and occasionally affect the bones in the hands or feet. Background In the more arid regions of the Middle East and Non-pathogenic Treponema is a normal part southeastern Turkey, the symptoms associated with of the human intestinal tract, genital area, and oral bejel (endemic syphilis) are found. This environment cavity. The gum disease gingivitis is a rather benign is considerably less humid and people inhabiting manifestation of the bacterium. The Treponema the region tend to wear loose clothes as a means bacterium divides asexually through binary of protection against the sun. Subsequently, this transverse fission. More specifically, it grows in slightly more hostile environment forced the delicate volume then cleaves and divides resulting in two treponema to migrate to a gentler environment on identical daughter cells. The outer surface of the the human body. It sought out areas of the body bacterium is unique in two respects; it has a high that are warm, moist, and allow easy conductivity percent of lipids and a relatively low number of from person to person. Thus infections began to protein receptor sites. The human immune system occur in the mucus membranes, specifically the works by recognizing specific protein receptor mouth. The physical symptom is a cold sore-like sites on invading pathogens, then triggering B- lesion that appears inside or around the mouth. cells to produce protein specific antibodies. The This less conducive environment caused the bejel four subspecies of Treponema are microscopically strand to migrate away from the outermost surfaces identical. On the slide each appears as a slender, of the body. The environment remained somewhat white corkscrew against a dark backdrop. Genetically, hospitable; the bacterium was not forced to burrow they share a DNA that is over 95% the same, any further into the human body. making penicillin an effective antibiotic against all Venereal syphilis (Treponema pallidum) is the “strands”. Due to this genetic and microscopic uniquely characterized in the marked stages of similarity, subcategories were developed based on progression the disease undergoes. The primary the unique manifestations of the disease. It should stage consists of a chancre at or near the point of be noted that within these manifestations, a variety initial exposure that lasts anywhere from ten to 68 fifty days. The rash marking the secondary stage darkening of enamel, radial scars on the frontal appears approximately six weeks later. After this bones and syphilitis dactylitis. The cranial bones also point, it is fairly typical for the disease to enter a exhibited gummateous osteomylelitis, or ulceration of latency stage. This can last from a few weeks to the myelin bone covering. Another case of congenital over thirty years, during which time the host is syphilis is evident on the skeleton of a stillborn child completely asymptomatic. The tertiary stage is the born to a French woman during the fourth century. final progression of venereal syphilis. During this This skeleton also exhibited the cranial abnormalities time significant cardiovascular and neurological that are considered markers of syphilis. damage occurs. It is also during this stage that The cool, dry climate of Xinin, in the Qinghai bone is damaged in such a marked manner that province, has also offered up skeletal evidence of archaeologists can recognize the victims of venereal syphilitic infections from the Paleolithic era. The syphilis post mortem. Syphilis leaves its distinct mark archaeological site had a substantial amount of on the teeth, tibia and cranial bones. pottery, suggesting a population that was large and sedentary. Altogether, fifteen partial skeletons were Archaeological Evidence discovered. The teeth and cranial bones were not In 1993, 536 ancient skeletons were excavated available for examination, but the remainders of the and examined at the site of initial Columbus contact bones were intact. Several of the tibias examined with the Dominican Republic. The bones were exhibited sclerotic swelling and irregular bone initially subjected to macroscopic visual examination. proliferation, suggesting the presence of trepenomas. If there appeared to be evidence of treponema Due to the lack of teeth or cranial bones, it is difficult interacting with the bones, the bones were examined to state conclusively if these skeletons had been microscopically. Great care was taken to ensure that afflicted with venereal syphilis rather than the bejel the bone lesions being examined occurred before strain. death and not due to postmortem weathering or damage. The results suggested that 6-14% of the adult Historical Documentation population were suffering from late stage syphilis. No Mesoamerican historical documentation, in children or adolescents appeared to be affected. The the form of glyphs, dates back to at least 32 B.C. , inflicted skeletons exhibited a significant amount of though some scholars propose the writing developed Tibia remodeling, one of the hallmarks of a syphilitic as early as 750 B.C. In 1993 linguists translated an infection. Olmec text dating from 159 A.D. The text contained Hull England was a busy port city in the 1400’s references to the agricultural production of maize, that, like most ports, had a large number of sailors the rise of a king, and of sacrificial ceremonies. All and prostitutes passing through. The cemetery of the accounts by early European explorers suggest that large Hull monastery had specific areas excavated Mesoamerica was dotted by large cities that would in1994. The date of the area being excavated, 1340- rival any in Europe. Cortes went as far to say that 1369, was established through carbon dating of the Tenochtitlan was bigger than Paris but the city was wood used to build the coffins. In total, 207 relatively remarkably different from its European counterparts. complete skeletons were excavated. Of those, Doctor Tenochtitlan housed enormous botanical gardens and Charlotte Roberts stated that approximately 60% a highly efficient waste removal system, unlike its had “classic and convincing” symptoms of tertiary Europeans counterparts who allowed their cities to syphilis. The startlingly high percentage of infection be overrun by raw sewage and refuse. This evidence has been attributed to the urbaneness of the port supports the idea that many historic Mesoamerican city, the intermingling of a variety of cultures (i.e. populations were large, stratified and sedentary disease) and the monastery’s supposed role as the city when they first encountered Europeans. However, hospital. though the population density was high, organized Skeletal remains from the 13th century bearing waste management was being practiced which the mark of congenital syphilis have been discovered effectively kept many diseases at bay. In the instance in Anatolia, or present day Turkey. Turkey has the of Treponema, less virulent strands continued to be unique geographic position of being nested between passed around the scantily clad populations. Africa, Europe and Asia. The country has witnessed During the 1490’s Europe was undergoing mass migrations throughout the centuries and was several cultural changes as it moved from the Middle also a major stop on the silk trading route. The Ages into the Renaissance era. These early changes skeletal remains of a fifteen-year-old boy exhibiting potentially influenced the development of venereal tertiary symptoms recovered in Anatolia included; syphilis. Post-plague European populations had fled
69 to the countryside. It was during the 15th century that simultaneous time periods. The emergence of this massive influxes of people began returning to the disease is marked by an increase of populations living cities. In addition to this, the devastating plague had in dense areas. From examination of archaeological caused many people to experience a loss of faith in evidence of the Mesoamerican population, it appears the churches of the day. Hypothetically speaking, this the benign skin disorder would occasionally mutate would lead to increased rates of sexual conduct in a into venereal syphilis. It did not reach epidemic status densely populated area, thus increasing the spread until after missionaries visited the new world. They of venereal diseases. Another factor that may have brought with them clothes, soap and hygiene lessons inhibited the easy spread of benign Treponmea was that “push” the benign treponmoa bacterium out of changes in European clothing. The trend moved its environment. In order to survive, the bacterium towards fabrics that were heavy and worn in several had to exploit a new niche that was better suited for layers. Granted, the masses may not have had the its nature, thus it began to migrate exclusively into the means to follow fashion very closely but there surely genitals. Europe experienced a similar situation but was some trickle down effect. In terms of general due to different social conditions. Europe’s historical increased exposure of Europeans to Treponema, the population had many sufferers of syphilis, but it was slave trade from Africa greatly increased. Africans misdiagnosed as leprosy. When the pope allowed all brought with them the benign manifestations of the the lepers to return from exile in 1490 he may have Treponema bacterium in the form of pinta and bejel. unknowingly exposed thousands of people to those As slaves were subjected to a harsher climate and suffering from syphilis. When this information is subsequently heavier clothing, only the strongest considered alongside the high rates of prostitution, strands of this bacterium could survive by migrating growing slave trade and colder climactic conditions to areas of the body more suited for its survival. it is easy to see why Europe experienced a syphilis Prostitution, the migration of people (forced and epidemic in the late 1490s. otherwise) and disease were common. One such China was no exception to these rules. As the migratory disease was called “venereal leprosy”and population grew more sedentary and moved into was treated with mercury. Mercury is a somewhat cooler, semi-arid regions, the common childhood skin effective medicine in treating the chancres associated affliction of pinta moved with them. More clothing with syphilis, though completely ineffective in made transmission more difficult, consequently, treating any symptoms of leprosy. the bacterium evolved as a means of survival. The The historical documentation supporting the stronger strands could burrow deeper into the body, presence of venereal syphilis in China dates back to finding the warm, moist areas that facilitated its 2637 B.C. It was at this time that the Emporer Hoang- livelihood. These regions also tend to be gateways ty made the decision to release all of his medical into the rest of the human body due to the delicate records to the general public. He did this in the hopes nature of the genital tissues. that the records would benefit the people through Syphilis needs a large human population to increased knowledge of diseases and treatments. survive, further supporting the theory that it has Within those documents, symptoms are described in shared a long evolutionary history with man. This detail that are remarkably similar to syphilis. Mercury is evident even in this day and age. The densely was also used as a means of treating the disease in populated cities in the United States report more cases China, further supporting the diagnosis of venereal of syphilis than do rural cities. Due to its long-term syphilis. evolutionary relationship with humans, it tends to be a disease that takes a long time to become debilitating. Conclusion In some instances, syphilis can take over thirty years The Treponema bacterium evolved into the form to claim its victim. Life expectancy during the 15th of venereal syphilis that existed pre-15th century due century cross-culturally hovered at the mid-thirties. to cultural changes. Three separate historical societies This could be a contributing factor in the somewhat have left extensive archaeological and historical sparse archaeological evidence of tertiary stage documents supporting the presence of venereal syphilis on the bones. The bacterium Treponema syphilis on their respective continents during almost was one of the original hunter-gatherer diseases that ultimately had the ability to keep pace with the rapid evolution of human culture.
70 Works Cited
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Davies, Norman. Europe: A History. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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seeks justice for the poor and shelter for the weak” The Cult of Isis and (Wikipedia: Isis). Her most important temple was built on the island of Philae in Upper Egypt and the Early Christianity oldest buildings date back to just before the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty in 330 BCE. by Hazel Butler Worship of her moved from Egypt to the Greco- Roman world after Alexander the great conquered Before the rise of Christianity in the Roman Egypt in 332 BCE (Witt 1971, 46). She became most Empire, there was the Cult of Isis. This research paper popular during the reign of the Roman Empire. It was is an exploration of the Cult of Isis and its possible during this time that most of the Isiac temples were effects on Early Christianity. Early Christianity is built (Eliade 1987, 302). When she made her transition defined as about the first five hundred years of its to the Greco-Roman world, she absorbed many of existence. The cult of Isis certainly had an effect on the powers of other gods and goddesses (Eliade 1987, the development of early Christianity, even if some of 302; Wand 1937, 137). She became the earth goddess, the specific beliefs within the religions were different. protector of sailors, and kindeler of the fire in the sun There are similarities in the worship and the belief (Motz 1997, 13; Eliade 1987, 302). In the Greek text behind the Cult of Isis during the Roman era with Isis-aretalogy, dated to about the first century BCE, those that are reflected in Early Christian beliefs. Isis is described as the goddess who was responsible However, it is the missing pieces in Isiac worship that for creation, was goddess of love and war, and was Christianity seemed to satisfy that made it become worshiped under many different names (Eliade 1987, so popular. The way that the Roman world came to 302). In Apuleius’ Golden Ass, Isis is said to identify embrace Christianity also had a staggering effect on herself with all of the female gods of the time (Wand the religion, and set it apart from Isis. 1937, 137; Bainton 1984, 124-127; Mattingly 1967, 78- 79). The Cult of Isis At the end of the Hellenistic Age (336 – 146 Isis was first worshiped in Egypt as a queen BCE), men were looking for a religion that held a alongside her brother and husband, Osiris, the King different kind of comfort and inspiration that was of Egypt. When Osiris was killed by his brother Set lacking during the Greek era (Goodenough 1970, 4). and chopped up into pieces, it was Isis who put him Religions like that of Isis did not merely bring new back together. When she did so, she became the only gods from the East, but brought new religious ideas, god in the Egyptian Pantheon who was capable of including teaching the ideas of moral pollution and resurrection. Most importantly, after reviving Osiris reconciliation, equalizing rich and poor and making temporarily, she conceived Horus, who avenged the women more equal to men (Glover 1971, 24). It was murder of his father and become the first Pharaoh of this kind of new thought process that led them away Egypt. As Osiris’s wife, she became queen of the dead. from the traditional Greek and Roman gods that As the mother of Horus, she was now the symbol were impersonal, and to Cults like that of Isis and of motherhood, the patron of childbearing and the Christianity. Isis satisfied a feeling of helplessness protector of children. She was also the model for all and guilt that people had felt during the Hellenistic the future queens of Egypt, who were referred to as Age (Goodenough 1970, 9). In the Roman form, “the daughters of god,” “the great wifes of the king” Cult of Isis devotees insisted that their religion and and “the mothers of god” (Eliade 1987, 302). practices satisfied the desire in the Hellenistic age for The queens’ role in kingly succession was just an all saving deity. She became popular because she as important as the role that the king played (Eliade represented a deeply desired compassion and a love 1987, 302). In The contendings of Horus and Seth, which for all men, and with devotion, would grant a happy tells the story of the dealings and rivalries of Osiris, life after death (Goodenough 1970, 9-10). It is this Isis, Set, Nut, and Horus, and dates back to the reign need to have a happy afterlife, one that during this of Rameses V (1147 – 1143 BCE), Isis’ role as wife and time was only being provided to the masses by the mother are clear (Eliade 1987, 302). In the Book of the Cult of Isis, that made the religion so popular (Glover Dead, she is known as “she who gives birth to heaven 1975, 98). and earth, knows the orphan, knows the widow, and
72 Augustus thought that the rites of Isis were Christianity as the state religion, Christianity was “pornographic” in nature, and that the cult of Isis not widely accepted by the state (Mattingly 1967, 41). was more than capable of destroying the moral fiber From 117-259 CE, although the state did not for the that Augustus cared so much about (Wikipedia: most part actively persecute, it was unlawful to be a Isis). Augustus suspended the building of a temple Christian. If there was a natural disaster or a plague, that was to be built in honor of Isis and in the honor Christians were persecuted in an effort to please the of Julius Caesar, who was recently assassinated pagan gods. Before the persecution at Lugdunum, (Wikipedia: Isis). This fear of the eastern religions was 175-176 CE, the empire had been suffering from a not abandoned by roman emperors until the reign plague and from successful barbarian invasions. The of Caligula (37 – 41 CE). It was during his reign that outcry against the Christians was worsened by a Rome had its first Isiac festival. combination of mass hysteria and a weak governor. The last emperor that supported the Cult of Isis Under Septimius Severus (193-211 CE) a new was Julian, who reined around 360 CE. He thought prohibition was established against becoming a that the pagan cults were good because they did not Christian, aimed against increasing the size of the go out and coerce others to join their religion, and that Christian population (Mattingly 1967, 43). Maxium to drag blasphemers to the altars of the gods would the First (235 BC) hated everything but the army, and be a profanity against the gods (Goodenough 1970, this included the Christian population. Although 25; Glover 1975, 23). Julian however, only lasted Philip the Arabian (244 – 249 CE) was married to a three years on the throne, and was the last emperor Christian wife, he himself was not friendly to the of the Roman Empire to openly speak out against the Christian church. His successor Decius (249 – 251 early Christian religion. The Cult of Isis was tolerated CE) established the first general persecution of the by the Empire for just 30 more years before the Christians; all subjects of the empire had to present declaration of Theodosius in 395 CE that the Roman certificates that said they sacrificed to the roman Empire was a Christian State and that all heathen pagan gods (Mattingly 1967, 43). This occurred worship was abolished. The temple of Philae was the in conjunction with the celebration of the one last stronghold of Isiac worship and was officially thousandth year of Rome, and as seen in coins of this closed by Justinian in the sixth century (Eliade 1987, era, Decius took very seriously the job of the Roman 302). gods to protect the state (Mattingly 1967, 44). A positive thing for Christians, though, came Christianity in the Roman World from the persecution inflicted during the reign The new religious needs that were a requirement of Valerian (253-258). Valerian aimed his laws at in the Roman Empire were only partially satisfied the bishops, the heads of the churches. However, by the religious beliefs of the cult of Isis. However, it Valerian was captured by a Persian King in 258 CE, was the introduction of the religions of the Far East and many Christians saw this as a divine sign from and Egypt that changed the “western” way of looking god against the persecutor. Valerian’s son Gallienus at the world. It was this change in thought that gave the church peace during his reign (Mattingly made Christianity so likable (Goodenough 1970, 9). 1967, 44). Even through all the persecuted endured, Christianity was born in the far reaches of the Roman Tertullian says that there is no province and no class Empire, after the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth that Christianity hasn’t become a part of, and it was around 30 CE. It was originally spread by those who during this persecution that the early Christian creed were part of Jesus’ inner circle of Apostles and by was formulated (Mattingly 1967, 46). those who thought they saw him rise from the dead. When Gallienus took the throne in 258 CE, Christianity spread easily because of the toleration was granted to the Christians. He himself aggressiveness of missionaries and because of the was a philosopher and a patron of Plotinus, but his ease of travel under the Roman administration. wife, the Empress Salonina, was Christian (Mattingly Missionaries like Paul would come into a city, go to 1967, 54). From Gallienus through to Diocletian in 283 the local synagogue, and come out with just a few CE, the church and the empire maintained a relative converts. With these converts, and a few of the non- peace. During Diocletian’s reign, the empire was split Jewish people he could convert, he would establish up into sections, all governed by themselves, and the a new group in the city. Once he felt that the group empire became an extreme regiment that many who had a good understanding of his message, he would were part of the senate could not deal with (Mattingly leave and push on to another city (Goodenough 1970, 1967, 55). Outwardly the peace continued, but in 296 19). However, within the Roman Empire between CE, a purge of Christians from the army and civil about 117 CE until Constantine’s establishment of service positions began, foreshadowing the Great
73 Persecution that broke out in 303 CE. The purge in 59; Wikipedia: Constantine). Even though Maxentius the army was carried out by Galerius, the Caesar of wasn’t known as a persecutor, Constantine made his Diocletian in the East. campaign to conquer Maxentius a test of his faith In 303 CE Diocletian ordered churches to be and relationship with the Christian god. He told the destroyed, sacred scriptures burned and heads bishop Eusebius that he had seen a vision of a cross of of the churches to be arrested. Some sources say light in the night sky, and around it were the words that Diocletian did not want to shed the blood of “in this sign you shall conquer.” He marked the sign Christians, but he had a nervous breakdown and on the shields of his men, attacked Rome, and won was incapacitated for months and by the time he (Mattingly 1967, 59; Wikipedia: Constantine). Soon recovered, the bloodshed was in full force (Mattingly after this victory, Maximin attacked Licinius, was 1967, 57; Wikipedia: Galerius). In 305 CE Diocletian defeated, and died soon thereafter (Mattingly 1967, and Maximian, one of his Caesars, abdicated. Those 60). Maximin had continued his persecution, trying that took their place were men of Galerius, Severus to stop people from converting to Christianity and and Maximin Daza, instead of the sons of Maximian to rouse the pagan religions, and with his death, and Constantius, the ruler in the west. Constantinius Constantine and Licinius reaffirmed the Edict of died in 306 and his son Constantine was proclaimed Milan (Mattingly 1967, 60). Constantine and Licinius Augustus by his troops. Galerius then offered the had their last battle for power in 324 CE, and after second rank of Caesar to Constantine, which was Licinius reverted to paganism in their last battle, accepted. In 306 Maxentius, son of Maximian was Constantine won and the empire was united under a made Emperor by the Praetorian Guard in Rome, single Christian man (Mattingly 1967, 60; Wikipedia: and his father came back from his abdication to help Constantine). him (Mattingly 1967, 58; Wikipedia: Galerius). Soon, With the rise of Constantine to Emperor, the early six separate leaders were claiming to hold power at Christian Church went from being an object of fear one time. The firm basis from which the Christian and hatred to having imperial protection, favor, and Persecution had grown disappeared. Galerius, on his power. The church received back and confiscated deathbed, granted toleration of the Christian religion property, and received more gifts from the Emperor. in April of 311 CE and asked them to pray for his Bishops held high honors and traveled at the expense recovery. He died the next month. This general edict of the government (Mattingly 1967, 61). When the ended the official persecution of the early Christians. western emperor fell in 324 CE, Constantine had the However, many people of influence in the Christian bishop in Rome step in to take his place. Constantine, religion were lost during the Persecution. Although however, was upset to discover that the Christian Constantius supposedly kept the persecution in the church was not as united as his government, and West within reason, persecution had raged over most until it was, wouldn’t make a very strong partner of the empire, no where more so than the extremes (Mattingly 1967, 61). The first Council at Nicaea seen in the East (Mattingly 1967, 58; Wikipedia: presented Constantine with an opportunity to unite Constantine). the Christian church completely (Mattingly 1967, The future of early Christianity now depended 61; Wikipedia: First Council at Nicaea). Even with on Constantine. His father had been known as a kind Constantine’s new power and religion, he did not ruler, and although he wasn’t a Christian, he was immediately force Christianity upon the people even a monotheist. Constantine was said to have been a though it was something that he believed in very man of strong physical and mental strength, a good strongly (Mattingly 1967, 62). Almost all pagan deities general, a decent diplomat, and extremely ambitious. on coinage disappear after the rise of Constantine in Before he converted to Christianity, he was a devoted 312 CE except for the Sun god. He was not eliminated worshiper of Apollo. Through the influence of completely from coinage until five years later Bishop Hosius of Corduba, Constantine came to the (Mattingly 1967, 62). conclusion that the Christian god and Christ were As civil service members of the state, early really who he wanted to worship in the first place, Christians had no success in being chosen for high and had been looking for in the religious following of ranking positions. Now that the empire and the Apollo (Mattingly 1967, 59; Wikipedia: Constantine). religion had such a strong connection, Christians were With the death of Galerius, there were four men being appointed to high and important positions. The remaining who wanted to be Emperor: Constantine, arbitration of bishops became legal (Mattingly 1967, Licinius, Maxentius, and Maximin. Constantine 63). With the church favored to the degree that it was, formed and alliance with Licinius and resolved to win no dividing line could be drawn between church back Rome and Italy from Maxentius (Mattingly 1967, and public affairs, and under these circumstances
74 the church both influenced and was influenced by higher status than that of other religions (Glover 1975, society (Mattingly 1967, 63). Even with the influence 22; Stark 1996, 95). The appeal of these two religions of Christianity, the corruption in the close presence probably comes from the fact that there were far of the Emperor and the merciless grind of the tax more men in the Greco-Roman world than there were system continued with little sign of improvement. It females (Stark 1996, 97). It was estimated that around was inevitable that with the new partnership between 200 CE, in the city of Rome there were 131 males to the church and the state that some of this corruption 100 females, and in the outer parts of the empire, would brush off into the church (Mattingly 1967, 63- the ratio was 140 males for every 100 females (Stark 64). 1996, 97). Sex ratios this extreme can only occur when The success of early Christianity at the local level tampering with the population occurred, and it is depended largely on organization. In all parts of the well known that infanticide was practiced during this Roman Empire, people were worshiping Christianity era (Stark 1996, 96). A study of inscriptions at Delphi in different ways, and in order for Christianity to found that out of six hundred families, only six had be successful, a group of religious leaders needed raised more than one daughter (Stark 1996, 96). It is to come together to produce a standardized and no wonder then that the Cult of Isis and Christianity regulated way of worship (Goodenough 1970, 25). became popular among women, because they are This organization is one of the reasons why it became actually valued in these religions (Stark 1996, 98). popular very quickly. It was the only religion in the Studies show that Christianity may have been Roman Empire that attempted to do more than simply more popular among women because Christian organize on a local level (Goodenough 1970, 25), and women tended to get married later (Stark 1996, 106). while the Cult of Isis’ beliefs were bound lightly, This study was based on Roman inscriptions and was Christianity began to hold church councils for the firm done in 1965 (Stark 1996, 106). The study found that formation of creeds (Witt 1971, 254). female pagans were three times as likely as Christians to be married before the age of thirteen and that ten The Thread percent of pagan women were married by age eleven. One very obvious similarity between the two Forty-four percent of pagan women were married religions is that they offered religions with a one- by the age of fourteen, compared with only twenty on-one relationship with a deity, regardless of the percent of Christian women. Forty-eight percent of background of the devotee. Both religions were Christian females had not been wed before the age of popular with the lower classes. The cult of Isis offered eighteen, compared with only thirty-seven percent of magnificent rituals that people of the lower classes pagan women (Stark 1965, 106). The status of women could participate in (Goodenough 1970, 10). Jesus in the church was another matter. In Corinthians of Nazareth, when preaching his sermons on love 24:34-36, Paul is said to prohibit women from even and devotion around 28 CE, sought companionship speaking in church. However, it is argued that this among the people of lower classes because the people was an improper translation when the bible was of higher class refused to meet with him on his level translated into the King James Version because it (Goodenough 1970, 13). Like the cult of Isis, Jesus contradicts many of the positive things that Paul said preached for equality and love for all men, something about women (Stark 1996, 108-109). This could easily people of the upper class wanted nothing to do with been a reflection of societal views in the seventeenth (Harnack 1972, 161). A legend dating back to the centuries. In Romans 16:1-2, Paul introduces Phoebe, early centuries of Christian persecution mentions the a female, to a roman congregation as “our sister deacon Laurentius of Rome who, when ordered to Phoebe” who is a “deaconess of the church at give the treasures of the church to the government, Cechrea,” and that she had been great help to him. indicated the poor as the churches only treasures Deacons were considered very important members (Harnack 1972, 161). of the early church because they assisted at liturgical Although in the Pauline view of Christianity, god functions and were in charge of the benevolent was a male, and Isis was a female, both religions still and charitable activities of the church. In the King had the common characteristic of trying to sweep James Version, Phoebe was misinterpreted to be a aside radical and social distinctions (Witt 1971, 268). servant of the church and not a Deacon. Also, there Both religions also appealed to women on a scale are records of Paul sending many letters of thanks that was not seen in other Roman religions after to women, including a letter to Prisca, thanking her their introduction (Glover 1975, 22). Women in the for risking her neck on his behalf. In Tim, 3:11, Paul Cult of Isis and women as part of the subculture of again mentions that only females who are serious Christianity during the Greco-Roman world enjoyed and “temperate and faithful in all things” should
75 be appointed as deacons. In 451 CE, the council of arises, though, in a direct comparison between Isis Chalcedon handed down an edict that deaconesses and Mary in the ways that they became mothers. had to be unmarried and over the age of forty. This different regard for women as part of the religion is Differences what set the cult of Isis and Christianity apart from all The difference between the ways that one reaches other religions of the time period (Stark 1996, 109). It spiritual salvation in Christianity was that it showed is thought that Christianity made its way though the men the way to the ultimate truth that the emptiness upper classes of society through women, where wives of the Hellenistic Age required. According to apostles would convert and then convince their husbands to like Paul, in the previous religions (including the cults convert. of Isis and Judaism) scriptures could only lead men Another stealthy connection between Isiacs and a certain distance to ultimate salvation and it was in Christians is the similarities between how people Christianity that the goal of ultimate salvation was became part of the Isiac church and how the worship met (Goodenough 18). Also, it was the tangible form of Christianity was started. In the cult of Isis, one can of worship in the religion that set it apart from ones not become part of the religion until one had a vision like the cult of Isis. Although Isis offered a personal of Isis and the priest of the temple of Isis had a vision relationship with the deity and afterlife salvation, it of the new devotee becoming part of the cult (Glover did not offer a rite like that of the Christian Eucharist, 1971, 99). A tenet of early Christianity is that Jesus where the breaking of the bread and drinking of wine rose from the dead. Facts aside, his disciples all had represented a tangible connection to the religion. The a similar religious experience, whether they actually Eucharist is said to have morphed from the breaking saw Jesus rise from the dead or they simply had a of bread and drinking of wine to commemorate the vision of it occurring (Goodenough 1970, 16). These last night of Jesus to “the flesh of our savior Jesus religious experiences are a common bond between the Christ, which suffered from our sins, and which the two religions. father of his goodness raised up again” in Roman Another important similarity arises in the trinity. tombs during the early part of the second century Both the Cult of Isis and Christianity share this (Goodenough 1970, 23). common thread. According to the Christian critic Tertullian, when the bible was first published at the Conclusion end of the second century was when the trinity of It is the differences between the hardships that Osiris, Isis, and Horus was reworked to become the the two religions had to go through to become Holy Trinity as it exists in the early Christian doctrine popular that set them apart from the other religions (Witt 1971, 205; Glover 1975, 23). of the same time period. A connection clearly exists The cult of Isis had considerable influence on between the religions, even if it is a small one. Both the Virgin Mary (Eliade 1987, 302). According to religions attempted to fill a void in the aftermath of genealogies in the Books of Mathew and Luke, Joseph the Hellenistic era and both promise everlasting life wasn’t the biological father of Jesus, but Jesus was through worship. However, because Christianity still part of the line of David. In order for this to be had a god on earth that someone saw and could the case, Jesus had to inherit this from his mother, talk about, and because this god made an ultimate who was a descendent though David’s son Nathan sacrifice for his followers, it made Christianity more (Watts 1968, 103). It was this line that was supposed appealing to worshipers because the relationship to link Jesus directly to the Chosen People. This is became that much more personal. People were very similar to Isis, and all queens of Egypt, passing looking for answers after death, and although both down the power of the throne through their ancestry. Isis and Christianity could answer these, the more Another connection between Isis and Mary is personal relationship in the early Christian church motherhood. Both were mothers to kings of different made it more powerful. sorts, but it is this motherhood that is reflected in art. Statues of Isis holding Horus to her breast look the same as statues created of Mary holding the baby Jesus to her breast. This similarity of iconography between the two is generally accepted by most scholars (Witt 1971, 272-275). A strong difference
76 Bibliography This paper was written for History 494 D (Women in Ancient European Civilization) as a final research Bainton, Roland. 1984. Early Christianity. New York: paper. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co
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Wikipedia “Constantine I.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Constantine_I_%28emperor%29
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Witt, R.E. 1971 Isis in the Graeco-Roman world. New York: Cornell University Press
77 d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d
seemed to be invading the country at the time. As The Rise of Deaf the 19th century drew to an end, three key modes of thought defeated the growing independence of Deaf Culture Americans: immigration, revolution, and natural selection. by Lauren Hill As immigration rates soared, the fear of diminishing national solidarity in a time of war Deaf culture and awareness in the United States changed the American way of life. To the discomfort have grown to embody immeasurable strength of most Americans, cities were becoming more through decades of oppression and patronization. ethnically diverse. American Sign Language was no Decisions regarding deaf education methods and longer seen as a positive influence, but as a threat to participation in everyday society have largely been the homogeny of American culture; anyone that was controlled by the hearing population since the late not able to clearly communicate in spoken English 1900’s. With the rise in recognition of American was deemed an anti-nationalist. Many people during Sign Language as a complex, formal language this time also began viewing ASL as a primitive and increasing deaf visibility, the hearing world language, not fit for an educated society. has finally begun to see the Deaf community as a In 1898, The American Journal of Sociology strong, independent group of people. Now, in a time printed an article by Alexander Johnson entitled of great medical advancements, the invention of “Concerning a Form of Degeneracy.” The article cochlear implants may have history repeating itself, labeled deaf people as “feeble-minded” individuals challenging the rights and solidarity of the Deaf who should “by all means, be prevented from leaving culture. offspring who would probably inherit the [same] Deaf community has proliferated as long as evil tendencies.” Johnson encouraged a growing there have been deaf people to share experiences and eugenicist thought in people, most of whom were history. The first school for the deaf, The American naïve about the deaf population, by appealing to Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb (later to be called the their strength of religion in referring to deafness as an American school for the Deaf), was established in 1817 “evil”. This article, published in a respectable journal, by Reverend Thomas Gallaudet in Hartford, CT. In is typical of the times; Americans were trying to the first half of the 1800’s, deafness was viewed with maintain control of a rapidly changing and growing more compassion than later in the century; deafness nation. Deaf people in the late 1800’s were denied the evolved to be seen as “an affliction that isolated the right to an education, to marry, and restricted from individual from the Christian Community” (Baynton attending religious services (Luckner and Stewart 1992). This school was to be a resource where deaf 2003). The deaf had become society’s scorn, a helpless people could learn the word of God, thereby believing batch viewed as burdens to the economy. them saved from the life of the morally depraved. Darwin and his discovery of the process of Laurent Clerc, a deaf friend of Gallaudet’s from natural selection became a focus of the late 1800’s as France, was instituted as the school’s first head a revolution in science. In believing nature to reject teacher. Clerc brought with him the knowledge of the imperfections of man, people began to judge for French Sign Language (FSL) which would be utilized themselves which characteristics were more “fit” than in the formation of American Sign Language (ASL). others. Those with disabilities were seen as an inferior Residential schools for the deaf were later to become a race that should be eliminated from the gene pool. social core of the deaf community. Eugenics became a central discussion, how to cease In the beginning, schools for the deaf flourished the breeding of “degenerates” since “their unhindered with the acceptance of the hearing community. increase [was] a serious menace to the well-being However, with the significant educational success of of the race” (Johnson 1898). There was a unifying American Sign Language, that acceptance was soon to theme in that we, as a society, were not based on erode as Americans became fearful with their shifting our individual selves, but seen as a whole, a whole national values. The majority of the population came that needed to work together towards “betterment”. to view deaf people, not as a community and culture, This idea of betterment a few years later led to the but as lesser beings, likened to the foreigners who sterilization movement. 78 From 1907-1917 eugenic laws were passed in 16 and families like a prized heirloom. With a common states that listed deaf people along with the “inebriate, language the deaf were able to tell their stories, relate diseased, blind, deformed, and dependent (orphans, histories, and express their dreams for the future. The ne’er-do-wells, the homeless, tramps and paupers)” common language and history unified and solidified as sanctioned for sterilization (Julius 1967). In 1923 the community into a culture. the U.S. Supreme Court passed the Sterilization Act As American Sign Language slowly replaced written by Harry H. Laughlin (who helped model oralism, a division arose in deaf communities: Hitler’s eugenic laws) (Fjord 1996) which applied to those that believed in deafness as a pathological, all states. These laws went into effect before scientific unnatural, undesirable state and those that felt the studies revealed that only 5-10 percent of deaf deaf are “neither disabled nor diseased [and are an children have deaf parents (Washabaugh 1981). The established] minority group with a distinct history, belief that we automatically, genetically pass on most unique values, a heritage, a culture, and especially disabilities was an unfortunate oversight. a language, ASL” (Berbrier 2002). The Deaf, capital Epitomizing the thoughts of the time, American D, view themselves as culturally deaf, with their Sign Language became a forbidden language, and own language, class structure, politics, and social the introduction of oralism took place. Oralism aspects, but not disabled; those who are deaf, originated in Germany in the mid 1700’s by Samuel lowercase d, see deafness as related exclusively to Heinicke. In teaching oralism the mouth shape is hearing loss and prefer to function primarily among imitated as to what sound is being made. Oralism hearing communities. The Deaf have been gaining emerged as the “perfect” alternative to a signed momentum in their fight for independence and language; by teaching the deaf to read lips and talk, recognition. They unified in 1988 to demand a deaf the belief was that they could then fully immerse president of America’s most prestigious and oldest themselves into the hearing world. What was not primarily deaf University, Gallaudet, named after taken into account was the fact that lip-reading is Thomas Gallaudet. This movement would change an art, one that not everyone can learn and, when a deaf history. person can’t hear themselves, it is very difficult to Gallaudet University, located in Washington, DC, learn to speak coherently (Meadow 1969). Oralism has withstood the changes of time, the name infused became more than just speech and lip-reading; “it with respect. In March of 1988, Gallaudet students was part of a larger argument about language and gathered in protest of the presidential elections the maintenance of a national community” (Baynton and demanded a “Deaf President Now”. Since 1992). The deaf may have been more comprehensible Gallaudet’s charter in 1864, only hearing presidents to the hearing population, but a language that has no had resided over the school. Deaf students wanted visual context is literally meaningless to the deaf. a president that had a similar internal foundation Hearing communities pressed Oralism onto a deaf as they had, someone that knew what it meant to be culture already established around ASL. Alexander deaf. The demonstrations made the newspapers and Graham Bell, having a deaf mother and wife, was televisions across the globe. The Deaf community was a prominent figure in the support of Oralism in the no longer quiet. Drummond Ayers of the New York late 1800’s, asking congress to abolish American Times, reported the protest as a “silent flurry of sign Sign Language all together (Pagliaro 2001). Years of language, constituting nothing less than a civil rights oppression followed: deaf children having their hands revolution for the deaf.” The protest of 1988 and the tied behind their backs to stop them from signing, installation of the first deaf president of Gallaudet deaf teachers being replaced by hearing, and, by the University, I. King Jordan, will be held forever in the end of World War I, nearly 80 percent of deaf children hearts of Deaf people as a turning point in Deaf life. were taught entirely without sign language. This Soon after the protests at Gallaudet changes were remained orthodox until the 1970’s (Baynton 1992). seen. Televisions were required to come equipped American Sign Language was scientifically with captioning devices, telephone companies were recognized as a “formally complete language” required to provide relay service for the deaf, and through the research of linguist William Stokoe in the Congress began hiring deaf staff members (Ayres 1960’s (Berbrier 2002). With newly found recognition 1990). The enrollment at Gallaudet increased, more the deaf community was able to re-establish what educational programs were created, and higher had been kept from them for decades, their language. educational goals were set. Life became more affable Most deaf people had retained knowledge of the for Deaf communities with the rise in technology language and were successful at, often times secretly, through computers and pagers. Video relay services passing the language on through other deaf people are now thriving; the ability to easily make phone
79 calls through trained ASL interpreters from home has language, was torn apart in the mid 1800’s by a been a much needed advance in technology (Bernstein hearing world believing they knew best. Here we 2006). Observing people signing is now viewed as are again, in the 21st century, where deaf people have fascinating rather than primitive. become a solid minority, deaf schools are thriving, As technology has developed, great benefits have and the drive for equality is strong. What may seem come to the deaf. Yet, some medical technologies that like a benefit for deaf people has not always been, and have been created for the deaf have not necessarily unless hearing people can walk a few miles in their been for the best. A cochlear implant is a relatively shoes, the decisions should be left up to the deaf. As new surgical procedure performed to “cure deafness”. Deaf Culture grows stronger, the more aware the rest The device is implanted in the skull behind the ear of the hearing world is. Unintelligent myths, such as and allows transferred sound waves picked up from a deaf people cannot drive, need to be dispelled. Deaf receiver box worn on a belt to move up through wires. people can teach, can hold office, can appreciate The vibrations then send electrical impulses to the ear music, can do most anything the hearing community through wires in the cochlea that “may or may not” can, but hear. This is no longer seen as a disability but translate into sound. To the Deaf, this is genocide. rather a different ability. The debate over cochlear implants displays Recently, another long and strong protest another way in which the Deaf community is changed the presidency of Gallaudet University. misunderstood. While most hearing people see the Supporters from all over the globe gathered again implants as a gift, the Deaf are asking why not being to have their voices heard that the candidate, Jane able to hear is a bad thing. What is there to fix? Fernandes, needed to step down because, while she Felicity Barringer of the New York Times reported, was deaf, she was not Deaf (Mendoza 2006). There is “advocates for the deaf say it is brutal to open a still much work to do in making sure Deaf are treated child’s skull and wind wires through the inner ear, with respect and equality, which means having access or cochlea, just to rob that child of a birthright of to an egalitarian political process. The Board of silence.” Trustees for the University is learning that being deaf Cochlear implants do not “cure” deafness; they is not enough, but respect and leadership are needed simply redefine what it means to hear. As a deaf for a rising minority. Gallaudet must grow with the person is trained to recognize sounds as such, this times, not be held back by someone who does not translates into hearing. But, it will never be the believe in a progressive Deaf culture. same as a hearing person. Children growing up with It is easy, for those of us that hear, to look at cochlear implants are living a dual life. Some argue deafness from a pathological viewpoint, as something that parents do not have unlimited moral or legal that needs to be cured. Yet, if that mentality prevails, authority and pursuing implantation at a young age what happens to the richness of Deaf culture, the is taking a eugenics approach to life (Power 2006). language, those that love to be how they were Hearing parents of deaf children are progressively made to be? Living in the era of the changing face opting for surgery before understanding Deaf of deafness is a great time to educate ourselves and Culture, therefore undermining the experience of others and stop seeing deafness as a disability, but as being deaf. a different ability, a different way of living. Changing For some, cochlear implants do represent a our views can help to secure Deaf culture and show miracle. Many people that opt for surgery have lost our support for other communities. Why work for a their hearing later in life and wish to have it back. homogenous community when we can celebrate and Others view deafness strictly as a problem and prefer embrace our differences? to be able to hear. Most doctors and medical scientists support cochlear implants as a medical breakthrough, regardless of the effects on the Deaf community. If you are deaf, it is more than likely your health insurance will cover the approximately $40,000 for cochlear implant surgery, but they tend to cover only about $300 of the cost of hearing aids. Implants are a tricky debate as no one doubts the sincerity of “trying to find a cure”, but the question is, “what is trying to be cured?” If we are not cautious, history may repeat itself,. A thriving community, growing fast with its own
80 References
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Transfixed and Transfigured
by Anne Michels
The influences of Greco-Roman society on modern day art and literature are boundless. Charles Martindale remarks that “From the twelfth century onwards Ovid has had a more wide ranging impact on the art and culture of the West than any other classical writer or poet” (Martindale 187). From Shakespeare to Faust and even in modern soap operas the Roman poets have had a lasting impact. Even comic books have not escaped the overwhelming influence of the Romans. The book “V for Vendetta” by Alan Moore and David Lloyd has very clear thematic ties to Roman literature, and especially to the themes of metamorphoses and preservation of culture. A strong connection can be drawn to Ovid’s Metamorphoses and also the tale of Amor and Psyche in the “Metamorphoses of Lucius (The Golden Ass)” by Apuleius. Following is a brief summary of the story of “V for Vendetta”, and an exploration of the metamorphoses theme as it connects to Ovid and the tale of Amor and Psyche.
“V for Vendetta” takes place in a totalitarian Britain cut off from the outside world which is crumbling around it. The title character V is a modern day incarnation of Guy Faulkes, encouraging us to:
Remember, remember the fifth of November, The gunpowder treason and plot, I know of no reason why the gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot. (Moore 14)
He is a terrorist in every sense of the word, destroying Big Ben and the headquarters of the nation’s three spy agencies--the Eye, Ear and Mouth--and plotting
82 eventually to destroy the parliament. He is never shown without his Guy Faulkes mask, presumably hiding a disfigurement obtained while having experiments performed upon him in a Nazi-esque concentration camp. He stumbles upon an unlikely and unwilling successor to his throne named Evee, an aspiring prostitute who mistakenly propositions a gang of government thugs and finds herself in need of saving. Throughout the book we learn of the atrocities committed by both the British government and by our hero himself. The tale ends with V allowing himself to be killed so that Evee, who he has seemingly tortured to get her to agree with him, can take his place and be a kinder, gentler face behind the mask. The tale of V and Evee is obviously one of metamorphoses of Britain, just as Ovid can’t be sure metamorphoses, V trying to change Britain to that the metamorphoses of Rome is a positive one. what it once was and could be again, and Evee V does, however, ensure that Evee has the potential transforming from an uncultured prostitute to the to save the Britain he cares so much for, just as Ovid savior of a nation. Ovid’s Metamorphoses begins is able to influence readers of the future, not to save in chaos and slowly moves through the exploits of Rome, but to carry on its stories and the stories of both the Gods and mortals to the eventual “peace Greece before it. and stability” found under Augustan rule. This We quickly learn that the most important part peace and stability, however, was more a matter of of the story of Vendetta is of Evee’s transformation. enforcement than enlightenment. Augustus has to At first she seems the most unlikely candidate to kick his own family out of Rome for not following his save Britain. She is young, ignorant, and utterly strict rules (Harris and Platzner 956). This situation brainwashed. During her transformation we see seems to be the same point Britain is at in Vendetta. quite a few Metamorphoses parallels. When we first Twenty years previously, to avoid involvement in meet Evee, she has made the unfortunate mistake of WWIII, they made the U.S. take their weapons out of propositioning the “fingers” (state sponsored thugs) Britain. Now, as the rest of the world is fighting and and since prostitution is illegal they are in the eyes collapsing around them, they are living in a relatively of the law allowed to have their way with her and secure police state. Yes, they don’t have to fight, but then dispose of her. V has done nothing to save the they’ve also lost all culture, music, and diversity: hundreds of prostitutes he has seen suffer this same “They eradicated some cultures more thoroughly fate, but he saves her because he sees something than others” (Moore 17). Blacks, Jews, gays, lesbians, different. Were these men bad? Yes, without a doubt, and anyone who didn’t agree with the government but they were slaughtered for doing their jobs. This were sent to concentration camps and destroyed. I seemed to me very similar to the story of Acteon and think this is the fear Ovid had for Rome, that while Diana (Kline 45). Acteon stumbled upon Diana while it may have seemed to have metamorphosed into she was bathing and stared in shock at seeing the something great, it may have been at the cost of naked goddess before him. Instead of warning him the people. In a similar vein, V blows up a statue or giving him some sort of light punishment, Diana of Lady Justice, talking to her as if she has turned destroys him, because he has looked on something no against him, has turned against Britain, just as mortal should ever see. This seemed very similar to V Ovid fears the law has turned against Romans. All destroying the fingers because contemplated touching throughout Vendetta’s imaginary Britain there are this person who seemed so important to him, his posters proclaiming “Strength through purity, purity newfound goddess. He had let every other prostitute through faith” (Moore 2) which seems directly related die, but this stumbling virgin merited his “divine” to Augustus trying to bring back elements of Greek intervention. society, particularly the worship of Apollo. How Another parallel from the Metamorphoses was ironic then that Apollo wasn’t pure, that he caused in the story of Byblis and Caunus (Kline 160) and the ruin of so many young men and women, just also the story of Myrra (Kline 175). Evee had lost her as the false purity of this future Britain only thinly father when she was extremely young and almost veiled its contamination. V himself can’t ensure the
83 every dream she had about V’s identity ended up with her in bed in her father’s arms, which didn’t really bother her. Obviously this was because she had been robbed of her father and missed him, which obviously is not the case with Myrra, but perhaps she (Myrra) felt ignored and this was the best way to be “daddy’s little girl.” Evee desperately wanted her father to be alive, even if he was the man she was in love with. Part of her metamorphosis however, made this impossible, because the longer she clung to the idea that everything could end up okay, the longer she was prevented from actively participating in changing London. The biggest change in Evee came after she ran away from V. Her lover, who hated what Britain had become but was afraid to do anything about it, was murdered by the authorities. V “saved” Evee from certain capture and death, but instead of telling her, he kept her in a cell and punished her and threatened her to her breaking point. This will be discussed more when we get to the comparison with Amor and Psyche. During her “captivity”, she began receiving letters from “Valerie” who was a prisoner in the cell next to her. Valerie was imprisoned for no reason other than that she loved a woman. Her girlfriend had been abducted while on the way to the market one day and was tortured into confessing she was a lesbian and that Valerie was her “wife.” This is reminiscent of at least two tales from the Metamorphoses. The first being that of Iphis and Ianthe (Kline 165) Iphis was born to a father who swore to kill his newborn child should it be born a girl, so her mother disguised her responsibilities she has in being V’s partner. She as a boy her entire childhood. Eventually she was is encouraged to “become transfixed…become betroathed to Ianthe, whom she loved but wasn’t transfigured…Forever” (Kline 172). And she is. allowed to love. She wasn’t ashamed, she was just Throughout Vendetta there are many themes and not permitted. The Gods ended up pitying her and tropes that have striking similarities to the tale by changing her into a boy so she could love Ianthe. Ovid. In Metamorphoses quite often characters were Unfortunately for Valerie, such a transformation transformed into birds to prevent their destruction, could not occur; she continued to love her girlfriend guaranteeing their eternal freedom. In Vendetta, and to love the faceless person in the cell next door no one literally turned into a bird, but the freedom because they couldn’t take that away from her. trope was still present. Every time V destroyed some The other tale this reminds one of is that of symbol of totalitarian Britain there were fireworks Orpheus and Eurydice (Kline 170). Valerie claims in the sky, symbolizing the freedom he wanted that even though her girlfriend caused her eventual the stupefied citizens of London to have. Another suffering and death she still loved her: “Oh, God I interesting similarity is between the “Leader” of the loved her, I never blamed her” (Moore 159). Eurydice society, aptly named Leader, and Echo. Leader runs also could not fault her lover, as she was being the society based on what a supercomputer named whisked back to hell she didn’t blame Orpheus for either Fate or Destiny tells him to do, and he ends up looking back, because he did it out of his love for her. falling in love with it, believing it to be truly divine. Eventually, Evee’s “captor” told her she had to This seemed very much to me like the story of Echo. confess to helping the terrorist or she would be taken She loved Narcissus, who through his rejection of out behind the chemical sheds and shot. At this point everyone other than himself, actually ruled them, she says she would rather die and is consequently let telling them what they couldn’t ever dream of having. free. She has learned to see past herself and accept the She loved someone that fate wouldn’t allow, and the 84 Leader loved Fate herself, who due to her electronic Psyche ended up going through hell (literally) to find nature could never love him back. Through this out whom she really was. After all of her unfair tests love the leader of this society was transformed into and trials she emerged victorious and with a clearer nothing more than a hollow voice, repeating the image of herself. She embarked on a Herculean quest, words of his imaginary lover, an Echo in every way. and emerged stronger physically and mentally, more At the end of Vendetta, V allows himself to be than Hercules could have done! Evee also went killed so that Evee can take his place. She realizes that through hell. Her hair was shorn; she was beaten, she no longer needs to know who is behind the mask starved, and told the story of someone else who was because she is now behind the mask. V is no longer about to die for her beliefs. Evee didn’t even know a person, but an idea. So why did the person who she had these beliefs until she was being punished for used to be V have to die? This seems very similar to them, just as Psyche didn’t realize how strong she was the transformation of Orpheus’s male lovers. If they until she was being punished. Both of these women would have been allowed to live they would have transformed into complete human beings because continued to follow Orpheus, insisting that he pay of what was done to them. The males of the stories attention to them. But this would have detracted proved ineffectual compared to these transformed from his love of Eurydice, so they had to die. V had females. Psyche was able to become a goddess, and to die at the end of the book so that Evee would be Evee was able (we must assume) to lead Britain back able to help Britain in a non-violent way now that the to what they had lost. anarchy V had created had run its course. He was a An undeniable aspect of both tales of terrorist and bringer of death, he couldn’t continue Metamorphoses and of “V for Vendetta” is the idea to live because he would hold back Evee, just as of preservation. Ovid and Apuleius were trying to Orpheus’s male lovers had to die so Orpheus could preserve the history of the Greek predecessors who still be with Eurydice in Hades. were on the verge of being lost, and V is trying to Vendetta did something interesting that most preserve the legacy of humanity that was so close comics don’t do. Typically there are thought bubbles to being extinguished. Otis says “Ovid put into it and text boxes explaining what is going on for those [Metamorphoses] a very large part of the ancient who didn’t quite get the pictures. The author decided mythology-all the unbelievable Gods, demigods, to abandon these standards however, and let the story miracles and variegated wonders-and somehow tell itself through dialogue and images instead. These brought them alive” (Otis 2). V is carrying on Ovid’s seem to parallel the structure of the Metamorphoses legacy, attempting to keep alive all the great works where much more time is spent describing scenery to of humanity. Neither believed they alone could give an image of what a scene actually looks like than save their lost and confused societies, but they could on the actual plot itself (Otis 52). Ovid is in essence constructing a comic book without pictures! In Amor and Psyche, Psyche undergoes a very similar metamorphosis through torture as Evee does. Even after Evee was kidnapped to the “Shadow Gallery” and Psyche was plunged into darkness, neither of these women were particularly unhappy in the situations they were in before they were literally and figuratively tortured. But Psyche herself, through the help of her sisters, realized she needed more than a faceless, nameless lover. She snuck up on Amor in the night expecting to find a monster and instead found Cupid himself. It is important to note that most interpretations of this tale paint Psyche as the typical dumb woman for doing this. Neumann claims that she is causing her own ruin by listening to her sisters (71), while Conte says she is motivated by nothing more than a “silly desire to please her sisters” (565). In my mind this couldn’t be farther from the truth. It would have been silly of her to not question her constantly absent, invisible husband. Just as it only made sense for Evee to question the true identity of V.
85 provide the tools to give the next generation a fighting chance. We’d have no “V” without Ovid, and can only hope to preserve Ovid’s thoughts, and the works of all of Greco-Roman society, with the ideals presented to us by Moore through “V”.
Works Cited
Conte, Gian Biagio. Latin Literature: A History. Otis, Brooks. Ovid as Epic Poet. Great Britain: Baltimore: John Hopkins University Cambridge University Press, 1966. Press, 1987 Galinsky, G. Karl. Ovid’s Metamorphoses: An Harris, Stephen and Gloria Platzner. Classical Introduction to Basic Aspects. Los Mythology: Images and Insights. New Angeles: University of California Press, 1975. York: McGraw Hill, 2004. Moore, Alan and David Lloyd. V for Vendetta. New Martindale, Charles. Ovid Renewed. New York: York: Warner Brothers Entertainment, 1988. (All Cambridge University Press, 1988. images from this work)
Neumann, Erich. Amor and Psyche: The Psychic Development of the Feminine. New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1956. This paper was written for ENG 303: Modern Literature. The project was a research paper linking ancient and modern mythologies.
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from the Australian National University. These Vacuum energy two teams of scientists threw conventional models of Universal expansion out the window by proving density resolved, thus that the Universe was no longer slowing down in its expansion, but actually accelerating (Goldsmith, dark energy solved 2000). The astronomical community was now raising by Houston Wade new questions: How could the Universe be accelerating? What force could possibly be at work Abstract to pull apart the Universe beyond the momentum A constant for the vacuum energy density in the created by the initial Big Bang? This yet to be defined universe was resolved by creating a mathematical force was given the ominous name of “dark energy” model of two average galaxy clusters at average and what causes it has been a matter of debate for the distances as they existed at the beginning of the epoch better part of the last decade. of acceleration, and then setting the total vacuum It was this very topic I was discussing with my pressure equal to the total gravitational pressure. friend Dan Lafferty, an instructor of graphic design These two clusters were then compared at their at the Art Institute of Seattle, around Christmas of present distances with the new constant introduced 2004 that brought me to this paper. I had finished that produced findings that coincide with current data work at the bar back home in Seattle where I am that reveals the ratio of dark energy to gravitational employed during breaks from school and Dan and I energy to be 3:1. This paper finds that the positive were catching up and conversing about my time at but near-zero value of vacuum energy density is school in Hawai’i, and he was peppering me with true while completely discounting the very flawed questions about the workings of the Universe. The quantum field theory model altogether. topic of dark energy came up and Dan suggested that maybe the fact that the Universe is accelerating is due Introduction to the fact that the Universe is mostly vacuum. His In 1929 Edwin Hubble and Milton Humason reasoning was that we use vacuum chambers to paint let the world in on their startling discovery that the everything from little pieces of plastic to motorcycle Universe was expanding at a rate of almost 500km/s frames. Paint particles expand evenly in a vacuum so per megaparsec (Mpc); a constant that became know why couldn’t big galaxy clusters do the same? as the Hubble constant (H0). Today, that number has Now, the adiabatic expansion of paint particles in shrunk considerably as technology and methods have a vacuum chamber is fundamentally different from improved greatly from those of the first half of the what happens in the Universe we see today. The twentieth century. As of 2006, the Hubble constant Universe of old had gobs of adiabatic expansion and has now been resolved down to 70.8km/s/Mpc cooling due to the excited nature of the super-hot +/-1.6km/s/Mpc (NASA, 2006). particles in the initial moments after the Big Bang. Astronomers see that the Hubble constant Dan’s idea intrigued me none-the-less and I decided actually slows over time due to the drag produced by to learn more about this area of cosmology and what gravity (Guth, 1997; Bennett, 2006; Goudarzi, 2006). vacuum pressure may have to do with it. After all, The realization that the Universe was expanding and the volume of the Universe is dominated by vacuum. slowing raised many questions among cosmologists I set out on my mission and was surprised to and astronomers. Chief among these were: will learn that many had already started pursuing the the Universe eventually slow and collapse in on possibility that energy present in the vacuum of space itself (the Big Crunch) or did it achieve escape may be the contributing force that comprises dark velocity and will continue to expand forever (the energy. A main contributor of energy in a vacuum Big Whimper)? This debate was resolved (rendered in the quantum field theory is thought to come from mute) in 1998 by the perplexing and mind-bending the particles and antiparticles that randomly appear, discovery by two independent groups: the Supernova colliding and annihilating each other all over the Cosmology Project at Lawrence Berkeley National Universe (Wright, 2004). Many articles concerning Laboratory and the High-z Supernova Search Team vacuum energy density in the Universe have recently 87 been published with attempts to resolve the insanely The cosmological constant can now be used as a vast differences between the quantum field theory positive, neutral or negative force and depending on model for vacuum energy density and that of what its value predicts whether the Universe will collapse, projects like the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy stay static or expand forever (Guth, 1997; Spark, Probe (WMAP) are finding. The difference between Gallagher, 2005). these two alone is about 120+ orders of magnitude The problem now is that the cosmological (Baez, 2006)! constant fudge factor used in general relativity is Quantum field theory must be wrong because it much, much smaller than that of the quantum field calculates that the energy density (in terms of weight) theory I mentioned above, but is still positive and of the vacuum of space is about 1096 kilograms per probably very small. Small enough to be treated m3 (Wright, 2004). Common sense tells me that there as zero on small scales (Carroll, 1998). I personally is no way that one cubic centimeter of vacuum has believe that since the quantum field theory suggests 60+ orders of magnitude more energy in terms of a constant that would essentially tear the universe weight than that of the entire Sun. apart so fast that galaxies, stars, planets and ourselves When Einstein created his general theory of would never even have had the opportunity to exist, relativity he believed the Universe to be static (this then there certainly must be something wrong with was before Hubble’s and Humason’s discovery) the way the equation is applied. There are many who but his equations describing general relativity, will stand by the quantum field theory to answer now known as the Einstein field equations, kept the question as to just what dark energy is, but I am making his model of the Universe expand at an ever- still waiting for quantum mechanics to be applicable increasing rate. To correct for this anomaly Einstein to anything larger than an atom before I apply it to created what he called the “cosmological constant” to masses 75 orders of magnitude bigger than that of a be an opposing force against the runaway universe lowly proton. that his equations suggested. I decided that since these two models cannot After Hubble’s and Humason’s discovery of the agree it would be best to independently calculate a steady-rate expanding Universe, Einstein abandoned constant for vacuum energy density by creating my the cosmological constant and it was thought to have own plausible model and seeing if it fit with the 3:1 died. Rapture for the constant came in the late 1990s ratio of dark energy to gravitational energy that we after the discovery of the accelerating Universe by see around us today. the groups from Berkeley and Australia. Einstein can After the Big Bang the Universe exploded now be credited as being more of a genius than even outward and inflated rapidly transmitting huge he realized. amounts of momentum to the matter it heaved forth. For about 8-9 billion years this momentum-driven Universe slowed under the drag of gravity produced by it massive parts, that is until about 5 billion years ago (see figure 2). Just recently, astronomers looking back to a point in time where z = 0.36 (~5Gya) discovered that this is around the time the epoch of acceleration began (Goudarzi, 2006). This is where my idea came from on how to calculate the energy contained in each chunk of vacuum throughout the Universe.
Methods Today, the average galaxy cluster is about 10Mpc from another average galaxy cluster, and about 1 to 10Mpc in diameter (this figure isn’t that important as I am going to treat the clusters as point particles) and about 1015 Solar masses (Cambridge University, 2006; Chaisson, 2005). Knowing this, I concluded that if the epoch of acceleration began about 5Gya Figure 1. A vector field representing the expansion of the Universe since the Big Bang and showing the then it is at this time when dark energy equaled acceleration since the Epoch of Acceleration. gravitational energy or, in this case, gravitational pressure equaled vacuum pressure. To calculate the
88 attractive acceleration due to gravity as well as the This is the equation I am using to define the repulsive acceleration due to the vacuum between acceleration due to dark energy: two average galaxy clusters I would need to define a constant for the component of dark energy. To obtain , my constant I have to go back in time and see how these two average clusters existed 5Gya. This way I where CDE is the repulsive constant associated with can resolve a constant for the acceleration component the vacuum. The calculations stay very simple from contained within each meter of vacuum and make the this point forward. All we need to do now is solve for difference between the two acceleration components our vacuum constant. equal to zero: , ,
where DEacc is the repulsive acceleration component . from dark energy and Gacc is that same but attractive component provided by gravity. Now that I have my constant defined I need to Before I can use the above equation I have compare it with the acceleration values for the galaxy to calculate the distance two average galaxy clusters clusters in their current state of being 10Mpc apart. were away from each other 5Gya. To make things The repulsive acceleration experienced by the clusters easy I assume a H0 of 70km/s/Mpc and then go due to the vacuum is now: back in time with two clusters that today are 10Mpc apart. I must mention that by assuming a H0 of . 70km/s/Mpc I am going to have small and hopefully negligible error in my end result because the Hubble The attractive acceleration due to gravity at 10Mpc is: constant is anything but constant as the Universe is accelerating so this value will have actually changed over the past 5Gyr. I am sure that later works will let . the technicalities ooze forth and correct my simple assumptions and help reduce any error in the end result. To calculate the ratio of vacuum force to that of the I will use this equation to determine the past gravitational force we just divide the two acceleration separation of the two clusters: components into each other, and low and behold:
, (Crowe, Heacox, 2006), , wow! where D0 is the distance the clusters were from each other at the beginning of the Epoch of Acceleration, Df is the distance they are apart from each other Results today (10Mpc), t represents the 5Gyr of time since By calculating my own constant for vacuum the beginning of the Epoch of Acceleration and the energy density with this mathematical model I found Hubble constant can be treated as 0.072Mpc/Gyr/ that vacuum energy (dark energy) is about 2.96 times Mpc. I then get: that of the gravitational energy or 74.75% of the total energy at play in the present Universe. This is pretty darn close to the 75-76% measured by astronomers . (Chandra X-ray Observatory, 2006) and I did nothing too technical or exacting. I just took two average Now, I need to calculate the gravitational acceleration clusters at average distances from each other as they between these two clusters as they were 5Gya: are seen today and used an approximation of the Hubble constant to find out how far apart they were from each other at the beginning of the epoch of . acceleration. The results of this simple model do imply that distance and mass, not time, are the important factors
89 in the increasing speed at which the Universe is Works Cited expanding. By this I mean that two average-sized clusters, like the ones I chose for my model, that Baez, John. What is the Energy Density of the were more than 6.97Mpc apart 5Gya were already vacuum? [Internet]. University of California experiencing acceleration away from each other. Riverside; 11/8/2006 [date of citation: 11/12/2006]. Available from http://math.ucr. Conclusion edu/home/baez/vacuum.html. The basic premise behind the method I used should hold true when determining a more exact Bennet, Charles L. 2006. Cosmology from start to constant for the vacuum energy density. There are finish. Nature 420: 1126-1131. several ways that one can get a more precise answer and eliminate the error present in my ratio. I would Cambridge University. Galaxy Clusters and Large- suggest using the gravitational equations from Scale Structure [Internet]. Cambridge University; general relativity to calculate the acceleration between [date of citation: 11/12/2006]. Available from the two clusters and to create an integral that would http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/ account for any change in the Hubble constant over gal_lss.html. the last 5Gy rather than my imprecise approximation. Of course, the most important step one should take to Carroll, Sean. The Cosmological Constant [Internet]. eliminate error from this model would be to conduct University of Chicago; 12/14/1998 [date of accurate measurements of distant, average galaxy citation: 11/12/2006]. Available from: http:// clusters separated by average distances around z=0.36 pancake.uchicago.edu?~carroll/encyc/. and use those instead of my assumed cluster distances and sizes and then compare projected positions Chaisson, Eric J. Cosmic Evolution [Internet]. Boston, according to the current 3:1 ratio of dark energy to Mass: Tufts University; 2005 [date of citation: gravitational energy. 11/12/2006]. Available from http://www.tufts. I cannot help but wonder just what Einstein edu/as/wright_center/cosmic_evolution/docs/ would make of the recent discoveries of the runaway, splash.html. Universe and how he would have approached the entire conundrum of dark energy. And how he would Chandra X-ray Observatory. 2006. Galaxy Clusters solve it–we all know he would. and Dark Energy: Chandra Opens New Line of Investigation on Dark Energy [Internet]. Harvard University; 8/30/2006 [date of citation: 11/20/2006]. Available from: http://chandra. harvard.edu/photo/2004/darkenergy.
Crowe, Richard. 2006. University of Hawai’i at Hilo; email correspondence 11/11/2006. Heacox, William D. 2006. University of Hawai’i at Hilo; email correspondence 11/13/2006.
Goldsmith, Donald. 2000. The Runaway Universe. 1st edition. Cambridge, Mass: Perseus Publishing. 232.
Goudarzi, Sarah. 2006. The History of Dark Figure 2. A representation of the two clusters and their Energy Goes Way, Way Back [Internet]. separation from each other over the last 9Gyr and how Space.com; 11/16/2006 [date of citation: their accelerationscomponents due to gravity (green) 11/20/2006]. Available from: http://space. and dark energy (red) may have changed in that time. com/scienceastronomy/061116_darkenergy_ infantuniverse.html.
Guth, Alan H. 1997. The Inflationary Universe. 1st edition. Reading, Mass: Perseus Books. 358.
90 NASA. 2006. How Fast is the Universe Expanding? [Internet]. NASA; 10/18/2006 [date of citation: 11/20/2006]. Available from: http://wmap.gsfc. nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101expand.html.
Spark, Linda S. Gallagher, John S. 2005. Galaxies in the Universe. New York: Cambridge University Press. 379.
Wright, Edward L. Vacuum Energy Density, or How Can Nothing Weigh Something? [Internet]. University of California Los Angeles; 9/10/2006 [date of citation: 11/12/2006]. Available from http//www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmo_ constant.html.
This paper is a final research paper written for English 225 (Writing for Science and Technology)
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may not have known about the exact structure of Vorticism DNA, he had read a claim by Allen Upward in his novel New Word that hinted at something remarkably by Josh Williams close to it. He “claimed the ‘fair probability’ that organic life in Earth sprang from ‘minute cosmic “Intrinsic beauty is in the Interpreter and Seer, not in the individuals, endowed with energy of their own, object or content.” similar in origin and character to that manifested -Blast (Lewis 899-920) in the rotary or the vertical motion of the planets’” (Materer 16). Vorticism was a British art movement that Wyndham Lewis was both a writer and came out of the early 1900s. It was very accepting painter who found inspiration in much of science of modern ideas in science and technology and in and technology as well. In fact, he founded and fact even found inspiration in these new ideas and contributed to the movement’s journal entitled Blast. incorporated them into their works. These works One of his contributions is his play Enemy of the Stars, ranged from writing to painting to sculpture and at which was very much inspired by the heavens above. least one of each art form was supported by one of the The play was inspired by the binary star Algol (in the main Vorticists. Ezra Pound was a writer, Wyndham constellation of Perseus). A binary star is actually a Lewis was both a writer and painter, and Henri composite of two stars that orbit each, or a little more Gaudier-Brzeska a sculptor. With these three forming correctly, orbit a common center of mass; but in the the core, plus a handful of others, Vorticism came to case of Algol, the two stars are oriented such that from be an art and literary movement finding inspiration in our line of sight, the two stars eclipse one another on both science and technology. a regular basis. In fact, one full cycle can be watched The term vortex has its roots in both old and in just under three days. So Lewis used this idea of then modern science. It comes from the pre-Socratic an eclipsing binary star in his play. The protagonist’s doctrine that the four elements were formed as they name is Arghol, who embodies the artist (who is rotated in a vortex (Materer 15). Pound liked this always misunderstood) and is eventually blacked out. word and idea as it suggested to him something Rather than concerning itself with realistic or human energetic and dynamic, as well as unrelenting--pretty characters, the play brings forth the conflict of the much everything he and his fellow Vorticists wanted abstract forces of creation and destruction. to encapsulate. In fact, the vortex was Pound’s answer As much as the Vorticists embraced much of 1 to the quark of modern physics. The quark being modern physics, they also embraced much of the the fundamental unit of matter, (quarks making up machinery and industrialization of the time, as is seen both protons and neutrons which then make up the from the following passage: nucleus of an atom) Pound sought to find what he The Vorticists did not deny that the considered the fundamental unit of aesthetics. Upon landscapes created by industrialism were deciding on this term, Pound was quite pleased with generally hideous. But the Vortex would himself. “It is not merely knowledge of technique sweep up this ugliness, blast it to pieces, and or skill, it is intelligence and knowledge of life, of assemble it in beautiful painted forms. In the whole of it, beauty, heaven, hell, sarcasm, every Blast, no. 1, Lewis writes that ‘a man could kind of whirlwind of force and emotion. Vortex. That make just as fine an art in discords, and with is the right word, if I did find it myself” (Albright nothing but ugly trivial and terrible materials, 162). What Pound found most intriguing was that as any classic artist did with only beautiful the pattern of a vortex was found in seemingly such and pleasant means.’ (Materer 26) disparate objects which science had discovered. And one certainly sees this in much of the art of the Examples of such objects would be spiral galaxies, time as displayed in the following pictures. or spiral nebulae as they were called at the time (and in particular the Andromeda galaxy, which can be seen with the naked eye on relatively clear and dark nights) and the human DNA (which of course takes the shape of the double helix). And although Pound
92 Composition, we again see very bold lines and sharp angles. But also, we see fairly ominous forms leaning to one side that “look like tottering architectural structures”. (Saunders) If a sense of movement seems to pervade the painting as well, it’s because of Lewis’s use of “vertiginous, diagonal lines, which epitomise Lewis’s Vorticist style.” (Saunders). From these paintings as well as others of his, we see Lewis was consistently interested in the theme of a modern metropolis (Saunders). Indeed, these both look like a vortex swept up some ugliness, blasted it to countless unrecognizable pieces, and somehow reassembled it into beautiful and daring art. While Vorticism inspired many writings and Lewis, Red Duet (1914) paintings, aspects and themes of Vorticism can be seen in sculpture as well. The last key Vorticist was a French sculptor by the name of Henri Gaudier- Brzeska. Many of his sculptures are very abstract but still depict recognizable figures. In fact, many of the subjects he depicts are reduced to their essential elements, just enough so one can recognize the figure
as shown below.
Lewis, Vorticist Composition (1915)
As is illustrated in the above paintings by Lewis, industrialism was not only accepted by the Vorticists, but it inspired them as well. All of these paintings have a very hard, jagged, strong, and bold feel to them which would be apparent in much of the Gaudier, Bird Swallowing Fish (1914) machinery and architecture of the industrialist age. In Red Duet, what we see is that the “Vorticists admired Gaudier, Red Stone Dancer (1913) the power, the hardness, and even the brutality of machine forms” (Materer 87). The painting depicts an In Bird Sawllowing Fish, a relationship that is normally ambiguous cityscape which becomes apparent when predator/prey, is depicted here as practically a we notice the bold vertical lines running parallel to stalemate. “He [Brzeska] has selected the moment each other, resembling towering buildings. In Vorticist of deadlock, when each party is still struggling for
93 survival, and the outcome of this stalemate is still Gaudier, Ornament/Toy (1914) undecided” (Edwards 46). The bird and the fish come Although both of these sculptures contain together at a very sharp angle to a “maximum point Vorticist ideas in them, it was Brzeska’s sculpture of energy”, an idea that is very “Vorticist-esque.” Ornament/Toy (1914) that best exemplified Vorticism. While the bird is normally the predator, in this At first glance, this seems like it might appear in situation the fish (which looks almost torpedo-like one of Lewis’s paintings mentioned earlier with in nature) is coming with full force to the opening the hard lines and sharp angles with an occasional of the bird’s mouth. The bird’s eyes seem to be “roundness” thrown in. Presented in this sculpture almost straining as it’s trying to find room for this can also be seen a cold, rigid, militant figure standing highly aggressive creature. “Instead of swallowing, stiff and erect, and “its sharp edges seem ready to tear the bird could actually be choking, gorged with the their way through any struggle” (Edwards 47). This outsize dimensions of a prey he was unwise to chase” image is aided by the rounded portion about half way (Edwards 46). The sculpture, although modeled up which could easily resemble the spine of a human in plaster, was cast in gunmetal, which could not figure. Ornament/Toy “could almost be a three- be more appropriate for showing how Brzeska dimensional statement of Vorticism’s most war-like “reconciled his dual involvement with nature and the impulses” (Edwards 47). machine” (Edwards 46). As we see, the depictions The last sculpture in which we see machinery of these creatures are very reminiscent of World War and technology in Vorticism is Rock Drill by Jacob I, which looked inevitable by the spring of 1914 and Epstein. This sculpture was very much inspired by broke out in July of that year. the machinery of the day and proved to be highly Red Stone Dancer, as well, has many aspects of controversial. Vorticism in it. Ezra Pound, with whom Gaudier was good friends, summed it up best in his writings. We have the triangle and the circle asserted, labled [sic] almost, upon the face and right breast. Into these so-called ‘abstractions’ life flows, and the circle moves and elongates into the oval, it increases and takes volume in the sphere or hemisphere of the breast. The triangle moves toward organism, it becomes a spherical triangle (the central life-form common to both Brzeska and Lewis). These two developed motifs work as themes in a fugue. We have the whole series of spherical triangles, as in the arm over the head, all combining and culminating in the great sweep of the back and shoulders, as fine as any surface in all sculpture. The ‘abstract’ or mathematical bareness of the triangle and circle are fully incarnate, made flesh, full of vitality and of energy. The whole form- series ends, passes into stasis with the circular base or platform (Edwards 42).
Epstein, Rock Drill (1915)
Although not one of the key Vorticists, Epstein was a Vorticist both in mind and spirit during Vorticism’s height as displayed by this sculpture. In constructing this piece, Epstein decided to use an actual rock drill as part of the entire presentation. Initially, the whole thing looked like something from
94 a movie set in the distant future (even by today’s Work Cited standards). As is apparent, Epstein was fascinated by the heavy and strong machinery of the time; therefore, Albright, Daniel. Quantum Poetics. 1st. New York, something capable of exerting the forces and NY: Cambridge University Press, 1997. destruction of a rock drill was captivating to him. The actual use of a machine in a sculpture was practically Edwards, Paul. Blast Vorticism 1914-1918. 1st. unheard of at the time and epitomizes Vorticism Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, inspired by technology and machinery. The seemingly 2000. futuristic figure standing on the drill is commentary from Epstein on the dehumanizing affect of machines. Lewis, Wyndham. “Blast.” The Norton Anthology Epstein’s belief was that the machine age was of Modern and Contemporary Poetry. Ed. Jahan “transforming humanity into a race of armoured and Ramazani. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, rigidly constructed figures” (Ewards 55). And even 2003. [Is this citation correct?] though initially people didn’t see it (Rock Drill) as such, it later became a vivid reminder of war. Both the Materer, Timothy. Vortex. 1st. UK: Cornell University menacing figure and the powerful, aggressive piece Press Ltd., 1979. of machinery upon which it stands were reminiscent of other inventions of the time like the rapid-fire Rosenquist, Rod. “London, literature, and BLAST: the machine gun which was capable of true devastation. vorticist as crowd master.” www.flashpointmag. Ultimately, Rock Drill was something that inspired com. 8 Dec 2006
Footnote 1. The term quark actually came from James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake (a high text of Modern Literature) when physicist Murray Gell-Mann saw it in a poem (in the novel) that starts off “Three quarks for Muster Mark!”.
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The Electoral Process Youth Activism The electoral process is a total process that includes registration of voters, identifying the political and The Electoral parties to be voted for, voting, counting of votes, and declaration of election results. This process is the Processes in Nigeria: foundation of civil societies. A strong civil society is vital and needed to serve as the bedrock of a stable A Critical Appraisal democracy. It represents the reservoir of resources – political, economic, cultural, and moral – to by Okwechime E Okey complement and, when necessary, to check the power of the state. A dynamic and diverse civil society Let us cast our minds back to the historic moment directly stimulates social and political participation, in the American “Watergate Scandal”, especially at increasing the involvement and commitment of the point when former White House Assistant Gordon citizens and promoting an appreciation of the Strachan was undergoing questioning from Senator obligations, as well as the rights, of citizenship. By Joseph Montoya. providing many potential avenues for political, Now because of Watergate, many young people economic and social expression, a society with a rich are saying that public service is not as attractive associational life gives people a stronger stake in the as before. What advice do you have for these young social order. This in turn, creates a climate within people? which mutual respect, tolerance, negotiation, and Strachan answered: “Stay away”. compromise actually make sense, and flourish. The burden of this paper is to refute that Nigeria claims to be democratic and seeks to misguided advice. The truth is that the place and prove that under the banner of representation and participation of youths in our political process multi-party political systems. Elections are used as cannot be undermined, or over emphasized. For our a means by which representatives and policies are democracy to be meaningful, stable and functional, decided. The choice between political parties or our youths must be part of the shaping process. individual candidates is made through elections. John The youths have both a right and a responsibility to Stuart Mill argued that: help shape the future that they will inherit and the There is no difficulty in showing that the ideally quality of life that they will experience. It is not neat best form of government is that in which the and proper for adults alone to decide on the balance sovereignty or supreme controlling power in the between war and peace, the priorities and strength of last resort is vested in the entire aggregate of the the economy, or the health of the environment as it community; every citizen not only having a voice were. Young voices and voters are equally essential in in the exercise of that ultimate sovereignty but the body polity. being at least occasionally called on to take an As the largest demographic group in Nigeria, actual part in the government, by the personal young people have shown a strong willingness to be discharge of some public function, local or general. more involved in policy-making. Younger generations (186) (Emphasis added) can boost political processes and they are the ones It should be noted that the public function implies who will see the results of the changes they wish elections. This electoral process is the peaceful to bring about. Youth assemblies should be given transfer of power and legitimate exercise of authority. empowerment through knowledge. The core issues or It demands active, broad-based citizen participation. essence of youth activism include the following: It is the election that actually determines who shall • To increase political and civil participation among wield power for a number of years as specified by the young, whose faith are fixed in the future. the constitution. According to Ologbenla (78), an • Build inclusive, accountable responsive electoral system may be defined as a process in followership and which the mode of coming to power or the change • To increase public awareness about the value of of government is decided in a particular country at a participation in democracy through the electoral given time. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, process. election is defined “as not only to allow the masses to 96 participate in the electoral process but also to hold the in terms of adequate knowledge and capacity, to leaders accountable for their performance in office.” decide what is best for them and to act accordingly in And the Encyclopaedia of social sciences defines fulfilling their own destinies (Okwechime 51). Youths election as the process of selecting the officers or should, therefore, be given the opportunity to work representatives of organizations or groups by the vote for a better future for their communities through of its qualified members. This is different from the constructive and creative engagements, as opposed to method of appointment or lot casting. the win-at-all costs mentality in the electoral process The electoral process in Nigeria presents a that is currently quite prevalent. paradox because, from our theoretical formulation of the electoral process, there is nothing to imply School for Democracy violence, which is rife in reality. The only reason is Political authorities should step up activities to hinged on the fact that the Nigerian state structure encourage open and frank dialogue especially where and those that operate its apparatus are largely the ethnic divide is particularly deep. The aim is to petty bourgeois. This class of rulers lack economic provide platforms for young people to discuss their base in the true sense, so they seek to use state concerns within democratic structures. This way they power to accumulate personal power within the will learn how to organize and plan various activities Nigerian political economy. Therefore, gaining access and find the proper tools to implement them. In other to political power is a do or die affair. Violence, words, the youth activism assemblies will become assimilation and ethnicity become veritable tools a kind of school for democracy in the sense that employed to gain access to power and to maintain tolerance will be the watchword. Youth participation and sustain that power. There is no doubt that these in policy-making is important. Decisions taken within scrupulous politicians often engage the services of the framework of youth participation will make a youths to achieve their aims. difference at the local community level. When youth Young people in Nigeria and across the world leaders are incorporated, they will take oath to fulfil have always led social and political movements. their duties honourably, impartially with conscience Today, young people express their concern for their and in accordance with the law. Plans must be made communities through community services, their to ensure fair and transparent electoral processes social activism manifest around issues such as the with young peoples participation. It will prove environment, joblessness and political instability. and demonstrate that young people from different Students overwhelmingly consider political ethnic backgrounds can find a common language to engagement as an effective way of solving important communicate. Besides the multi-ethnic component, issues both in their local communities and around the gender balance should also be a requirement in nation. positive youth activism. At the youth level, women Youth activism is essentially hinged on the desire should be encouraged to seek elective offices. to maintain a balance by accepting contrary views without resorting to violence. Indeed, young people Investing in Youths is Investing in Change are positive assets to political and civil society. And it To enhance youth activism, the various is important to remark that to uphold this principle, governments should invest in the youth by having voting for issues rather that individuals should be youth assemblies with thematic committees. There the reason for participation. The end product of could be different committees for education, youth activism should be to provide a forum where culture and sports, ecology and environmental young people from different communities can learn protection. There should also be a committee for to communicate with each other and express their young people with physical disabilities. The various opinions in a dialogue with local, state, and federal groups should be engaged in concrete project under administrators. the supervision of the Ministry of Youth, Culture and Social Development. When done, National Youth Empowerment through Knowledge or general Elections will no longer appear to be a Empowerment through knowledge is predicated veritable source of money making. The budget of on the explicit relationship between knowledge each group should be monitored and the funding and development, and in the conviction that it is for these projects could come from donor agencies. the key element in the development of nations, Developing a better understanding of young voters peoples, communities and individuals. The is an important first step in a young voter campaign term empowerment captures the true essence of strategy of the electoral process. A critical part of development – giving people the power, defined encouraging youth activism is visiting their turf.
97 School programs, debates, workplaces, community nation continues to grow more diverse, - creation centres, churches, clubs and school sports events all of more Local Government Areas/States, the need should be venues for investing in youth the necessary for diverse participation in the electoral process by positive change in our polity. the electorate becomes ever more compelling. Now, Investing in youth will be incomplete if the more than ever, this country’s leaders must hear from political gender inequality is not addressed. The younger generations during the electoral process. Ministry of Women Affairs should begin working Voter registration and participation should not merely with young women to stimulate greater participation be encouraged but stressed as an absolute necessity. in the election process. Young women activists The Nigerian Youth must now wake-up and should be trained and retrained for election related remind politicians why they are running and for skills. They should also conduct focus group research whom they are fighting. Young people between the to assess women’s attitudes and assist parties in ages of 18-35 represent almost 50 percent of the voting developing strategies to target this audience in the age population in the country. If young people voted lead-up to electoral processes. Women should play their number, they would change the dialogue about more active roles in the efforts to reduce corrupt who gets what, when and how of the political pie. electoral practices, promote voter awareness and In fact, now is the time for young voters to empowerment in the political process. step up to the podium and let political candidates know that they can no longer ignore the concerns Improve Political Party Communication of young people. Youths should get educated, get The increasing reports of random political registered, and ensure that future generations will assassination, referred to as Armed Killing on Duty always have a voice. Youth activism should aim at (AKD), attests to the public’s dissatisfaction with providing education, research and the promotion of governance in the country and the electoral process a fair and just society. Youths should be encouraged in particular. It is becoming clear that a majority of to participate more actively and effectively in public Nigerians believe that their expectations have not life and decision-making. Youth activism should been met. There should be improved political party also engage in exchange of knowledge and expertise communication to address the traditional lack of that would strengthen their participation in building activity between elections. Particular improvements democratic processes. should be external and internal communication and Two out of the many critical observations made communication within the governing party. The by Anifowose and Babawale (2003), “That the goals are to help parties develop active dialogue with structure of the Nigeria federation is deficient thereby the electorate through national and local media and creating problems for the political processes,” and, direct voter contact. It will also promote internal party “There is the need to further expand the democratic democracy by encouraging regular and frequent space to ensure a truly inclusive political process”, communication within the parties at all levels. make the need for further research into Youth Activism most essential. Youth in Politics Internship Program There is the urgent need for a research project As part of youth activism, they should learn and that will explore the best practices in increasing youth acquire the skills for campaign management, fund civic engagement and voter participation, including raising, recruitment, party branch development, culturally specific messaging, youth as a viable communications, voter outreach, voter contact and constituency for political candidates and peer-to peer mobilization and Election Day simulation. There civic engagement models. should be focused efforts on assisting youth party The following can be regarded as teasers: members to develop and implement coordinated (1) Youth voting patterns: what ignited young people electoral strategies and encourage voter participation. to vote in past elections? (2) What can compel and unite young people in the Youth Activism and Promotion of Social Justice electoral process? Youth activities should promote social justice in (3) Public policy – a new generation of political the communities. Youth activism should incorporate leadership: what will it take to increase youth education of themselves, colleagues, families and interest in public service as a career choice? friends about the current and important issues facing (4) Best practices: Youths lead the way in getting their communities. Apathy is dangerous. Participation their peers to vote. in the nation’s political process is a central belief within the teachings of our diverse traditions. As the
98 Youth Activism Fraught with Violence: What is to be • Create a commission to study the scope and done? quality of citizenship education Perhaps, one may now say that Strachans’ “Stay • Support creative and aggressive implementation away” is predicated on this violence. But then, of activities to get young people involved in the according to Prof. G.G. Darah, youth violence is the electoral process product or creation of petty bourgeois that benefit in • Create an after school committee to identify best the long run from the crises. In the wake of incidents practices of hazing, assassination, and insecurity of life and • Finally, create a pilot program to involve students property, youth activism should be clearly defined. and youths in a simulated election – like the mock and moot trial of law faculties at the university Preventing Youth Violence level Prevention plans involving technical assistance, community-based services, inter-agency coordination I submit here that youth activism, when applied and comprehensive data collection, best practices, positively, will bring positive results. When associated statewide resources and collection of state-specific with violence, it points to idle hands being provided data should be put in place. A youth violence with the wrong occupation. Indeed as a matter of prevention council should be set up to study ways to fact, we must believe Frantz Fanon when he tells us reduce juvenile crime and encourage healthy youth that each generation must, out of relative obscurity, behavior as well. discover its mission and fulfill it, or betray it (167). There should also be broad prevention strategies with the state department of education will developing comprehensive action plans for preventing violence in each public school, utilizing Works Cited skill building and youth development strategies. Anifowose R. and Babawale T. 2003 General Elections Youth Programs and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria Lagos: Youth programs across a broad spectrum of Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (EFS) 2003. objectives should be pursued. • Youth development and empowerment Derbyshire J.N. World Political Systems Oxford: The • Youth engagement in the civic process Clarendon Press. 1993. • Academic enrichment and mentoring through after school programs Fanon, Frantz The Wretched of the Earth. Translated • Making youth programs more accessible and by Constance Farrington. New York: Grove Press preventing youth delinquency and substance 1968. abuse • Establish a taskforce to study the effects of Mill. J.S. “Considerations on Representative mentoring youths in the juvenile justice system Governments” in J.B Mill. Three Essays Oxford, • After school practical experiments – produce Oxford U.P. 1975, pp186-198. comprehensive dropout prevention and recovery programs. Ologbenla .D. “Political Instability, Conflict and The • Create a mechanism to fund delinquency 2003 General Election” in Remi Anifowose and prevention and intervention programs Tunde Babawale (eds) 2003 General Elections • Youth organizations, particularly those that are and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria Lagos: community based and provide substantial benefit Friedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES) 2003: pp69-100. to them • Establish a healthy mentoring relationship and Okwechime Okey “Cultural Deprivation and empower youths in policy-making Compensatory Education: The UBE Attempt • Create a youth development fund to generate (Panacea) in J.I. Okonkwo (ed) Journal of Nigerian grants to community based youth programs that Languages and Culture (Jonlac). Vol. 5, No.1, focus on youth development March 2003 pp.50-56. • Youth council should offer advice on matters of policy and include young people in decision- making • Engage youths in the civic and political process
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