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JOSEPH WANJALA KILWAKE THESIS.Pdf i ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY IN BOREHOLES AND WELLS IN WAA LOCATION, KWALE COUNTY - KENYA JOSEPH WANJALA KILWAKE A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Environmental Science of Pwani University May, 2016 ii iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife, Everlyne, son Ian and late grandfather Patroba for their love, sacrifice, prayers and support in my study. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and thank my supervisors Prof. Mwakio Tole and Dr. Okeyo Benards for guidance, encouragement and support in my study period. I am indebted to Prof. Halimu Shauri and Dr. Maarifa Mwakumanya of Pwani University for the support in proposal development. I register my special gratitude to Mrs. Salome Mwaruwa, Principal Waa Girls' School for support and encouragement, Mr. Ali Harun, Hamisi Masito, Ali Mshindo and Juma Kanga during mapping, data collection and for linkage with the local community. I do appreciate Mr. Patrick Oduma, OCPD Kwale District, Dr. Remmy Shiundu, Barasa Joel, Twahir Mohammed, Eng. John Wanjala (EPHRAIM Company) and Josephat Orina for material support and advise. I gratefully thank Miss Nyambura Mwangi, Mr. Peter Karanja (Pwani University) and David Bett (Fisheries Department) for support in sample collection, data analysis and consultation. I sincerely thank the Almighty God for the guidance in my study. v ABSTRACT Water from boreholes and dug wells is extensively used in Kwale County, especially by rural communities living away from established market centers, where piped water is commonly available. The study aimed to assess the quality of water in boreholes and dug wells found in Waa location of Kwale County – Kenya. Selection of the boreholes and dug wells was carried out using purposive sampling and simple random sampling. All the seventy one boreholes and wells in Waa location were visited and inspected to determine their sanitary condition and functionality. Twenty eight samples of water that were collected in duplicate from 14 boreholes and dug wells (30% of total number) were analyzed for faecal coliform ( Escherichia. coli ), total coliform count, pH, total dissolved solids, turbidity, colour, total hardness, salinity, chloride content, electrical conductivity, total alkalinity, Ca2+ and Mg2+ using 3M Petrifilm™ method, pH meter, HACH digital titrator, Total dissolved solids/Conductivity meter, and DR 2000 (HACH) spectrophotometer at KIMAWASCO laboratory. The study revealed that 32% of the boreholes and dug wells have either permanently or temporarily failed to discharge good quality drinking water to the local community reliably. This state has been attributed to negligence from the relevant authorities and agencies in terms of water quality monitoring and low level of community involvement in the development of these water projects. There was high bacterial contamination (65%) of most of the water samples. The faecal coliform ( Escherichia coli count) ranged from 0 to 460 cfc/100ml. Similarly, 50% of the collected water samples failed to meet WHO guideline values for investigated physico-chemical parameters (total hardness, salinity, chloride content, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, and Ca 2+ ). Salinity was extremely high in the samples from water points closer to the ocean such as Kaya Waa well which recorded 2697.8 mg/l as compared to WHO guideline of 250 mg/l, due to sea water intrusion. vi The existence of open defaecation points, lack of cover for hand dug wells and close proximity of wells/boreholes to the septic tanks and pit latrines have made these water points susceptible to contamination. The County government of Kwale and water resource providers should build the capacity of the community in water resource management, introduce desalination and water treatment plants to provide safe drinking piped water. Proper refuse disposal and construction of communal toilets/pit latrines should be encouraged. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………… ii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………… iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… iv ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………… v TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………… vii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………. x LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………… xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS………………………………………………… xii CHAPTER ONE…………………………………………………………………………. 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………. 1 1.1 Background information……………………………………………………………… 2 1.2 Statement of the problem……………………………………………………………… 3 1.3 Justification of the study…………………………………………………………… 4 1.4 General Objective………………………………………………………………….. 5 1.4.1 Specific objectives…………………………………………………………………. 5 1.5 Research questions………………………………………………………………… 6 CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………….. 7 2.0 LITERATUREREVIEW………………………………………………………………7 2.1 Global overview and statistics overwater………………………………………… 7 2.2 Continental perspective…………………………………………………………… 10 2.3 National perspective……………………………………………………………… 12 2.4 Local perspective (Kwale County) …………………………………………………12 vii i CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………….. 17 3.0 MATERIALS ANDMETHODS……………………………………………………… 17 3.1 Research design…………………………………………………………… …….. 17 3.2 Description of the Project Area and scope of study…………………………………… 18 3.2 Sample size………………………………………………………………………… 25 3.3 Materials and instruments for Data Collection and laboratory testing……………. 26 3.4 Data Collection procedures and laboratory testing/analysis……………………….. 26 3.4.1 Faecal coliform and Total coliform……………………………………………… 26 3.4.2 Water Ph………………………………………………………………………….. 29 3.4.3 Turbidity………………………………………………………………………….. 30 3.4.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) …………………………………………………….. 30 3.4.5 Chloride……………………………………………………………………………. 31 3.4.6 Water Colour……………………………………………………………………….. 31 3.4.7 Electrical conductivity………………………………………………………………31 3.4.8 Total hardness……………………………………………………………………… 32 3.4.9 Water Salinity……………………………………………………………………… 32 CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………………. 34 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS…………………………………………………… 34 4.1 Biological results for S- samples(sterile) ………………………………………… 37 4.2 Analysis of biological results……………………………………………………… 38 4.3 Discussion of biological results…………………………………………………… 48 4.4 Physicochemical results for N - samples(Normal) …………………………………49 4.6 Analysis of physicochemical results……………………………………………….. 51 ix 4.7 Discussion of physicochemical results……………………………………………. 54 4.7.1 Chlorides…………………………………………………………………………. 54 4.7.2 Total alkalinity……………………………………………………………………. 55 4.7.3 Water Ph………………………………………………………………………….. 55 4.7.4 Water colour……………………………………………………………………… 55 4.7.5 Turbidity…………………………………………………………………………. 56 4.7.6 Total dissolved solids(TDS) …………………………………………………….. 56 4.7.7 Salinity…………………………………………………………………………… 56 4.7.8 Electrical conductivity…………………………………………………………… 57 4.7.9 Total hardness…………………………………………………………………… 57 4.7.10 Summary of findings……………………………………………………………… 58 4.8 Contamination of water in boreholes and dug wells……………………………… 58 4.9 Mitigation measures……………………………………………………………… 61 CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………………… 63 5.1 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION………………………………………… 63 5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………. 63 5.3 Recommendations……………………………………………………………….. 64 6.0 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………. 65 7.0 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………………. 71 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Distribution of water points in Kwale County ..................................................... 16 Figure 2. Map of Kenya showing the project area ............................................................... 19 Figure 3. Map showing boundaries of locations in the study area ...................................... 20 Figure 4. Map showing distribution of sampled boreholes in study area ............................. 21 Figure 5.Mienzeni borehole before renovation. .................................................................... 42 Figure 6.Mienzeni borehole after renovation ...................................................................... 42 Figure 7.Nyamwezi borehole within a cowshed. ................................................................. 46 Figure 8.Peniopen well ......................................................................................................... 47 Figure 9.Mvumoni well (failed)........................................................................................... 48 Figure 10.Graphical plot of salinity against distance of water point to the ocean. .............. 54 xi LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Sample locations, sources and sample identification codes...............................,.….29 Table 2. Summary of number of boreholes and wells in the project area……………….…..34 Table 3. Distribution of boreholes and wells across the project area………………….…….35 Table 4. Biological results of 14 water samples analysed………………………………… ..37 Table 5: Interpretation of bacteriological water analysis reports(Al-Tomi, 2007)………….39 Table 6: Group A category of water (Satisfactory)………………………………………… 40 Table 7: Group B category of water (Doubtful)………………………………………….... .43 Table 8: Group C category of water (Unsatisfactory)……………………………………… 44 Table 9: Physicochemical results of 14water samples………………………………………50 Table 10: Drinking water quality standards according to WHO (2004) and EPA (2002)......51 Table 11: Distribution of salinity levels of the sampled boreholes and wells towards the sea ...............................................................................................................................................
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