Linguaggio Nei Numeri E Numeri Nel Linguaggio. Linguistica, Matematica E Cryptonalisi

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Linguaggio Nei Numeri E Numeri Nel Linguaggio. Linguistica, Matematica E Cryptonalisi Linguaggio nei numeri e numeri nel linguaggio. Linguistica, Matematica e Cryptonalisi Thomas Christiansen Dipartimento Studi Umanistici, Università del Salento, Lecce, Italia 1 Intoduzione: la scienza della 1 Introduction: the Science of linguistica Linguistics Ai tradizionalisti, gli studi di matematica e di To the more traditionally minded, the studies of linguistica, potrebbero sembrare avere poco in mathematics and linguistics may seem to have comune, poiché costituiscono due modi di ap- little in common, constituting two very different prendimento molto differenti. Nelle università types of learning. In medieval universities, the medioevali le sette arti cosiddette liberali, era- seven so-called liberal arts were divided into a no separate in una divisione inferiore o trivium lower division or triuvium (grammar, rhetoric, (grammatica, retorica, e logica) e una superio- and logic) and a higher quadrivium (arithmetic, re, quadrivium (aritmetica, musica, geometria e music, geometry, and astronomy). Today, maths astronomia). Oggi la matematica è trattata come is treated as a science. Still, but increasingly less una scienza. Lo studio del linguaggio è anco- so, language is sometimes lumped together with ra, ma sempre meno, unito ad argomenti come things like literature and translation and classed letteratura e traduzione e classificato come una as one of the arts1. Added confusion comes from delle arti1. Ulteriore confusione emerge dal fatto the fact that the term linguist has quite different che il termine linguista viene utilizzato in modi uses: on the one hand, it can describe someone piuttosto differenti: da una parte descrive chi sa who is good at speaking different languages (i.e. parlare bene lingue diverse (cioè un poliglotta o a polyglot or plurilingual person); on the other, 1In maniera analoga, la logica è uscita dagli stretti con- 1Similarly, logic has also moved out of the strict confines fini del trivium in quattro campi differenti: filosofico, of the triuvium into four separate fields: philosophical, formale, informale e matematico. formal, informal, and mathematical. Ithaca: Viaggio nella Scienza XVII, 2021 • Linguistica, Matematica e Cryptoanalisi 69 una persona plurilingua): dall’altra parte deno- it denotes the type of scholar who analyses lan- ta lo studioso che analizza i linguaggi e le loro guages and their structures, often at highly ab- strutture, spesso ad un alto livello di astrazio- stract levels. The latter is a scientist, especially in ne. Quest’ultimo è uno scienziato, specialmente their modern incarnation, because they observe, nella sua incarnazione moderna, poiché osserva, measure, make and test hypotheses. misura, costruisce e verifica ipotesi. L’incremento di un approccio scientifico alla The increasingly scientific approach to linguis- linguistica è emerso gradualmente a partire dalla tics gradually came to dominate the mainstream metà del ventesimo secolo fino a diventare la cor- from the mid-20th century onwards. It arose from rente principale. Questo è avvenuto rendendosi the realisation that language is a natural phe- conto che il linguaggio è un fenomeno naturale, nomenon, a product of human biology (like the un prodotto della biologia umana (come l’abilità ability to laugh or to walk on two legs), not a cul- di ridere o di camminare su due gambe), non è tural artefact created by humans (like beer, bread, un artefatto culturale creato dall’uomo (come la or poetry). As such, language is something that birra, il pane o la poesia). Per questo il linguaggio has acquired special significance in the contexts ha acquisito un significato speciale nei contesti of biology, cognitive science and psychology be- della biologia, delle scienze cognitive e della psi- cause it is now recognised as something that has cologia poiché oggi è riconosciuto come qualcosa evolved, like the rest of our bodies and minds, che si è evoluto, come il resto dei nostri corpi e over hundreds of thousands, possibly millions, menti, in centinaia, migliaia e possibilmente mi- of years. Consequently, it is something far more lioni di anni. Conseguentemente, è qualcosa di complex and complicated that anything human- molto più complesso e complicato di ogni cosa made could ever be. che possa essere prodotta dall’uomo. L’argomento che l’abilità di usare il linguaggio The argument that the ability to use language (sebbene non si parli di una lingua specifica) sia (though not to speak a specific language) is in- istintivo è comunemente associata a Chomsky stinctive is most readily associated with Chom- [1], sebbene ci siano indicazioni di questa visione sky [1] although there are hints of this view in in Darwin (Ref. [2], Chapter III): Darwin (Ref. [2], Chapter III): "Come osserva Horne Tooke, uno "As Horne Tooke, one of the foun- dei fondatori della nobile scienza del- ders of the noble science of philol- la filologia il linguaggio è un’arte co- ogy, observes, language is an art, like me fare la birra o il panificare; ma brewing or baking; but writing would scrivere sarebbe simile. Non è un ve- have been a better simile. It certainly ro istinto, poiché ogni lingua deve is not a true instinct, for every lan- essere appresa. È tuttavia molto di- guage has to be learnt. It differs, how- versa da tutte le arti comuni dato che ever, widely from all ordinary arts, l’uomo ha una tendenza istintiva a for man has an instinctive tendency to parlare, come vediamo nel balbetta- speak, as we see in the babble of our re degli infanti; mentre nessun bim- young children; whilst no child has bo ha la tendenza a produrre birra, an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, panificare o scrivere." [Sottolineatura or write." [Emphasis ours] nostra]. Prima di rendersi conto che il linguaggio fosse Prior to the realisation that language was in- istintivo, la cosidetta teoria comportamentista stinctive, the so-called behaviourist theory of della psicologia considerava che l’acquisizione psychology had held that acquisition could be potesse essere basata puramente su stimoli e ri- based purely on stimulus and response. Chom- sposte. Chomsky, e molti altri dopo lui, tra i quali sky, and many others since, including the cog- lo psicologo cognitivo Steven Pinker [3], contro- nitive psychologist, Steven Pinker [3], counter batterono che questi meccanismi non riuscivano that such mechanisms cannot account for the Ithaca: Viaggio nella Scienza XVII, 2021 • Linguistica, Matematica e Cryptoanalisi 70 a tener conto della velocità con la quale ogni bam- speed at which any child acquires language or bino acquisisce il linguaggio o la complessità del- the complexity of the syntactic structures that la strutture sintattiche che produce, anche ad una they produce even at a young age, some of which giovane età, alcune di queste sono generate auto- they can be seen to generate for themselves out nomamente da regole astratte e non sono prodot- of abstract rules and not merely through imi- te dall’imitazione di quello che sente attorno a tation of what they hear around them. Accord- sé. Secondo Chomsky [4], i bambini nascono con ing to Chomsky [4], children are born with a una grammatica universale che si può descrivere universal grammar which one could describe come intrinsecamente connessa nel cervello. as "hard-wired" into the brain. This has evolved Questo è evoluto come meccanismo con cui l’in- to serve as a mechanism whereby infants can fante può analizzare un numero limitato di input analyse a limited amount of input from a spe- di una lingua specifica e convertirlo in un mo- cific language and convert it into a functional dello mentale funzionante del linguaggio stesso. mental model of that same language. This model Questo modello può essere usato per generare can then be used to generate structures, in ef- strutture permettendo, in effetti, al bambino di fect allowing the child to start "speaking" the cominciare a parlare la lingua in questione2. I lin- language in question2. Languages therefore are guaggi non sono quindi scaricati o appresi. Inve- not so much "handed down" or learnt. Rather, ce, sono acquisiti per contatto con input adeguati, they are acquired through contact with adequate e ricostruiti attraverso la mappatura degli sche- input, and reconstructed through the mapping mi e delle forme incontrati nella cornice fornita of the patterns and forms encountered onto the dalle grammatica universale che è innata. framework provided by the innate universal gram- mar. Alcuni dei primi studi di linguistica nell’era Some of the earliest treatments of linguistics moderna erano focalizzati sull’origine dei lin- in the modern era were focussed on the origin guaggi e la connessione tra loro: per esempio, of languages and the connections between them: nei secoli diciottesimo e diciannovesimo, l’osser- for example, in the eighteenth and nineteenth vazione di William Jones che le lingue classiche centuries, William Jones’s observation that the dell’antica Grecia e Roma sembravano condivi- classical Languages of ancient Greece and Rome dere delle strutture simili con lingue come il Farsi seemed to share common features with languages ed il Sanscrito, e la conclusione che che avevano such as Farsi and Sanskrit, and his conclusion radici comuni; oppure la legge di Jakob Grimm that they must share common roots; or Jakob riguardante i cambiamenti sistematici del suono Grimm’s laws regarding the systematic sound nelle consonanti occlusive / plosive, a cui furono changes which the Proto-Indo-European stop sottoposte quando evolverono nel tardo Proto- consonants underwent as they developed in later Germanico. Nel ventesimo secolo, i linguisti (ad Proto-Germanic. In the twentieth century, lin- esempio Ferdinand de Saussure, Otto Jespersen, guists (e.g. Ferdinand de Saussure, Otto Jespersen, Leonard Bloomfield, Noam Chomsky, Michael Leonard Bloomfield, Noam Chomsky, Michael Halliday) rivolsero la loro attenzione alla strut- Halliday) turned their attention to the structure tura del linguaggio (in astratto) studiando cose of language (in the abstract), looking at such come il meccanismo che permette ai concetti di things as the mechanisms that allow concepts essere condensati in un messaggio e quindi codi- to be put together into messages and then en- ficati in suoni, parole o strutture sintattiche.
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